Chapter 1

Introduction

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 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance. The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. Data communications are the
exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

Components
Data Representation
Data Flow

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 Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

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 Data Representation

Information today comes in different forms such as text,

numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit

pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or 1s). Different sets of bit
patterns have been designed to represent text symbols.
Each set is called a code, and the process of representing
symbols is called coding. (ASCII, Basic Latin)

Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a

code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the
number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.

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 Data Representation

Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest

form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture
elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the
pixel depends on the resolution.(Red, Green, Blue), (Yellow,
Cyan, and magenta).

Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or

music. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or
images. It is continuous, not discrete.
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or
movie. Video can either be produced as a continuous entity
(e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of
motion.
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 Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Distributed Processing
Network Criteria
Physical Structures
Network Models
Categories of Networks
Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
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 Distributed Processing

Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is

divided among multiple computers. Instead of one single
large machine being responsible for all aspects of a
process, separate computers (usually a personal computer
or workstation) handle a subset.

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 Network Criteria
To be considered effective and efficient, a network must
meet a number of criteria.
Performance
Reliability
Security

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 Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time
and response time. The performance of network depends on a
number of factors.
Number of users : Having a large number of concurrent users can
slow response time in a network not designed to coordinate heavy traffic
loads. In peak load periods the actual number of users can exceed the
average and decrease performance.
Type of transmission medium : The medium defines the speed at
which data can travel through a connection (the data rate). The speed of
light imposes an upper bound on the data rate.
Connected Hardware : The types of hardware included in a network
affect both the speed and capacity of transmission.
Software : The software used to process data at the sender, receiver
and intermediate nodes also affects network performance.
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 Reliability

Network reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the

time it takes a link to recover from failure, and the network’s
robustness in a catastrophe.
Frequency of failure : All networks fail occasionally. A
network that fails often is of little value to a user.
Recovery time of a network after a failure : How long does
it take to restore service? A network that recovers quickly is more
useful than one that does not.
Catastrophe : Networks must be protected from catastrophic
events such as fire, earthquake, or theft.

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 Security

Network security issues include protecting data from

unauthorized access and viruses.
Unauthorized Access : For a network to be useful, sensitive
data must be protected from unauthorized access. Protection can be
accomplished at a number of levels.
Viruses : Because a network is accessible from many points, it
can be susceptible to computer viruses. A virus is an illicitly
introduced code that damages the system.

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 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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 Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

The Topology of a network is the geometric representation of

the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another.

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 Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

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 Mesh topology

Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other

device.
n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
Advantages:
Dedicated Links, Privacy or Security, Fault Identification and
Fault isolation.
Disadvantage:
Amount of Cabling, Number of I/O Ports.

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 Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

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 Star topology

Each devices has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not
directly linked to each other.
Advantage:
Less expensive then mesh topology, Easy to install and
reconfigure, Robustness
Disadvantage:
More cabling then some other topologies(such as tree, ring,
bus).
If central point fails, the entire network goes down.

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 Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

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 A bus topology
The bus topology is also known as a linear bus. This is the
simplest and most common method of networking computers. It
consist of a single cable called a trunk that connects all the
computers in the network in the single-line.
Advantages:
Easy to install, Less cabling then mesh star or tree
Disadvantages:
Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation
A fault or break in the bus cable stop all transmission.

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 A bus topology
•The most common access method of the bus topologies
is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so
that data integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost.
There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur
when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.
•CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method
used to detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the
sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on
"recovery after the collision".
•CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method
used to avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission
media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media
becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the possibility of
the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".

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 Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

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 Ring topology

The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of

cable. There are no terminated ends.
Each computer like a repeater to boost the signal and it on to
the next computer.
Advantagess:
Easy to install and reconfigure, Fault isolation is simplified
Disadvantages: In a simple ring, a break in the ring can disable
the entire network.

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 Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 Categories of Networks

A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 miles; a

WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size in between
are normally referred to as metropolitan-area networks
and span tens of miles.

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 Categories of Networks
➢ LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal
computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can include
hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or data.

➢ The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise
a router (internet working connecting device) that connects to another
LAN or WAN.
➢The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone
provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet
service provider (ISP). This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet
access.

➢ A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company

network that can provide a high-speed DSL (Digital Subscriber’s Line) line
to the customer

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 Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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 Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

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 Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a LAN in

isolation; they are connected to one another. When two or
more networks are connected, they become an
internetwork, or internet.

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 Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

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 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our free time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Topic discussed in this section:

Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
The Internet Today (ISPs)

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 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)

➢ The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the

Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a
way to connect computers so that the researchers they
funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs
and eliminating duplication of effort.
➢In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery
(ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a
small network of connected computers.
➢The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily
from the same manufacturer) would be attached to a
specialized computer, called an interface message
processor (IMP). The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to
one another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate
with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host.
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 The Internet Today

Today most end users who want Internet connection use

the services of Internet service providers (ISPs). There
are international service providers, national service
providers, regional service providers, and local service
providers. The Internet today is run by private companies,
not the government.

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 Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

NAP → Network Access Points

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 1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols

and standards. First, we define protocol, which is
synonymous with rule. Then we discuss standards, which
are agreed-upon rules.

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards

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 Protocols

Even in this simple scenario, we can see that a set of rules needs to be followed.
First, Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when they meet.
Second, they know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of their friendship.
Third, each party knows that she should refrain from speaking when the other party is speaking.
Fourth, each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog, not a monolog: both should
have the opportunity to talk about the issue.
Fifth, they should exchange some nice words when they leave.

We can see that the protocol used by Maria and Ann is different from the communication
between a professor and the students in a lecture hall. The communication in the second case is
mostly monolog; the professor talks most of the time unless a student has a question, a situation
in which the protocol dictates that she should raise her hand and wait for permission to speak. In
this case, the communication is normally very formal and limited to the subject being taught.
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 Protocols

Protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication.

A protocol defines what is communicated, how is
communicated, and when is communicated. Key elements of
protocol are:
• Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented.
• Semantics : refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is
to be taken based on that interpretation?
• Timing : refer to two characteristics. When data should be
sent and how fast they can be sent.

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 Standards

Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an

open and competitive market for equipment manufacturers
and in guaranteeing national and international
interoperability of data and telecommunications technology
and processes.

Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,

government agencies, and other service providers to
ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's
marketplace and in international communications.

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 Data communication standards fall into two categories:
de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and
de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

1. De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an

organized body but have been adopted as standards
through widespread use are de facto standards. De
facto standards are often established originally by
manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a
new product or technology.

2. De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by

an officially recognized body are de jure standards.

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 Standards Organizations

Standards are developed through the cooperation of

a. Standards creation committees,
b. Forums,
c. Government regulatory agencies.

➢ Standards Creation Committees

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standards Sector(ITU-T)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

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 Forums

To accommodate the need for working models and

agreements and to facilitate the standardization process,
many special-interest groups have developed forums made
up of representatives from interested corporations. The
forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate, and
standardize new technologies.

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 Regulatory Agencies

All communications technology is subject to regulation by

government agencies such as the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) in the United States. The purpose of
these agencies is to protect the public interest by regulating
radio, television, and wire/cable communications.

Like PTA in Pakistan.

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