DAVID G UTIERREZ RIVERA

F U N D A M E N TA L S O F

BRIDGE DESIGN
AASHTO / LRFD

USC / MKS

1st DRAFT
 Units Conversion Table

Length

1m = 100 cm 1 ft = 12 in
1m = 3.28 ft 1 cm = 0.3937 in
1 ft = 0.305 m 1 in = 2.54 cm
Section Properties

1 m2 = 10.76 ft2 1 in2 = 6.45 cm2

1 m3 = 35.3 ft3 1 in3 = 16.387 cm3
1 m4 = 115.743 ft4 1 in4 = 41.623 cm4
Loads

1 kg = 9.81 N 1t = 1000 kg
1 lb = 4.448 N 1t = 2.20 klb
1 klb/ft = 14.59 kN/m 1 lb/ft = 1.488 kg/m
1 klb/ft2 = 47.9 kN/m2 1 lb/ft2 = 4.88 kg/m2
1 klb/in2 = 6.895 MPa 1 klb/in2 = 70.307 kg/cm2
Moments

1 klb · ft = 1.356 kN · m 1 klb · ft = 138.255 kg · m

1 kN · m = 101.97 kg · m 1 kg · m = 7.233 lb · ft
Density

1 kN/m3 = 6.3654 lb/ft3 1 lb/ft3 = 16 kg/m3

DAVID G UTIERREZ RIVERA

F U N D A M E N TA L S O F

BRIDGE DESIGN
AASHTO / LRFD

USC / MKS

1st DRAFT
Copyright © 2016 David G U T I E R R E Z R I V E R A

PUBLISHED BY 1 st DRAFT

T U F T E - L AT E X . G O O G L E C O D E . C O M

Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the “License”); you may not use
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permissions and limitations under the License.

First printing, August 2016

To my Family

and students . . .
Contents

1 Basic Concepts 19

2 Materials 31

3 Mechanics of Materials 33

4 Loads on Bridges 35

5 Analysis of Bridges 47

6 Design Philosophy 49

7 Culverts 53

8 Slabs 55

9 Girders 57

10 Trusses 59

11 Integral Bridges 61

12 Abutments 63

13 Piers 65

14 Foundations 67

15 Accessories 69

A Box Culverts Formulas 73

Bibliography 75

Index 77
Symbols
K g Girder longitudinal stiffness [in4 (cm4 )]. 42, 43

L Span length [ft(m)]. 42, 43

N Number of girders. 42

de Distance from curb to girder edge [ft(m)]. 44

e g Distance between the centers of gravity of slab and girder [in(cm)]. 43

n Elastic Modulus ratio. 43

s Girder spacing [ft(m)]. 42, 43

ts Slab thickness [in(cm)]. 42, 43

A Area [in2 (cm2 )]. 43

I Inertia [in4 (cm4 )]. 43

Acronyms
BR Braking Force. 38

CE Vehicular Centrifugal Force. 38

CT Vehicular Collision Force. 39

DC Dead Load from Structural Components and Attachments. 35, 52

DD Downdrag. 41

DF Distribution Factors. 42

DW Dead Load from Wearing Surface and Utilities. 35, 52

EH Horizontal Earth Load. 39, 52

EL Erection Load. 41, 52

ES Earth Surcharge. 39, 52

EV Vertical Earth Load. 39, 52

Ft Fatigue. 38

HL-93 Highway Load (1993). 36

IM Vehicular Dynamic Load. 38

La Design Lane Load. 38

LL Vehicular Live Load. 36

LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design. 35, 42, 49, 75

LS Live Load Surcharge. 39

m Multiple Presence Factor. 42

12

PL Pedestrian Live Load. 38

RC Reinforced Concrete. 24

Ta Design Tandem Load. 36

Tr Design Truck Load. 36

List of Figures

1.1 Bridge Superstructure and Substructure. 19

1.2 Typical Bridge Components. 20

1.3 Typical Bridge Section Components. 20

1.4 Typical Bridge Components. 20

1.5 Typical 3-Lane Highway Bridge Cross-Section. 21

1.6 Median Widths for Freeways. From A Policy on Geometric Design of High-
ways and Streets [AASHTO, 2011]. 22

1.7 Horizontal Clearance. From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways

and Streets [AASHTO, 2011]. 22

1.8 Interstate closure after an impact with a bridge. 22

1.9 Types of Bridges. 23

1.10A Box Culvert in Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 23

1.11A Concrete Girder Bridge, in Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 24

1.12Steel Girders for a Bridge, in Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 24

1.13Typical minimum depths for superstructures. 24

1.14A frame bridge in Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 25

1.15Types of Truss Bridges. 25

1.16Pont du Gard Aqueduct, France. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Pont_du_Gard 26

1.17Cantilever Bridge Human Model. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Forth_Bridge 26

1.18Forth Bridge, Scotland. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_Bridge 26

1.19Millau Viaduct, Aveyron, France. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Viaducto_de_Millau 27

1.20The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge, Japan 1998. https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=N9fbRcRJY34 27

1.21Bridge Design Process. 28

14

4.1 Superstructure Loads 36

4.2 Common Construction Materials Densities. [AASHTO, 2012] 37

4.3 HL-93 Design Truck Load. [AASHTO, 2012] 37

4.4 HL-93 Design Tandem Load. [AASHTO, 2012] 38

4.5 HL-93 Design Lane Load. [AASHTO, 2012] 38

4.6 Horizontal Earth Load (EH). 39

4.7 Horizontal earth pressure conditions. 40

4.8 Active and passive horizontal earth pressures. 40

4.9 Live load distribution for fill depth less than 2 ft (0.6 m). 44

4.10Live load distribution for fill depth of 2 ft (0.6 m) or greater. 45

4.11Live load distribution overlap for fill depth of 2 ft (0.6 m) or greater. 45

List of Tables

1.1 Typical Roadway Widths for Highways. From A Policy on Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets [AASHTO, 2011]. 21

1.2 Vertical Clearance. From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and

Streets [AASHTO, 2011]. 22

4.1 Dynamic Load Allowance. [AASHTO, 2012]. 38

4.2 Multiple Presence Factors 42

4.3 Distribution Factors for Interior Girders 43

4.4 Distribution Factors for Exterior Girders 44

6.1 Load Combinations 51

6.2 Load Factors γ p 52

6.3 EV Load Factors γ p 52

6.4 Concrete Resistance Factors φ 52

6.5 Steel Resistance Factors φ 52

Preface
I N T H I S B O O K a dual units system approach has been adopted. Two versions
of the book are available, one in SI/USC and the other in USC/MKS system.
This version of the book is in the USC / MKS system. The MKS system refers
to the non-standard units system known as the Gravitational Metric System.
It is built on the three base quantities length, time and force with base units
meter, second and kilogram-force respectively. This unit system is popular in
Latin-America.

In this edition of the book a focus towards small to medium span bridges has
been adopted. Long span bridges might be covered in a future release.

Comprehensive design examples. . . .

In this book LRFD is adopted.

Acknowledgements

I want to thank . . .

About the Author

 1

Basic Concepts

" W H E N T H E H I S TO RY O F O U R T I M E I S W R I T T E N , P O S T E R I T Y W I L L K N OW U S N OT B Y A

C AT H E D R A L O R T E M P L E , B U T B Y A B R I D G E . "

M O N T G O M E R Y S C H U Y L E R 1 8 7 7 , W R I T I N G A B O U T T H E B R O O K LY N B R I D G E .

1.1 Introduction

Definition, Some history Log Bridge the ”start” ...

1.2 Bridge Components

A bridge can be subdivided into two main components:

• The Superstructure and

• the Substructure

These are illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Bridge Superstructure and Sub-

structure.
20 1. BASIC CONCEPTS

A S U P E R S T RU C T U R E comprises all the elements of a bridge which are above

the supports. These include:

Wearing Surface. ADD content ...

Deck. ADD content ...

Beams, Stringers or Girders. They are the primary elements which support
the loads from a bridge superstructure and span the longitudinal clearance of
a bridge. They can be made up of Rolled Steel Beams, Steel Plate Girders,
Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete and even Glulam Timber or Aluminum.

Diaphragms. Diaphragms are structural elements used for lateral bracing and
Figure 1.2: Typical Bridge Components.
spread both vertical and horizontal loads to the beams, which in turn transfer
them to the substructure. In curved girder bridges, diaphragms are primary el-
ements, because they are require for load carrying capacity, like torsion caused
from vertical loads.

Railings or Barriers. ADD content ...

Drainage. ADD content ...

Figure 1.3: Typical Bridge Section Compo-

nents.

Figure 1.4: Typical Bridge Components.

T H E S U B S T RU C T U R E of a bridge are all the elements required to support the

superstructure. These include:

Abutments. Abutments are earth-retaining structures supporting the bridge

superstructure at the ends of it.

Piers. Piers are structures supporting the superstructure at intermediate points,

thus reducing its span.

Bearings and Joints. Bearings are mechanical devices which directly transfer
vertical and horizontal loads form the superstructure to the substructure. Some
types of bearings are: Steel Rollers which is a type of fixed bearing which
 1.3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN 21

allows rotation but prevents translation. Neoprene pads, which are considered
expansion joints, because they allow both rotation and translation. ADD more
about Joints ...

Approach Slab. ADD content ...

1.3 Geometric Design

A B R I D G E G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N is usually restricted to have the same dimen-

sions as of the approaching highway. For the geometric design of highways re-
fer to A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets [AASHTO, 2011].

Figure 1.5: Typical 3-Lane Highway Bridge

Cross-Section.

Roadway
Roadway Width
T H E R O A DWAY W I D T H is comprised of the lane width and the shoulder width. Lane Width 12 ft (3.6 m)
Right Shoulder 10 ft (3.0 m)
Lane width influences the comfort of driving and operation. A 12 ft (3.6 m) lane Left Shoulder
is predominant on most high-speed high-volume highways. 4 lanes or less 4 ft (1.2 m)
more than 4 lanes 10 ft (3.0 m)
Shoulders is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the lane which serves
Table 1.1: Typical Roadway Widths for High-
to accommodate stopped vehicles, for emergency use, or even bicyclists. It ways. From A Policy on Geometric Design of
varies in width from only 2 ft (0.6 m) on minor rural roads to approximately 12 ft Highways and Streets [AASHTO, 2011].

(3.6 m) on major highways.

The clear roadway is the distance between curbs on a roadway. Typical road-
way width values for highways are shown in Table 1.1.

Median

A M E D I A N B A R R I E R must be provided to separate the traffic for two-way ele-

vated freeways in urban settings. The width of the barrier is of 2 ft (0.6 m). The
22 1. BASIC CONCEPTS

minimum median width should be the width of the barrier plus two shoulder
width’s, see Fig. 1.6.

Clearance

Figure 1.6: Median Widths for Freeways. M I N I M U M H O R I Z O N TA L C L E A R A N C E S should be provide to improve visibility
From A Policy on Geometric Design of High-
ways and Streets [AASHTO, 2011]. and reduce the sense of restriction for travelers. Theses are usually provided
with the shoulder width, as shown in Fig. 1.7.

T H E M I N I M U M V E RT I C A L C L E A R A N C E for freeways and arterial systems is

Figure 1.7: Horizontal Clearance. From A
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets [AASHTO, 2011].
16 ft (4.9 m). For other routes, a lower vertical clearance is acceptable, al-
though it is usual preference to provide 17 ft (5 m) of vertical clearance in all
routes were possible. Table 1.2 show the vertical clearance required for differ-
ent types of roadway.
Consequences of inappropriate clearances is illustrated in Fig. 1.8.
ADD content for Skewed Bridges ...

Type of Roadway Height

Freeway and Arterial 16 ft (4.9 m)

Local and Collector 14 ft (4.3 m)

Table 1.2: Vertical Clearance. From A Pol-

icy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets [AASHTO, 2011].

Figure 1.8: Interstate closure after an impact

with a bridge.

1.4 Aesthetics

ADD content Archineering ...

1.5 Bridge Types

B A S E D O N T H E I R F U N C T I O N A L I T Y , bridges can be classified as:

• Highway
• Pedestrian
• Aqueduct
• Railroad
 1.5. BRIDGE TYPES 23

• Viaduct
• Movable (Drawbridge)

B A S E D O N T H E S PA N L E N G T H , bridges can be classified as:

Short-span 20 ft (6 m) to 65 ft (20 m)
Medium-span 65 ft (20 m) to 400 ft (125 m)
Long-span over 400 ft (125 m)

The following are the most basic types of bridges classified according to their
structural system. This affects both the construction process and the span it is
able to cover. They are sorted on increasing span length capability.

Figure 1.9: Types of Bridges.

Graph of types of bridges distribution in the world, pie chart.

Graph of optimal span for bridge types, and maximums.

Culverts

These common structures work as a frame retaining soil at its sides and sup-
porting traffic loads in the superior and/or inferior slab. They are usually used
for drainage of small streams or one lane traffic overpasses. Their structural
form can be a circular pipe or a rigid frame box. Optimal spans go up to around
20 ft (6 m) and the usual span-to-depth ratio for the slab is of 15.
Buried structures with spans less than 10 ft (3 m) are not considered bridges.
Usually these small buried structures don’t require extensive analysis and are
selected from standard designs. Buried structures with longer spans are con- Figure 1.10: A Box Culvert in Tegucigalpa,
sidered bridges and require bridge analysis and design. The design of a box- Honduras.

culvert is discussed in Section 6.6.

24 1. BASIC CONCEPTS

Slab Bridges

These consist on a slab covering a span in an unidirectional way. They are

usually used for one lane traffic overpasses. Their optimal spans go up to
around 30 ft (10 m). The usual span-to-depth ratio for the slab is of 20.

Girder Bridges

Figure 1.11: A Concrete Girder Bridge, in
Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
Optimal spans range from 30 ft (10 m) to 500 ft (150 m), depending on the
material and type of construction. Usual span-to-depth ratios for girders are 18
for concrete and 25 for steel. Usual girder spacing range from 8 ft (2.4 m) to
10 ft (3.0 m)
For short spans, from 30 ft (10 m) to 60 ft (20 m), Reinforced Concrete (RC)
T-Beams are generally an economical choice, while Rolled wide-flange Steel
Beams are economical for spans up to 100 ft (30 m). Usual span-to-depth ratio
is of 15 for RC T-Beams and 25 for Steel Beams. It is usually preferable to have
composite action in steel girder bridges because of the more efficient design.
Usually shear studs are used for this effect. Also cover-plates may be used to
increase flexural resistance in places with high flexural stress. Maintenance and
transportation costs should be analyzed when selecting between a concrete vs.
steel alternative.

For medium spans, from 30 ft (10 m) to 150 ft (50 m), Prestressed Concrete
Beams and Steel Plate Girders are the most economical choice. With long
girders, transportation of precast members may present an issue, so post-
tensioned, cast-in-place RC boxes or even steel plate girders may be a better
Figure 1.12: Steel Girders for a Bridge, in
Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
option.

Figure 1.13: Typical minimum depths for su-

perstructures.

For longer medium spans, from 60 ft (20 m) to 500 ft (150 m), Post-tensioned
 1.5. BRIDGE TYPES 25

box girders and steel box girders become the most economical choice. Box
girders are also desirable in curved alignments because of their high torsional
resistance.

Research ...
Construction Types analysis and design examples. Bay by Bay, Cantilever Method,
Incremental Launching. ”Segmental Construction.” References: Podolny and
Muller (1982) and ASBI (2003).

Integral Bridges

They can also be known as Frame or Portal Bridges. Optimal spans range from
150 ft (50 m) to 650 ft (200 m). Record max. is of 820 ft (250 m).
This bridges are built with neither expansion joints or bearings. Therefore they
are subject to considerable thermal loading, which has to be carried by the
integral bridge. Research has shown that these bridges have trouble in the
geotechnical aspects.

References: Cheng(1960), White (1976), Heins and Firmage (1979) PCA (1966).

Figure 1.14: A frame bridge in Tegucigalpa,

Truss Bridges Honduras.

Optimal spans ranges from 300 ft (100 m) to 1000 ft (300 m). Record maximum
built is of 1500 ft (450 m).

Figure 1.15: Types of Truss Bridges.

They are usually made of steel members, although they can also be made
of timber. It is usually preferred to have some redundant members for safety.
Although determinate trusses are cheaper, many trusses have failed when a
26 1. BASIC CONCEPTS

member is overloaded. Having no redundant members, complete collapse of

the structure have occurred.

References: Cooper (1889), Waddell (1916), Shedd (1972).

Arch Bridges
Figure 1.16: Pont du Gard Aqueduct,
France. https://en.wikipedia.org/
The oldest types of bridges ever built, an example is shown in Fig. 1.16.
wiki/Pont_du_Gard
Arched or haunched Concrete and steel girders optimal spans range from 400 ft
(125 m) to 1000 ft (300 m).

Arched Steel Trusses can span even longer than simple trusses. They are
usually optimal for spans from 300 ft (100 m) to 1800 ft (550 m).

References: Xanthakos and Troitsky (1994).

Cantilever Bridges

This types of bridges are those constructed using the balanced cantilever method
of construction. The basic principles of this design where demonstrated by Sir
Figure 1.17: Cantilever Bridge Human Benjamin Baker, with the ”Human Cantilever” shown in Fig. 1.17.
Model. https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Forth_Bridge
A typical example is the Scottish Forth Bridge shown in Fig. 1.18.

Figure 1.18: Forth Bridge, Scotland.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Forth_Bridge

Optimal spans range from 800 ft (250 m) to 1800 ft (550 m).

Cable-stayed Bridges

Theses type of bridges might be the most innovative types of bridges from
the last century. Economically they are very competitive for medium and long
 1.6. PROJECT INCEPTION 27

span bridges, with usual optimal spans oscillating from 650 ft (200 m) to 2000 ft
(600 m), although maximums of 3300 ft (1000 m) have been built.

Construction of such bridges pretty much follows the same principles of the
balanced cantilever method. Construction starts at the pylons while hanging
from them the inclined cables or stays. Explain construction methods

Figure 1.19: Millau Viaduct, Aveyron,

France. https://es.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Viaducto_de_Millau

References: O’Connor (1977), Kavanagh (1972), Podolny and Scalzi (1986),

Troitsky (1988), Heins and Firmage (1979), Smith (1967), Tang (1971), Lazer
(1972), Simpson (1970), Thul (1966, 1972), Demers and Simonsen (1971),
Narouka (1973), Stahl and Christopher (1992), Leonhardt (1987)

Suspension Bridges

These are the types of bridges for covering the longest spans. They become
optimal for spans of 1500 ft (500 m). Currently the longest suspension bridge
is the Akashi-Kaikyo Suspension Bridge, shown in Fig. 1.20 with a main span
of 6530 ft (1991 m).

1.6 Project Inception

Figure 1.20: The Akashi-Kaikyo Suspen-
sion Bridge, Japan 1998. https://www.
ADD content, Surveying Location ... youtube.com/watch?v=N9fbRcRJY34

1.7 Construction Methods

Balanced Cantilever
28 1. BASIC CONCEPTS

Figure 1.21: Bridge Design Process.

 1.8. MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION 29

Segmental

ADD content ...

1.8 Maintenance and Rehabilitation

1.9 Vocabulary??

1.10 Historical Background

Bridge Failures
 2

Materials

2.1 Concrete

ADD Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete, Prestressed Concrete, Masonry

2.2 Steel

ADD tables for Hot Rolled Laminated Beams, Plate Girders

2.3 Timber

ADD content ...

 3

Mechanics of Materials

3.1 Section Properties

ADD content ...Moment of Inertia, Section Modulus , Centroids etc.

Tables for common Steel sections properties.

3.2 Axial Loading

Tension and Compression. ADD content ...

3.3 Bending

Flexure and Shear. ADD content ...

3.4 Buckling

ADD content ...

3.5 Torsion

ADD content ...

3.6 Plasticity

ADD content ...

34 3. M E C H A N I C S O F M AT E R I A L S

3.7 Other Topics

ADD content ... Thermal Expansion, Fatigue, Creep, etc.

 4

Loads on Bridges

"CARGAS."

CARGADO.

I N T H I S C H A P T E R we’ll introduce the different types of loads affecting a bridge.

Loads are classified according to the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Bridge Design Specifications [AASHTO, 2012] with their corresponding acronyms.

A C T I O N S I N A B R I D G E may be classified as:

• Gravity Loads
• Lateral Loads
• Longitudinal Loads

These can be either Permanent or Transient.

4.1 Dead Loads (D)

D E A D L O A D S are a type of permanent load that usually comes from materi-

als self-weight. A table with the most common construction materials used in
bridges and their densities is shown in Fig. 4.2.

Superimposed Dead Loads are those loads which are placed in a structure
after it has cured. These loads are separated from the other loads because
they are resisted by a stronger section with composite action.

Two main types of dead loads exist:

D E A D L O A D F R O M S T RU C T U R A L C O M P O N E N T S A N D AT TAC H M E N T S ( D C )
refers to structural components self-weight, like beams, decks and diaphragms,
which are part of the structural system. Attachments like railings, curbs and
others are also considered in this category.

D E A D L O A D F R O M W E A R I N G S U R F AC E A N D U T I L I T I E S ( DW ) refers to the
36 4. LOADS ON BRIDGES

Superstructure Loads Wind (WL)

Longitudinal Loads Gravity Loads Lateral Loads Earthquake (EQ)

Centrifugal
Braking Force (BR)
Dead Load (D) Live Load (L) Force (CE)

Thermal (TH) Structural

Vehicular (LL) Fatigue (Ft)
Components
(DC)

Truck (Tr) Tandem (Ta) Lane (La)

Wearing Surface
and Utilities (DW)
Impact (IM)
Figure 4.1: Superstructure Loads

wearing surface used in the superstructure for traffic, which are subject to wear.

4.2 Live Loads (L)

L I V E L O A D S on a bridge are those which move along the span through time.
These are the transient type of load.

V E H I C U L A R L I V E L O A D ( L L ) on a bridge are modeled by using the Highway

Load (1993) (HL-93). This model is composed by a set of three different live
loads configurations, which are:

• T H E D E S I G N T RU C K L O A D ( T R ), shown in Fig. 4.3, consists of three axle

loads. The front axle is of 8 klb (3.64 t), followed by the drive axle of 32 klb
(14.55 t) at 14 ft (4.27 m), and the rear axle also of 32 klb (14.55 t) located
at a variable position from 14 ft (4.27 m) to 30 ft (9.1 m), which ever causes
the maximum load effects. A dynamic allowance needs to be considered for
this type of load, see Section 4.2.

• T H E D E S I G N TA N D E M L O A D ( TA ) (Ta), shown in Fig. 4.4, consists of two

axle loads. Both axles have a load of 25 klb (11.36 t) and are separated 4 ft
(1.22 m). A dynamic allowance should be considered, see Section 4.2.
 4.2. LIVE LOADS (L) 37

Figure 4.2: Common Construction Materials

Densities. [AASHTO, 2012]

Figure 4.3: HL-93 Design Truck Load.

[AASHTO, 2012]
38 4. LOADS ON BRIDGES

• T H E D E S I G N L A N E L O A D ( L A ), shown in Fig. 4.5, consists of a uniformly

distributed load of 0.64 klb/ft (0.95 t/m), no dynamic allowance is neces-
sary. T H E D E S I G N L A N E W I D T H may or may not be the same as the traffic
lane width from Section 1.3. AASHTO uses a width of 10 ft (3.05 m) for the
design lane. The number of design lanes is taken as the integer of the ratio
of the clear roadway width divided by 12 ft (3.66 m).

Figure 4.4: HL-93 Design Tandem Load.
[AASHTO, 2012]
The overall effect of the vehicular live loads consists of a combination of these
loads. The load effects of the design truck and the design tandem must each be
superimposed with the load effects of the design lane load. We emphasize that
these loads are not for any particular vehicle or combination of vehicles, they
are rather representative of the overall vehicular live loads and their associated
load effects.

Truck Wheels are spaced transversely at 6 ft (1.8 m).

Tire Contact Area for vehicular live loads is considered to be a rectangle with
a width of 20 in (50 cm) and a length of 10 in (25 cm).
Figure 4.5: HL-93 Design Lane Load.
[AASHTO, 2012] Some effects of vehicular live loads on bridges are:

• DY N A M I C L O A D ( V E H I C U L A R DY N A M I C L O A D ( I M ) ) , also commonly
known as Vehicular Dynamic Load (IM), is a magnification to the static loads
from the axles of a vehicle. These magnification are caused by oscillation of
the axles when passing through the rough surface of the roadway.
Impact is represented by percentage increase of the static load, know as
Component IM(%)
Dynamic Allowance. Theses are shown in Table 4.1, for different bridge
Deck Joints 75
All other Components components and Limit States. Typically a 33% increase is adopted for most
Fatigue and Fracture Limit States 15 cases.
All other Limit States 33
• FAT I G U E ( F T ) is present in bridge structural components because they are
Table 4.1: Dynamic Load Allowance.
[AASHTO, 2012]. subject to cyclic loading from vehicular live loads. For checking the Fatigue
Limit State a Fatigue Truck is used. This is the same as the Design Truck
from Fig. 4.3, with the only exception that the variable axle is set to a con-
stant value of 30 ft (9.1 m).

• B R A K I N G F O R C E ( B R ) are longitudinal forces caused by braking of vehic-

ular live loads. Add more ...

• V E H I C U L A R C E N T R I F U G A L F O R C E ( C E ) are lateral loads that can occur

in horizontally curved bridges. Add more ...

O T H E R L I V E L O A D S on bridges are:

• P E D E S T R I A N L I V E L O A D ( P L ): a usual pedestrian load of 75 lb/ft2 (366 kg/m2 )

is applied simultaneously with the vehicular live loads. Add more ...
 4.3. EARTH LOADS (E) 39

• Deck and Railing Load Add ...

• Special Vehicles, Train Loads Add ...

• V E H I C U L A R C O L L I S I O N F O R C E (CT) Add ...

4.3 Earth Loads (E)

E A RT H L O A D S are considered a type of permanent load . They can be classi-

fied into three types:

• V E RT I C A L E A RT H L O A D (EV) are loads caused by soil self-weight. Usual

values of soil specific weight are around 100 lb/ft3 (1600 kg/m3 ) to 120 lb/ft3
(1900 kg/m3 ). These loads must me considered for buried structures like
culverts. Soil-structure interaction may apply. They also serve as stabilizing
loads in abutments and wingwalls . Add soil-structure interaction factor (Fe)
...

• S U R C H A R G E L O A D S are caused by additional loads over an earth fill. These

are separated into Earth Surcharge (ES) of the permanent type and Live
Load Surcharge (LS) of the transient type. Add Boussinesq theory of load
distribution...

• H O R I Z O N TA L E A RT H L O A D (EH) are lateral loads affecting retaining struc-

tures, like abutments and wing walls, which cause overturning and sliding
effects on the structure. These loads are a function of the geo-technical
properties of soil.

A fluid-like pressure model is usually used to model horizontal earth loads.

This way earth pressure is given by:

Ps = k s γs h (4.1)

This load has a triangular distribution increasing with depth, with a resultant
of P = 21 k s γs h2 located at 13 h from the base, as shown in Fig. 4.8.
Figure 4.6: Horizontal Earth Load (EH).
Types of horizontal earth pressure are active, passive and at-rest condition.
These are illustrated in Fig. 4.7. Each of these is assigned a coefficient of
earth pressure (k s ).

For the at-rest condition (k 0 ), the earth pressure coefficient is:

k0 = 1 − sin φ (4.2)
40 4. LOADS ON BRIDGES

Figure 4.7: Horizontal earth pressure condi-

tions.

At-rest soil pressure conditions occur when there is no horizontal displace-

ment of the retaining soil. This is usually the case for buried structures like
culverts.

One of the most complete and analytical theories for horizontal earth pres-
sures is Coulomb’s Theory and is widely used for bridge design. Active and
passive earth pressures are illustrated on Fig. 4.8. The equations for the
active and passive earth pressure coefficients are as follow:

For the active case (k a ),

cos2 (φ − θ )
ka =  r 2 (4.3)
Figure 4.8: Active and passive horizontal sin (δ+φ) sin (φ−α)
2
cos θ cos (δ + θ ) 1 + cos (δ+φ) cos (θ −α)
earth pressures.

Active pressure case is the one causing horizontal displacement on a wall.

For the passive case (k p ),

cos2 (φ + θ )
kp =  r 2 (4.4)
2 sin (φ−δ) sin (φ+α)
cos θ cos (δ − θ ) 1 − cos (δ−θ ) cos (α−θ )

Passive pressure case is the one resisting horizontal displacement on a wall.

4.4 Earhtquake Loads (EQ)

ADD Simulations, Experiments, Momonobe-Okabe theory of seismic earth pres-

sure.

4.5 Fluid Loads ()

 4.6. MISCELLANEOUS LOADS 41

Water Loads (WA)

ADD Static case, Stream Loads, Flood Loads ...

Wind Loads

ADD Drag Coefficient.

W I N D L O A D S O N S T RU C T U R E (WS)

W I N D L O A D S O N L I V E L O A D (WL)

Simulations (CFD), Experiments ...

4.6 Miscellaneous Loads

Downdrag (DD) Erection Load (EL) ADD content ...

Construction Loads.

Accidental, ... Debri collisions in streams ...

Creep and Shrinkage

Ice Loads (IC)

Snow Loads

Settlement (SE)

Uplift

Friction Effects (FR)

ADD content ...

Thermal Effects (TH)

ADD content ...

Blast and Collision

ADD content Vessel Collision, Extreme Event (EX) ...

42 4. LOADS ON BRIDGES

4.7 Live Loads Distribution

L O A D I N G S I N A B R I D G E are distributed among elements of the bridge pass-

ing from the superstructure to the substructure. The following are the main
concepts influencing the distribution of loads on a bridge.

Multiple Presence

Because it is possible to have more than one lane simultaneously loaded,

Design Lanes m AASHTO has provided the use of a Multiple Presence Factor (m) to account
1 1.20 for this effect. The normal case is taken to have two lanes loaded simultane-
2 1.00
ously, so the factor is taken as one for this case.
3 0.85
4 or more 0.65

Table 4.2: Multiple Presence Factors

Lateral Distribution

G I R D E R B R I D G E S have live loads distributed transversely to each girder. Some

girders take most of the load depending on the position of the live load on the
section of the bridge. The amount of load distributed to a girder is affected by
several factors some of which are:

• Type and depth of deck

• Span length
• Girders spacing and stiffness
• Diaphragms spacing and stiffness
• Type of bracing
• Loads
• Horizontal alignment (curved or straight)

Considering these factors [AASHTO, 2012] LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

has provided Distribution Factors (DF) for moments and shears.

REQUIREMENTS

To apply these distribution factors it is required to satisfy the following:

• Number of girders ( N ) ≥ 4

• 3.5 ft(1 m) ≤ s ≤ 16 ft(4.85 m)

• 4.5 in(11.25 cm) ≤ ts ≤ 12 in(30 cm)

• 20 ft(6 m) ≤ L ≤ 240 ft(73 m)

• 10 × 103 in4 (4 × 105 cm4 ) ≤ K g ≤ 7 × 106 in4 (3 × 108 cm4 )

F O R I N T E R I O R G I R D E R S the distribution factors are shown in Table 4.3

 4.7. LIVE LOADS DISTRIBUTION 43

Table 4.3: Distribution Factors for Interior

Girders

USC MKS

Single
 s 0.4  s 0.3  K 0.1  s 0.4  s 0.3  K 0.1
Lane si g si g
DFM = 0.06 + DFM = 0.06 + (4.5)
Loaded 14 L 12Lts 3 4.3 L 12Lts 3
Moments

Multiple
 s 0.6  s 0.2  K 0.1  s 0.6  s 0.2  K 0.1
Lanes mi g mi g
DFM = 0.075 + DFM = 0.075 + (4.6)
Loaded 9.5 L 12Lts 3 2.9 L 12Lts 3

Single
s s
Lane DFVsi = 0.36 + DFVsi = 0.36 + (4.7)
25 7.6
Loaded
Shears

Multiple  s 2  s 2
s s
Lanes DFVmi = 0.2 + − DFVmi = 0.2 + − (4.8)
12 35 3.6 10.7
Loaded

F O R E X T E R I O R G I R D E R S with one design lane loaded the lever rule is used.

A truck wheel is positioned at 2 ft (0.6 m) from the parapet. The shear and
moments are calculated from the reaction on the exterior girder. With multi-
ple design lanes loaded, moments and shear are calculated using the same
equations for interior girders modified by a correction factor e, see Table 4.4.

Where
 
K g = n I + Ae g 2

ADD sketch for Lever Arm rule

ADD Skew correction, Transverse Members ...

S L A B B R I D G E S D I S T R I B U T I O N S ...

B OX B E A M S ...

Buried Distribution

Live loads are spread through soil on buried structures. The general adoption of
design code is to have a linearly varying with depth increase of the contact area
of the wheels conforming the live loads. Two cases of fill height are considered
for the modeling of live load distribution through soil on buried structures.

FIX Figures

C A S E Ds < 20

C A S E Ds ≥ 20
44 4. LOADS ON BRIDGES

USC MKS Table 4.4: Distribution Factors for Exterior

Girders
Single
Lane Use lever arm rule
Moments

Loaded

me mi me mi
Multiple DFM = eDFM DFM = eDFM
Lanes de de (4.9)
e = 0.77 + e = 0.77 +
Loaded 9.1 2.8

Single
Lane Use lever arm rule
Loaded
Shears

Multiple DFVme = eDFVmi DFVme = eDFVmi

Lanes de de (4.10)
e = 0.6 + e = 0.6 +
Loaded 10 3.0

Figure 4.9: Live load distribution for fill depth

less than 2 ft (0.6 m).
 4.7. LIVE LOADS DISTRIBUTION 45

Figure 4.10: Live load distribution for fill depth

of 2 ft (0.6 m) or greater.

OV E R L A P
For the HL-93 Live Load overlapping occurs when ... ADD

Figure 4.11: Live load distribution overlap for

fill depth of 2 ft (0.6 m) or greater.

I M PAC T is reduced with the fill’s depth according to the following expression:

I M = 33%(1 − 0.125Ds ) ≥ 0% (4.11)

 5

Analysis of Bridges

5.1 Structural Modeling

Assumptions and Idealizations ...

Models can be:

• Linear
• Planar
• Solids

Linear Elements Types:

• Cable
• Truss
• Frame

Planar Elements Types:

• Shell
• Plate
• Membrane

5.2 Statics

5.3 Deflections

ADD Tables for common Beams Moment, Shear and Deflection Diagrams. ADD
Tables for common Frame Diagrams.

5.4 Structural Analysis

Stiffness Methods
48 5. A N A LY S I S O F B R I D G E S

Energy Methods

5.5 Influence Functions

ADD content ... Qualitative Influence Lines... Beams, Trusses.

5.6 Dynamics

5.7 Software
 6

Design Philosophy

ADD Concepts of Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

ADD Concepts of Serviceability Limit State (SLS), Fatigue, Deflection, Crack
Widths, Vibrations, Drift
ADD Concepts of Extreme Event (EX), Earthquake, Collisions ... ADD content
of Statistical basis

6.1 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

The main formula for the LRFD design philosophy is:

φRn ≥ ∑ ηψi Qi (6.1)

Load Multiplier η Section 6.1 Explain ... Importance, Ductility, Redundancy.

S T R E N G T H I — B A S I C L O A D C O M B I N AT I O N . Load combination related to

normal vehicular use without wind.

S T R E N G T H I I — S P E C I A L V E H I C L E S . Load combination to be used for spe-

cial vehicles. This load can be assumed acting alone if traffic is restricted in the
event, otherwise combined loads should be used.

S T R E N G T H I II — M A X I M U M W I N D . Load combination relating to the bridge

being expose to winds exceeding 55 mi/h (90 km/h). No live load is consid-
ered in such an event. Similar to the Extreme Events Load Combinations.

S T R E N G T H I V — H I G H D E A D TO L I V E L O A D R AT I O . This load combination

affects mostly bridges with long spans or during construction stages.

S T R E N G T H V — N O R M A L W I N D . This load combination relates to normal

vehicular use with a wind of 55 mi/h (90 km/h).

E X T R E M E E V E N T I — E A RT H Q UA K E E V E N T . This load combination relates

to earthquake loading. Live load is usually reduce because of the low probability
of both events occurring simultaneously. For normal bridges a value of γEQ =
0.5 is usually used.
50 6. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

E X T R E M E E V E N T I I — O T H E R E X T R E M E E V E N T S . This load combination

is for other extreme events other than earthquake, like collisions, ice loads and
floods to name a few. Only a reduced live load needs to be considered.

S E RV I C E I — N O R M A L U S E W I T H N O R M A L W I N D . This load combination

refers to normal operation of the bridge with a normal wind of 55 mi/h (90 km/h).
Used for deflection and crack control.

S E RV I C E I I — S T E E L Y I E L D I N G . This load combination is for preventing

yielding of steel due to vehicular live load. An average increase of the live
load is used.

S E RV I C E I I I — T E N S I O N I N P R E S T R E S S E D C O N C R E T E S U P E R S T RU C T U R E .
Used for crack control in prestressed concrete superstructures.

S E RV I C E I V — T E N S I O N I N P R E S T R E S S E D C O N C R E T E S U B S T RU C T U R E .
Used for crack control in prestressed concrete substructures.

FAT I G U E I — FAT I G U E F O R I N F I N I T E L I F E . Fatigue and fracture load combi-

nation for infinite design life.

FAT I G U E I I — FAT I G U E F O R F I N I T E L I F E . Fatigue and fracture load combi-

nation for finite design life.

Load Factors and Combinations

 Loads
Use one of these at a time
DC
DW
DD
EH
EV LL
ES IM
EL CE
PS BR
Load Combination SH PL
Limit State CR LS WA WS WL FR TU TG SE EQ BL IC CT CV
Strength I γp 1.75 1.00 — — 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
Strength II γp 1.35 1.00 — — 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
Strength III γp — 1.00 1.40 — 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
Strength IV (DC, γp — 1.00 — — 1.00 0.50/1.20 — — — — — — —
DW, EH, EV & ES)
Strength V γp 1.35 1.00 0.40 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
Extreme Event I γp γEQ 1.00 — — 1.00 — — — 1.00 — — — —
Extreme Event II γp 0.5 1.00 — — 1.00 — — — — 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Service I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.00 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
Service II 1.00 1.30 1.00 — — 1.00 1.00/1.20 — — — — — — —
Service III 1.00 0.80 1.00 — — 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE — — — — —
Service IV 1.00 — 1.00 0.70 — 1.00 1.00/1.20 — 1.00 — — — — —
Fatigue I (LL, IM & — 1.50 — — — — — — — — — — — —
CE)
Fatigue II (LL, IM & — 0.75 — — — — — — — — — — — —
CE)
Table 6.1: Load Combinations
6.1. LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)
51
52 6. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Load Factor
Type of Load Max. Min.
DC 1.25 0.90 Resistance Factors
DC (Strength IV only) 1.50 0.90
DW 1.50 0.65 For the extreme limit state the resistance factors φ should be taken as unity.
EH (Active) 1.50 0.90 This is because at this limit state we check for survivability of the structure to
EH (At-Rest) 1.35 0.90
the extreme event. Repairs can be made to the structure when damage has
EV see Table 6.3
occurred. This is the most reasonably economical approach.
ES 1.50 0.75
EL 1.00 1.00
Table 6.2: Load Factors γ p
6.2 Construction & Design Codes
Load Factor
Condition Max. Min. explain AASHTO, ACI, LRFD, CHOC, Difference btw.
Overall Stability 1.00 N/A
Retaining Walls and Abut- 1.35 1.00
ments
Rigid Buried Structures 1.30 0.90
Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
Flexible Buried Structures
• Metal box culverts 1.50 0.90
• Thermoplastic culverts 1.30 0.90
• All others 1.95 0.90
Table 6.3: EV Load Factors γ p

Strength Limit State φ

Flexure and Tension
• Reinforced Concrete 0.90
• Prestressed Concrete 1.00

Shear and Torsion

• Normalweight Concrete 0.80
• Lightweight Concrete 0.65

Axial Compression 0.75

Bearing 0.70

Compression in Anchorages
• Normalweight Concrete 0.80
• Lightweight Concrete 0.65

Compression (Strut-and-Tie) 0.70

Table 6.4: Concrete Resistance Factors φ

Strength Limit State φ

Flexure 1.00

Shear 1.00

Tension
• Yielding 0.95
• Fracture 0.80

Axial Compression
• Steel 0.90
• Composite 0.90

Shear Connectors 0.85

Table 6.5: Steel Resistance Factors φ

 7

Culverts

B OX I N

A B OX

ADD content ...

 8

Slabs

ADD content ...

8.1 Slab Bridge

8.2 Bridge Deck

 9

Girders

9.1 ’L=15m’ Girders

ADD ... RC "T"-Beams and Rolled wide-flange Steel Beams

9.2 ’L=20m’ Girders

ADD Pretensioned concrete beam

9.3 ’L=30m’ Girders

post-tensioned concrete beams and steel plate girder

 10

Trusses

10.1 Overview

ADD content ...

10.2 A typical pedestrian truss bridge: the ”Pratt” truss

Loads

Structural Analysis

Steel Design

Timber Design

10.3 A typical vehicular truss bridge: the ”Warren” truss

Loads

Structural Analysis

Steel Design

Timber Design
 11

Integral Bridges

11.1 Frames

ADD content ...

 12

Abutments

12.1 Parts

ADD content ... Pedestal, Stem, Backwall, Wingwall, Footing: Talon and Feet?

12.2 Cantilever Wall

12.3 Semi-gravity Wall

12.4 Counter-fort Wall

 13

Piers

ADD content ...

13.1 Hammerhead

13.2 Column-bent
 14

Foundations

ADD content ...

14.1 Piles
 15

Accessories

ADD content ...

15.1 Diaphragms

15.2 Bearings and Joints

15.3 Railings, Curbs and Barriers

15.4 Approach Slabs

Approach slabs reduce live load surcharge.

Design Aids
 Box Culverts Formulas
A B
I2 I2 H
k=
I1 L
I1 I1
H

y Positive
I2
D L C x Negative

For q 6= w

L2 w(2k + 3) − qk
M a = Mb = − ·
12 k2 + 4k + 3

L2 q(2k + 3) − wk
Mc = Md = − ·
12 k2 + 4k + 3
For q = w

wL2 k+3
M a = Mb = Mc = Md = − ·
12 k2 + 4k + 3

wL2 M a + Mb qL2 Mc + Md
M1 = − , M2 = −
8 2 8 2

PL2 4k + 9)
M a = Mb = − ·
24 k2 + 4k + 3

PL2 4k + 9
Mc = Md = − ·
24 k2 + 4k + 3
For k = 1
13PL
M a = Mb = −
192

7PL
Mc = Md = −
192
 pH 2 k
M a = Mb = Mc = Md = −
12(k + 1)

For k = 1 and H = L

pH 2
M a = Mb = Mc = Md = −
24

pH 2 M a + Md
M0 = −
8 2

pH 2 k(2k + 7)
M a = Mb = −
60(k2 + 4k + 3)

pH 2 k(3k + 8)
Mc = Md = −
60(k2 + 4k + 3)

For k = 1 and H = L

3pH 2 11pH 2
M a = Mb = − , Mc = Md = −
160 480

M0 = 0.064pH 2 − ( Ma + 0.577( Md − Ma ))

( A + D )(2k + 3) − D (3k + 3)
M a = Mb = −
3(k2 + 4k + 3)

D (3k + 3) − ( A + D )k
Mc = Md = −
3(k2 + 4k + 3)

pb2 k
A= (10H 2 − 3b2 )
60H 2

2 45a − 2b
 
pbak 2 2
D= H −a −b
2H 2 270a
Bibliography
AASHTO. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2011.

AASHTO. LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials, 2012.
Index
abutments, 20, 39 fatigue, 38 pedestrian live load, 38
approach slab, 21 permanent load, 35, 39
arch bridges, 26 girder bridges, 24 piers, 20
girders, 20
barriers, 20 railings, 20
beams, 20 HL-93 design lane, 38 roadway width, 21
bearings, 20 HL-93 design tandem, 36
braking force, 38 HL-93 design truck, 36 shoulder width, 21
bridge types, 22 HL-93 fatigue truck, 38 slab bridges, 24
horizontal clearance, 22 steel rollers, 20
cable-stayed bridges, 26
stringers, 20
cantilever bridges, 26
impact, 38 substructure, 19, 20
centrifugal force, 38
integral bridges, 25 superimposed dead loads, 35
clear roadway, 21
superstructure, 19, 20
culverts, 23, 39
joints, 20 surcharge, 39
suspension bridges, 27
dead loads, 35
deck, 20 lane width, 21
license, 4 truss bridges, 25
diaphragms, 20
distribution factors, 42 live load surcharge, 39
drainage, 20 live loads, 36 vehicular live loads, 36, 38
dynamic allowance, 38 LRFD, 49 vertical clearance, 22
dynamic load, 38
median, 21 wearing surface, 20
earth loads, 39 wing walls, 39
earth surcharge, 39 neoprene pads, 21 wingwalls, 39