Aging

DR. RIHAB ABBAS ALI

MSC. CLINICAL EMBRYOLOGY AND ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNIQUE
Development does not cease once birth has occurred
but continues throughout the stages of life: infancy,
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Infancy, the
toddler years, and the preschool years are times of
remarkable growth. The preadolescent years, from 6 to 12
years of age, are a time of continued rapid growth and
learning. Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty
as the young person achieves sexual maturity
What is aging?

Aging encompasses the progressive changes from

infancy until eventual death. Gerontology is the science
that deals with old age, the process of aging and the
particular problems of old people.
What is the hypothesises behind
aging??
Cellular Aging

Aging is a complex process affected by multiple factors. It

is believed that aging is partly genetically
preprogrammed. This idea is supported by the
observation that longevity runs in families—that is, the
children of long-lived parents tend to live longer than
those of short-lived parents. As would also be expected,
studies show that identical twins have a more similar life
span than non-identical twins
Telomeres

Most types of differentiated cells can divide only a limited

number of times. One factor that may control the number
of cell divisions is the length of the telomeres, sequences
of DNA, at the ends of chromosomes. Telomeres protect
the ends of chromosomes from deteriorating or fusing
with other chromosomes. Each time a cell divides, the
telomeres normally shorten, and cells with shorter
telomeres tend to undergo fewer divisions .
Some cells, such as stem cells, possess an enzyme called
telomerase, which replenishes the length of the
telomeres, effectively making stem cells immortal. Cancer
cells, which behave in a similar manner to stem cells,
frequently possess an active telomerase enzyme, which
allows them to replicate continuously.
 Mitochondria and Diet

The mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell. As the

mitochondria harvest the energy contained in
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, they generate free
radicals. Free radicals are unstable molecules that carry an
extra electron. To become stable, free radicals donate an
electron to another molecule, such as DNA, proteins (e.g.,
enzymes), or lipids found in plasma membranes. Eventually
these molecules become unable to function, and the cell
loses internal functions. This may lead to cell death.
It is also possible to reduce the negative effects of free
radicals by increasing one’s consumption of natural
antioxidants, such as those present in brightly colored and
dark-green vegetables and fruits. Chemicals in nuts, fish,
shellfish, and red wine have also been shown to reduce
our exposure to free radicals and slow the aging process.
Damage Accumulation

Another set of hypotheses propose that aging involves

the accumulation of damage over time. Early in the 1900
life span was shorter than today. This increase in life span
is due to better health care rather than genetic cause
because human genes have presumably not changed
much in such a short time. This health care reduce
damage accumulation.
Effect of Age on Body Systems

Aging reduces the ability of an organ system to perform

its functions and in many cases impacts its ability to
contribute to homeostasis.
Integumentary System

The number of elastic fibers decrease and their flexibility decrease.

There is also less adipose tissue in the subcutaneous layer; therefore,
older people are more likely to feel cold. Together, these changes
typically result in sagging and wrinkling of the skin. As people age, the
sweat glands also become less active, resulting in decreased
tolerance to high temperatures. There are fewer hair follicles, so the
hair thins out. Decrease in the number of melanocytes, making their
hair gray and their skin pale. Some of the remaining pigment cells are
larger, and pigmented blotches (“age spots”) appear on the skin.
Cardiovascular System

Common problems with cardiovascular function are

usually related to diseases, especially atherosclerosis. The
heart muscle weakens somewhat and may increase in
size as it compensates for its decreasing strength. The
maximum heart rate decreases, and it takes longer for
the heart rate and blood pressure to return to normal
resting levels following stress. The heart valves have
become less flexible.
 Aging also affects the blood vessels. The collagen fiber in
the wall of blood vessels become more rigid plus a
frequent decrease in the internal diameter of arteries due
to atherosclerosis, contribute to a gradual increase in
blood pressure with age. Diet low in cholesterol and
saturated fatty acids, along with a sensible exercise
program, may help prevent age-related cardiovascular
disease.
Immune System

As people age, many of their immune system functions

become compromised. Because a healthy immune
system normally protects the entire body from infections,
toxins, and at least some types of cancer, some
investigators believe that losses in immune function can
play a major role in the aging process.
Digestive System

The digestive system is perhaps less affected by the aging

process than other systems. Because secretion of saliva
decreases, more bacteria tend to adhere to the teeth,
causing more decay and periodontal disease. Blood flow
to the liver is reduced, resulting in less efficient metabolism
of drugs or toxins.
Respiratory System

Cardiovascular problems are often accompanied by

respiratory disorders, and vice versa. Decreasing elasticity
of lung tissues means that ventilation is reduced. These
effects may not be noticed unless the demand for
oxygen increases, such as during exercise.
Excretory System

Blood supply to the kidneys is reduced. The kidneys

become smaller and less efficient at filtering wastes. Salt
and water balance are difficult to maintain, and the
elderly dehydrate faster than young people. Urinary
incontinence (lack of bladder control) increases with
age, especially in women. In men, an enlarged prostate
gland may reduce the diameter of the urethra, causing
frequent or difficult urination.
Nervous System

Between the ages of 20 and 90, the brain loses about 20%
of its weight and volume. Neurons are extremely sensitive
to oxygen deficiency, and neuron death may be due not
to aging itself but to reduced blood flow in narrowed
blood vessels. Some studies reveal that decreased
function may occur due to alterations in complex
chemical reactions or increased inflammation in the
brain.
Sensory Systems

In general, with aging, more stimulation is needed for

taste, smell, and hearing receptors to function as before.
Starting at about age 40, the lens of the eye does not
accommodate as well, resulting in difficulty focusing on
near objects, which causes many people to require
reading glasses as they reach middle age
Musculoskeletal System

Beginning in the twenties or thirties, but accelerating with increasing

age, muscle mass generally decreases, due to decreases in both the
size and number of muscle fibers. Although some of this loss may be
inevitable, regular exercise can slow this decline. Like muscles, bones
tend to shrink in size and density with age. Due to compression of the
vertebrae, along with changes in posture, most of us lose height as
we age. A proper diet and a moderate exercise program have been
found to slow the progressive loss of bone mass.
Endocrine System

As with the immune system, aging of the hormonal system

can affect many organs of the body. These changes are
complex, however, with some hormone levels tending to
decrease with age, while others increase.
Reproductive System

Testosterone levels are highest in men in their twenties. After age 30,
testosterone levels decrease by about 1% per year. Extremely low
testosterone levels have been linked to a decreased sex drive,
excessive weight gain, loss of muscle mass, osteoporosis, general
fatigue, and depression. Menopause, the period in a woman’s life
during which the ovarian and uterine cycles cease, usually occurs
between ages 45 and 55. The ovaries become unresponsive to the
gonadotropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary, and they
no longer secrete estrogen or progesterone.
As a group, females live longer than males. It is likely that
estrogen offers women some protection against
cardiovascular disorders when they are younger. Males
suffer a marked increase in heart disease in their forties,
but an increase is not noted in females until after
menopause, when women lead men in the incidence of
stroke. Men remain more likely than women to have a
heart attack at any age, however.
References:

Human biology 2017.

Thank You