Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

CHAPTER 7

LAMINAR PREMIXED FLAMES

A laminar premixed flame can be considered as the simplest flame due to the absence of fuel/air
mixing and turbulent flow. It is a good place to apply the theories we learned in previous chapters.
Understanding laminar flame is important because it is a prerequisite to the study of turbulent flames
which are more commonly found in practical combustions. The same physical processes are active in
both laminar and turbulent flows, and many turbulent flame theories are based on an underlying
laminar flame structure.

Laminar premixed flame also has important applications by itself, such as in gas range burners and
Bunsen burners.

1. Physical Description
A flame can be defined as a self-sustaining, localized combustion zone propagating at subsonic
velocity.
 Flame is localized combustion which occupies only a small portion of the combustible mixture at
any given time. This is in contrast to the homogeneous reactors discussed in Chap. 5 where
reaction was assumed to occur uniformly throughout the reaction vessel.
‒ A premixed flame separates the unreacted fuel/oxidizer from the combustion product; a
diffusion flame separates the fuel from the oxidizer.
 A flame travels at subsonic velocity, which is termed deflagration. Deflagration is different from
detonation in that the latter travels at supersonic velocity as a shock wave which is no longer
called a flame.
 A flame is self-sustaining as long as the fuel and oxidizer are continuously supplied. The self-
sustaining nature of a flame is due to the underlying chain branching reactions (as discussed in
chemical kinetics (Chap. 3).

In studying laminar premixed flames, we are interested in the temperature and species-concentration
profiles across the flame. In addition, we are interested in two physical characteristics of the flame,
laminar flame speed, SL, and flame thickness, δ.

Laminar flame speed

For a laminar flame propagating steadily in a long tube filled with premixed fuel/oxidizer gases (as
shown in Fig. 7-1), we can apply the 1-D mass conservation equation developed in the Chapter 6,

ρu SL A ≡ ρuυu A =
ρbυb A
where the subscript u and b refer to unburned and burned gases, respectively.

Reference to Burned gases Unburned fuel/oxidizer

SL
the ground Tb, ρb, P Tu, ρu, P

Reference to
the flame  = ρbυb A
m  = ρuυu A
m υu = SL

Fig. 7-1 1-D planar laminar flame speed with reference to the ground and the flame.

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

Because the burned gas is much hotter, causing the density much lower, than the unburned gas,
there is considerable acceleration of the gas flow across the flame.

Laminar flame speed, SL, is defined as the velocity that is relative to the unburned gas and normal to
the flame. Therefore, a stationary planar flame, relative to the ground, means that the unburned gas
flows into the flame at a velocity equal to SL. A conical flame, such as a typical Bunsen flame shown
in Fig. 7-2, means that the unburned gas velocity normal to the flame surface must equal SL, i.e.,
SL = υu sinα

υu ,n = SL

Fig. 7-2 (a) Bunsen burner and Bunsen flame. (b) Laminar flame speed equals normal component of
unburned gas velocity. (from Turns’s book)

The laminar flame speed is a function of several variables, including temperature, equivalence ratio,
fuel type, etc. Similar to adiabatic flame temperature, laminar flame speed can be considered as a fuel
property. In fact, these two properties are closely related for a given fuel. For most hydrocarbon
compounds, the laminar flame speeds are ~ 40 – 50 cm/s at room temperature and pressure.

Laminar flame thickness and flame structure

At atmospheric pressure, the flame thickness of a laminar flame is quite small, of the order of
millimeter. A laminar flame structure can be represented by two zones, a preheat zone and a reaction
zone, as shown in Fig. 7-3. The reaction zone can be further divided into a thin region of fast reaction
followed by a much wider region of slow reaction. The fast reaction zone is where most combustion
reactions occur and the majority of heat is released. This zone is next to the unburned gases, which
are at a much lower temperature. The large gradients of temperature and species concentrations from
the fast reaction zone to the preheated zone result in fast heat transfer and mass diffusion of free
radicals, which helps to establish the self-sustaining combustion. The slow reaction zone is where
slower combustion reactions are completed and its thickness can be much larger than the fast
reaction zone.

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

Fig. 7-3 Laminar flame structure – Temperature and heat-release-rate profiles across the flame (from
Turns’s book)

Flame color
One intriguing things about flame is the flame color, as shown in Fig. 7-4. For combustion of
hydrocarbons, the fast reaction zone appears blue when there is excess air in the combustion. This is
because of the radiation of excited CH radicals in the high-temperature region. When air is decreased
to less than stoichiometric proportions, the fast reaction zone appears blue-green because of the
radiation of excited C2 species. In both flames, OH radicals also contribute to the visible radiation,
and to a lesser degree, the chemiluminescence of CO + O → CO2 + hυ reaction. If the flame gets
even richer, soot will form, with its subsequent blackbody continuum radiation causing the flame
appear to be yellow or orange.

Hydrogen combustion produces no C-containing species; therefore a hydrogen/oxygen flame shows

very pale blue color (due to the radiation of excited OH radicals) which is almost invisible in daylight.

Fig. 7-4 Bunsen flames at various air flows.

(1) air hole closed (safety flame used for lighting or default) (2) air hole slightly open
(3) air hole half open (4) air hole almost fully open (roaring blue flame).
Source: Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bunsen_burner_flame_types_.jpg)

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

2. Simplified Analysis
Given the simple nature relative to other types of flames, laminar premixed flames have been studied
extensively to understand combustion and flame phenomena. Theories on laminar premixed flame
have been developed over the years by many researchers. Here we adopt the simplified approach
developed by Spalding, which couples principles of heat transfer, mass transfer, chemical kinetics,
and thermodynamics to understand the factors governing flame speed and thickness. This analysis
uses the 1-D conservation equations developed in Chap. 6 with additional simplifying assumptions for
thermodynamics and transport properties applied. Detailed species-concentration profiles are not
solved by this simplified analysis.

Assumptions

1. 1-D, constant area, steady flow.

2. Neglect kinetic and potential energies, viscous dissipation, thermal radiation, shaft work.
3. Neglect pressure difference across the flame.
4. Diffusion of heat and mass are governed by Fourier’s and Fick’s laws, respectively. Binary
diffusion is assumed.
5. Lewis number is unity.
6. The gas mixture has a constant specific heat, depending on neither temperature nor mixture
composition.
7. Single-step combustion reaction considering only three species, fuel + oxidizer → product.
8. φ ≤1. Therefore fuel is consumed completely in the flame.

Conservation equations

Apply conservation analyses to the control volume illustrated below as in a flame.

Mass conservation
d (ρυ x )
=0 or ρυ x = constant
dx
Momentum conservation
dP
=0 or P = constant
dx
Species conservation
dm i" dYi d  dY 
 i'"
=m or "
m −  ρD i  =
 i'" with Fick’s law
m
dx dx dx  dx 

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

For a single-step reaction involving three species (Assumption #7),

1 kg fuel + ν kg oxidizer → (ν + 1) kg product
 i , for the three species are related as follows,
The mass production rate, m
'"

1 1
 F'" =
m  Ox
m '"
= −  Pr'"
m
ν ν+ 1
We can write the species conservation equation for each of the species.
dYF d  dY 
"
m −  ρD F  =  F'"
m
dx dx  dx 
dY d dY
 " Ox −  ρ D Ox  =
m ν m F'"
dx dx  dx 
dYPr d  dY 
"
m −  ρ D Pr =−(ν + 1)m
 F'"
dx dx  dx 

Energy conservation
The Shvab-Zeldovich equation assuming constant cp (assumption # 6) can be written as
dT d  dT 
 " cP
m −  ρ DcP  −∑ m
=  i"'h0f ,i eq. 7-1
dx dx  dx 

where the RHS can be written as

−∑ m
 i"'h0f ,i =  F"'h0f ,F +ν m
−[m  F"'h0f ,Ox − (ν + 1)m
 F"'h0f ,Pr ]
Or
−∑ m
 i"'h0f ,i =
−m F"' ∆hC
where ∆hC is the heat of combustion of the fuel, and has the same value as the enthalpy of reaction,
∆hR , but the opposite (positive) sign.
∆hC = −∆hR
= h0f ,F +ν h0f ,Ox − (ν + 1)h0f ,Pr

The assumption of Le = 1 means ρ DcP = k . The eq. 7-1 can then be written as
dT 1 d  dT   F"' ∆hC
m
"
m − k =
− eq. 7-2
dx cP dx  dx  cP

Solution for laminar flame speed

To solve laminar flame speed, SL, and flame thickness, δ, Spalding’s approach specifies two sets of
boundary conditions, and assumes a linear temperature profile across the flame thickness, as
illustrated below.

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

The boundary conditions far upstream of the flame are

T (x → −∞) = Tu
dT
(x → −∞) = 0
dx
For far downstream of the flame,
T (x → +∞) = Tb
dT
(x → +∞) = 0
dx
Integrating eq. 7-2 over x from −∞ to +∞ yields
dT / dx = 0
T k  dT  ∆h +∞ "'
 " (T ) b −
m   − C∫ m
=  F dx
Tu cP  dx  dT /dx =0 cP −∞
By evaluating the limits it becomes
∆h +∞
 " (Tb − Tu ) =
m − C
cP ∫ −∞
 F"'dx
m eq. 7-3

In order to express the RHS of eq. 7-3 as a function of temperature, we use the simple relations in the
flame
dT Tb − Tu δ
= or dx = dT
dx δ Tb − Tu
and substitute it into eq. 7-3.
∆h δ Tb
 " (Tb − Tu ) =
m − C
cP (Tb − Tu ) ∫Tu
 F"'dT
m

 F"' , is non-zero only within the flame.

Note that the reaction term, m
If we define the average reaction rate as
1 Tb
 F"' =
m ∫
(Tb − Tu ) u
T
 F"'dT
m

we can then get a simple algebraic equation for energy conservation

∆h
m − C δm
 " (Tb − Tu ) =  F"' eq. 7-4
cP

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

 F , is known for this single-step reaction, eq. 7-4 still contains

Assuming the average reaction rate, m
"'

 , which contains the laminar flame

two unknowns, the flame thickness, δ, and the total mass flux, m
"

speed we are after,  " = ρu SL .

m

In order to obtain another equation, let us integrate eq. 7-2 again but now with x from −∞ to δ / 2 .
Since combustion mainly occurs in the high temperature region of the flame, it can be assumed that
 F"' is zero for −∞ < x < δ / 2 .
m

So the boundary conditions at x = δ / 2 are

Tb + Tu
T=
2
dT Tb − Tu
=
dx δ

Applying the boundary conditions at x = −∞ and x = δ / 2 , and integrating eq. 7-2 yields
= (Tb −Tu )/δ
dT / dx
(Tb +Tu )/2 k  dT 
 " (T )
m −   =
0
Tu cP  dx  dT /dx =0
With simplification, we obtain
δ k
" −
m =
0 eq. 7-5
2 cP
Solving eq. 7-4 and 7-5 simultaneously yields
1/2
 k ∆hC 
= " 2 2
m  F"' )
(−m
 cP (Tb − Tu ) 
and
2k
δ=
"
cP m
 / ρu , and thermal diffusivity,
Applying the definition of flame speed, SL ≡ m
"
α ≡ k / ρu cP , and
recognizing ∆hC = (ν + 1)cP (Tb − Tu ) , we obtain the final results:
1/2
 (−m F"' ) 
=SL 2α (ν + 1)
 ρu 
1/2
 2 ρuα 
δ =
 F"' ) 
 (ν + 1)(−m
or, in terms of SL,
2α
δ=
SL

3. Factors Influencing Laminar Flame Speeds and Thickness

Effect of burned gas (flame) temperature
The laminar flame speed derived from the above indicates that
 F"' )1/2
SL ∝ (−m

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

If we use the Arrhenius equation to express the global reaction rate, it becomes
SL ∝ ( A exp(−Ea / RuTb )[F ]n [Ox ]m )
1/2

where the burned gas temperature, Tb, is used to estimate the reaction rate.

The apparent activation energies for hydrocarbon combustion are typically large, ~ 40 kcal /mol (167
kJ/mol). This causes the laminar flame speed a strong function of the burned gas temperature, or
approximately, the adiabatic flame temperature. As a result, factors influencing the adiabatic flame
temperature have similar impacts on the laminar flame speed.

Effect of unburned gas temperature

Increasing unburned gas temperature will increase the burned gas temperature by similar amount,
which will increase the flame speed.

Effect of equivalence ratio

Varying equivalence ratio will find the maximum flame temperature at φ slightly greater than 1, which
is also where the fastest laminar flame speed occurs.

Experimentally flame will propagate only within a range of mixture strength defined by flammability
limits. The lower limit refers to the leanest mixture (φ < 1) that will allow steady flame propagation and
the upper limit represents the richest mixture (φ > 1). Flammability limits of some gaseous fuels are
shown in Table 7-1.

Effect of pressure
Pressure does not affect adiabatic flame temperature for ideal gases, but affects reaction rate through
the reactant concentration term. The overall reaction order, (n + m) , for hydrocarbon combustion is
typically ~ 2, suggesting a P 2 dependence of SL. However, two other terms in SL, α and 1/ρ, produce
a P -2 dependence, which makes SL essentially independent of pressure.
1/2
 1 
SL ∝ α (−m
 F"' )
 ρu 
1/2
1 
∝  2 P2 
 ρu 
∝ P0
In experiment, it is found that flame speed is weakly dependant on pressure to a negative power, i.e.
higher pressure  slower flame.

Effect of fuel type

In the early discussion of Chemical Thermodynamics, we learned that different fuels have different
flame temperatures. As a result, laminar flame speeds depend on fuel type. As shown in the Fig. 7-6
and Table 7-1, hydrogen and acetylene (C2H2) have exceptionally high flame speeds, corresponding
to their high flame temperatures. For hydrocarbon fuels, alkanes have similar flame temperature thus
similar flame speeds, both of which are slightly lower than those of alkenes and alkynes.

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

Fig. 7-6 Relative flame speeds for hydrogen and C1-C6 hydrocarbon fuels. The reference flame speed
is for propane. (From Turns’s book).

Table 7-1 Adiabatic Flame Temperature and Laminar Flame Speeds of Common Gaseous Fuels
(in Air, φ = 1, 25°C, 1 atm.)
Flammability Limits
Fuel Formula Tad (K) SL (cm/s)
φmin φmax
Hydrogen H2 2483 210 0.14 2.54
Methane CH4 2226 40 0.46 1.64
Acetylene CH≡CH 2539 136 0.19 ∞
Ethylene CH2=CH2 2369 67 0.41 > 6.1
Ethane CH3-CH3 2259 43 0.50 2.72
Propane CH3-CH2-CH3 2267 44 0.51 2.83

Empirical correlations for laminar flame speed have been reported for various fuel-air mixtures over a
range of temperature and pressure typical of conditions in reciprocating internal combustion engines
and gas turbine combustors. A useful equation for Tu > 350 K is
γ β
 T   P 
=SL SL ,ref  u    (1 − 2.1Ydil )
T
 u ,ref   Pref 

where the flame speed at a reference condition (298 K, 1 atm) is first calculated, which is then
corrected to the actual condition taking into account the equivalence ratio (via γ and β) and the mass
fraction of EGR (Ydil).

It should be pointed out that the simplified analysis discussed here is not a typical way to solve a
combustion problem. As discussed in Chap. 6, the target of solving a combustion problem (with all the
governing equations) is to obtain the profiles of temperature and species concentrations as a function
of combustion progress. The purpose of the simplified analysis here, however, is to solve only laminar
flame speed and thickness. Therefore, the temperature is treated essentially as a known (except for
the slope within the flame), and the species conservation equations are not solved (although they can
be solved).

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

Detailed analyses of laminar premixed flame employ more general methods, such as those discussed
in Chap. 6, to solve the problem. These methods usually use detailed combustion mechanism
involving multiple reaction intermediates and products, and solve the temperature at each step. The
solution describes the structure of the flame, i.e. the temperature and species-concentration profiles
from the preheated zone to the reaction zone. An example of detailed analysis can be found in the
Chap. 8 of Turns’s book for methane-air flame, and some results are shown in Fig. 7-5.

Fig. 7-5 Calculated species molar-fractions and temperature profiles for laminar, stoichiometric, CH4-
air premixed flame (from Turns’s book).

4. Quenching and Ignition

Quenching and ignition are two processes controlled by the relative magnitude of heat release vs.
heat loss of a flame.

Flame quenching, e.g., by passing through narrow passageways, is where the heat released from the
combustion can not sustain the heat loss to the cold walls and the flame consequently extinguishes.
This is the basis for many practical flame-arresting devices in use today. Ignition, on the other hand, is
where the heat generated by combustion exceeds the heat loss to the unburned gases, so that the
flame propagation is initiated.

Quenching distance

The quenching distance can refer to the critical diameter of a circular tube where a flame
extinguishes. For a high-aspect-ratio rectangular-slot burner, the quenching distance can refer to the
distance between the long sides, i.e. the slit width. The tube-based quenching distances are
somewhat larger than slit-based ones, by ~ 20 – 50%.

Consider a flame that has just entered a slot formed by two parallel plates as shown in the figure
below, we write an energy balance equating the heat produced by reaction to the heat lost by
conduction to the walls, i.e.
Q "'V = Q cond eq. 7-6

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 "' is related to the previously defined m

where the volumetric heat release rate Q  F"' as
Q "' =
−m F"' ∆hC ,
and the flame volume is defined based on the flame thickness, δ.

Our goal is to determine the quenching distance, d, that satisfies the quenching criterion expressed in
eq. 7-6. The heat loss from the flame slab to the wall can be expressed using Fourier’s law as
dT
Q cond = −kA
dx
where both the conductivity, k, and the temperature gradient are evaluated in the gas at the wall. The
area A is expressed as 2δL, where L is the slot length (perpendicular to the page). The temperature
gradient, dT/dx, is much more difficult to approximate. A lower limit for dT/dx can be estimated as
(Tb − Tw ) / (d / 2) , where we assume a linear distribution from the centerline plane at Tb to the wall at
Tw. Since the dT/dx is likely to be much larger than this, we introduce an arbitrary constant b, defined
by
dT Tb − Tw
=
dx d /b
where b is a number generally much greater than 2.

With these relations, the quenching criterion eq. 7-6 becomes

Tb − Tw
 F"' ∆hC )(δ Ld ) =
(−m k(2δ L)
d /b
Or
2kb(Tb − Tw )
d2 =
−m F"' ∆hC
 F and SL ,
Assuming Tw = Tu , using the previously developed relationships between m
"'

1/2
 (−m F"' ) 
=SL 2α (ν + 1) , and relating ∆hC = (ν + 1)cP (Tb − Tu ) , the above equation becomes,
 ρu 
d = 2 bα / SL
Or in terms of δ,
d = bδ
This equation is in agreement with the experimental results as shown in Fig. 7-7 for methane, which
show quenching distance to be larger than the flame thickness. For φ ~ 1, d ~ 2δ, suggesting b ~ 4.

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 Advanced Thermodynamics - Semester 2 2016 - Lecture Notes

From the above parametric analysis, SL is a strong function of temperature, and α is proportional to
the inverse of pressure. Therefore increasing temperature and pressure will both reduce the quench
distance.

Fig. 7-7 Flame thickness and quenching distance for laminar methane-air flames at 1 atm. (From
Turns’s book)

Ignition

A successful ignition results in a self-sustaining flame, i.e. the combustion heat release is greater than
the heat loss to the unburned gas. The minimum energy to achieve this goal is minimum ignition
energy.

Consider a spherical volume of gas, which represents the incipient propagating flame created by a
point of spark. We will first derive the critical radius for the gas volume at which the heat generation
equals the heat loss. The second step is to assume that the minimum ignition energy to be supplied
by the spark is the energy required to heat the critical gas volume from its initial state to the flame
temperature.

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To determine the critical radius, Rcr, we equate the rate of heat liberated by reaction to the rate of heat
lost to the cold gas by conduction, similar to the one used for determining quenching distance,
Q "'V = Q cond
Or
dT
 F"' ∆hC )(4π Rcr3 / 3) =
(−m −k(4π Rcr2 ) eq. 7-7
dr Rcr

The temperature gradient in the cold gas at the sphere boundary, (dT / dr )R , can be estimated with
cr

the boundary conditions T (Rcr ) = Tb and T (∞) =Tu . This results in

dT Tb − Tu
= −
dr Rcr Rcr
Substituting this expression to eq. 7-7 yields

3k(Tb − Tu )
Rcr2 =
−m F"' ∆hC

1/2
 (−m F"' ) 
 with SL using
Replacing m
"'
= SL 2α (ν + 1) , and relating ∆hC = (ν + 1)cP (Tb − Tu ) , the
F
 ρu 
above equation becomes,
α
Rcr = 6
SL
Or in terms of δ
Rcr = ( 6 / 2)δ
which suggests that the critical radius is roughly equal to the laminar flame thickness.

Knowing the critical radius, we can now determine the minimum ignition energy, Eign, simply by
assuming the energy added by the spark heats the critical volume to the burned-gas temperature, i.e.
=Eign (ρb 4π Rcr3 / 3)cP (Tb − Tu )
Eliminating ρb using the ideal-gas law yields,
3
 c  T − T  α 
Eign = 61.6P  P  b u  
 Rb  Tb   SL 
where Rb = Ru / MWb for the burned gas.

From the previous parametric analysis for SL, we found α ∝ P −1 and SL is essentially independent of
pressure. Therefore,
Eign ∝ P −2
indicating that the minimum ignition energy will drop rapidly with increasing pressure. This result from
our simple analysis matches well with the experiments. Since SL is enhanced by higher temperature,
the minimum ignition energy will also decrease with increasing mixture temperature.

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5. Flashback and Liftoff

Flashback and liftoff are two phenomena related to matching the local laminar flame speed to the
local flow velocity, which are important for gas burner design.

Flashback occurs when the local flame speed exceeds the local flow velocity, so that the flame enters
and propagates through the burner tube or port without quenching. Flashback represents a safety
hazard and can be controlled by quenching as discussed above.

Flame liftoff occurs when the local flame speed can not keep up with the local flow velocity at the
burner port; therefore the flame is lifted up (detached) from the burner. Flame lifting is undesired due
to potential incomplete combustion and difficulty to control the flame. Liftoff with very high flow velocity
can blow off the flame which is obviously undesirable.

In designing a gas burner, the total flow rate should be higher enough to prevent flashback, and yet
lower enough to prevent liftoff. The design area for a manufactured-gas burner is shown in Fig. 7-8.
Since both flashback and liftoff depend on the local laminar flame speed which alternatively depends
on the equivalence ratio, air flow rate is often considered together with total flow rate in burner design.

Fig. 7-8 Flame stability diagram and burner design area for manufactured gas containing hydrogen.
(from Turns’s book)

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