CONTENTS

2. MATERIALS AND TESTS (4-23)

 SAND 5
I. Bulking of sand 6
II. Sieve analysis 7
III. Fineness modulus 8
 COARSE AGGREGATE 9
I. Specific gravity 10
II. Water absorption 11
 CEMENT 11
I. Fineness test 12
II. Strength test 12
III. Specific gravity test 13
 BRICK 13
I. Compressive strength 13
II. Water absorption test 13
III. Efflorescence 13
 STONE 14
 CONCRETE 16
I. Slump cone test 20
II. Compressive strength 21
III. Water permeability 21
IV. Rapid penetration test 21
V. Water absorption test 21
VI. Modulus of elasticity & Setting time 21
 EQUIPMENT USED 22
 CONCLUSION 23

vi
VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTS

Building construction methods and materials have an enormous impact on fire behavior and
firefighter safety. In this course, you will learn about various types of building construction, the
importance of the fire resistance for structural support elements, and the risks associated with
performing fire- suppression activities inside and around buildings involved in fire. You will
also learn about the importance of teamwork among fire protection and design professionals.

Upon completion of this course, you will be able to:

 Describe the benefits of cross-disciplinary cooperation among fire protection

and design professionals.
 Explain the elements of building construction as they apply to construction
codes.
 Describe the elements of building construction as they apply to
firefighter safety.
 Anticipate fire behavior based on structural elements and thermal effects
on each of the following types of construction:

 Protected noncombustible building construction

 Unprotected noncombustible building construction
 Masonry construction
 Heavy timber construction
 Wood frame construction

4
VARIOUS BUILDING MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTIONS:

1. INE AGGREGATE

2. COARSE AGGREGATE

3. FCEMENT

4. BRICK

5. STONE

5
1) SAND:

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral
particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to
a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e., a soil containing more than 85 percent sand-sized
particles by mass.

The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most
common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is
silica, usually in the form of quartz. The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate,
for example, aragonite,

Sand is a non-renewable resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making concrete
is in high demand.

6
COMPOSITION

The exact definition of sand varies. The scientific Unified Soil Classification System used in
engineering and geology corresponds to US Standard Sieves and defines sand as particles with a
diameter of between 0.074 and
4.75 millimeters. By another definition, in terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand
particles range in diameter from 0.0625 mm (or 1/16 mm) to 2 mm. An individual particle in this
range size is termed a sand grain. Sand grains are between gravel (with particles ranging from 2
mm up to 64 mm by the latter system, and from 4.75 mm up to 75 mm in the former) and silt
(particles smaller than 0.0625 mm down to 0.004 mm).

TESTS ON FINE AGGREGATE

1. BULKING OF SAND
When sand is damp, the water coating on the surface of each sand particle causes separation of
particles from one another due to surface tension. This causes sand to bulk. Bulked sand occupies
more volume and hence if volumetric measuring is done while proportioning it, bulking
correction is necessary.

The bulking test is done as follows:

1. The sand is filled, in loose condition in a box of measured height (H cm).

2. The box is then flooded with water and Roding is done to make the sand settle and consolidate.
Care should be taken that sand does not overflow during the flooding and compaction.
3. The sand is then leveled in the box and the drop in height is measured (h cm).
4. Bulking is calculated as: Bulking % = h/H x 100%

Dry sand occupies the same volume as fully saturated sand. The bulking will vary from load to
load and day to day depending on the fineness of sand and its surface moisture content. It is
there-fore, very essential to make bulking corrections by checking the actual bulking of sand
proposed to be used by volumetric batching for mortar or concrete.

7
 Moisture contents Bulking
%age by wt. % by volume
2 15

3 20

4 25

5 30

2. SIEVE ANALYSIS
Sieve analysis is done to check the gradation of aggregate. The test is done as follow.

1. Take required amount of aggregate sample (for coarse aggregate take approx.
2.5 kg and for fine aggregate take 0.5 kg)
2. Arrange the required no of sieves as per the contract or job requirement in a
descending manner.
3. Shake vigorously the sieve set for at least 2 minute.
4. Then measure the weight of aggregate on each sieve and express it as the percentage
of passing.

Grading limit of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate is given below for reference.

8
3. FINENESS MODULUS

Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the aggregate is. More fineness
modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness modulus indicates
that the aggregate is finer.

1. Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75
mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron & 150 micron)
2. Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
3. Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
4. Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained.
5. Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained and divide the sum by 100. This value
is termed as fineness modulus

Compare the test value with the values given in the following table and you can get an idea about
how coarse or fine the sand is.
Only sand between FM 2.6 to 2.9 is considered suitable for nominal mix proportion

Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Value

Very fine sand Below 2.2
Fine sand 2.2 to 2.6
Medium sand 2.6 to 2.9
Coarse sand 2.9 to 3.2
Very coarse sand Above 3.2

9
2) COARSE AGGREGATE:

AGGREGATE CLASSIFICATION [BASED ON SHAPE]

According to shape the aggregate is classified as

 Rounded aggregate
 Irregular or partly rounded aggregate
 Angular aggregate
 Flaky aggregate
 Elongated aggregate
 Flaky and elongated aggregate

1. ROUNDED AGGREGATE
The aggregate with rounded shape has the minimum percentage of voids ranging from 32 to 33%. It
gives minimum ratio of surface area to given volume and hence requires minimum water for
lubrication. It gives good workability for the given amount of water and hence needs less cement for a
given water cement ratio. The only disadvantages is that the interlocking between its particles is less
and hence the development of bond is poor. This is why rounded aggregate is not suitable for high
strength concrete and for pavements subjected to tension.

2. IRREGULAR OR PARTLY ROUNDED AGGREGATE

The aggregate with irregular shape has higher percentage of voids ranging from 35 to 37%. It gives
lesser workability than rounded aggregate for the given water content. Water requirement is higher

10
and hence more cement is needed for constant water cement ratio. The interlocking between
aggregate particles is better than rounded aggregate but not adequate to be used for high strength
concrete and pavements subjected to tension.

3. ANGULAR AGGREGATE
The aggregate with angular shape has the maximum percentage of void ranging from 38 to 45%.
It requires more water for lubrication and hence it gives least workability for the given water
cement ratio. For constant water cement ratio and workability the requirement of cement
increase. The interlocking between the aggregate particles is the best and hence the development
of bond is very good. This is why angular aggregate is very suitable for high strength concrete
and for pavements subjected to tension.

4. FLAKY AGGREGATE
The aggregate is said to be flaky when its least dimension is less than 3/5th (or 60%) of its mean
dimension. Mean dimension is the average size through which the particles pass and the sieve
size on which these are retained. For example, mean size of the particles passing through 25 mm
sieve and retained on 20 mm sieve is (20+25)/2 = 22.5 mm. if the least dimension is less than 3/5
x (22.5) = 13.5mm, then the material is classified as flaky. Flaky aggregate tends to be oriented
in one plane which affects the durability.

TESTS ON AGGREGATE
Aggregate plays an important role in pavement construction. Aggregates influence, to a great
extent, the load transfer capability of pavements. Hence it is essential that they should be
thoroughly tested before using for construction. Not only that aggregates should be strong and
durable, they

Should also possess proper shape and size to make the pavement act monolithically. Aggregates
are tested for strength, toughness, hardness, shape, and water absorption.

In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:

1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION TEST

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are required
for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its
mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the
11
aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of
aggregates are used:

1. Apparent specific gravity

2. Bulk specific gravity.

Apparent Specific Gravity

Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates i.e. the volume excluding water-
permeable voids. Thus

Gapp = [(MD/VN)]/W
Where,
MD is the dry mass of the aggregate,
VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed
matter, W is the density of water.

Bulk Specific Gravity

Gbulk is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates including water permeable voids. Thus
Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W
Where,
VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.

Water Absorption:
The difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is nothing but the water
permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of such voids by weighing the
aggregates dry and in a saturated surface dry condition, with all permeable voids filled with
water. The difference of the above two is MW.

MW is the weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition.
Thus,

Water Absorption = (MW/MD) x 100

The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to
2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used
in road surfacing.

12
2) CEMENT
Types of Cement:

Rapid Hardening Cement:

Definition:
It is also known as High-Early-Strength cement. It is manufactured with such adjustments in the
proportion of raw materials so that the cement produced attains maximum strength with-in 24-72
hours.

Properties:
Two essential properties of Rapid Hardening Cement are following.

(i) It contains relatively more tri-calcium silicate. This is done by adding a greater proportion of
limestone in the raw materials compared to that required for ordinary cement.

(ii) It is more fine-grained (Air permeability 3250 cm2/gm) than the ordinary cement. This
factor helps in quicker and complete hydration of cement particles during setting and
helps in gaining early strength.

However, the setting time and ultimate strength of Rapid Hardening Cement is same as of
Ordinary Cement.

TESTS ON CEMENT

The physical tests which are generally performed to determine

the acceptability of cements are:

1. Fineness Test
2. Strength Test
3. Specific Gravity Test
4. Setting test

1. Fineness Test

Fineness is the mean size of cement grain. Fineness test is done to measure the mean size of
cement grain.
The finer the cement the surface area for hydration will be large and it increases the strength
of cement. But the fineness varies in different types of cement.
13
Following three methods are applied to test the fineness of cement

 Sieve method
 Air Permeability method
 Sedimentation method

2. Strength Test

Cement has two types of strength – compressive strength and tensile strength.

To know the compressive strength and tensile strength of cement following tests are performed –

Cement mortar cube test (for compressive strength)

 Briquette test (for tensile strength)

 Split tensile test (for tensile strength)

3. Specific Gravity Test

Specific gravity of cement is a comparison of weight of a cement volume to the weight of

same volume of water.

4. Setting Test

A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it is kept under water
for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.

14
 3) BRICK

Classification and Characteristics of Bricks as per IS 1077-1973

Tests for the acceptance of bricks for building construction are:

1. Compressive strength test

2. Water absorption test
3. Efflorescence test

1. Compressive Strength Test on Bricks

The compressive strength of a common brick should be 50 kg/sq.cm

2 . Water Absorption Test on Bricks

If the water absorption capacity of a brick is more, its strength will be comparatively low. For first
class bricks, the water absorption capacity should not be more than 20% by weight.

3 . Efflorescence Test on Bricks

This test is performed to know the presence of any alkaline matter in the bricks.

15
4) STONE
Stone is a ‘naturally available building material’ which has been used from the early age of
civilization. It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used
as building block.

Properties of Stones

The following properties of the stones should be looked into before selecting them for
engineering works:

a. Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or uncertified.

Structured stones should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Uncertified
stones are hard and difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.

b. Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence
they are used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.

c. Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with
specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

d. Strength: Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as

building block. Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5
N/mm2 for any building block. Table shows the crushing strength of various stones.
Due to non-uniformity of the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used to find
the permissible stress in a stone. Hence even laterite can be used safely for a single
storey building, because in such structures expected load can hardly give a stress of
0.15 N/mm2. However in stone masonry buildings care should be taken to check the
stresses when the beams (Concentrated Loads) are placed on lateral wall.

e. Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard
specimen in Dory’s testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be

16
 at least 17. For building works stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14
should not be used.

f. Porosity and Absorption: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of
water with material of stone causes disintegration. Absorption test is specified as
percentage of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24
hours. For a good stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.

g. Toughness: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact

test. Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness
indexes 13 to 19 are considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less
than 13 are poor stones.

h. Resistance to Fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor
in strength, are good in resisting fire.

CONCRETE:

Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand) and coarse
aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time. Portland cement is the mostly used type
of cement for production of concrete.

There are different types of binding material is used other than cement such as lime for lime
concrete and bitumen for asphalt concrete which is used for road construction.

Various types of cements are used for concrete works which have different properties and
applications. Some of the type of cement is Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), rapid hardening
cement, Sulphate resistant cement etc.

17
Table of Contents:

Materials are mixed in specific proportions to obtain the required strength.

Strength of mix is specified as M5, M10, M15, M20, M25, M30 etc., where M signifies Mix and
5, 10, 15 etc. as their strength in kN/m2. In United States, concrete strength is specified in PSI
which is Pounds per Square Inch.
Water cement ratio plays an important role which influences various properties such as
workability, strength and durability. Adequate water cement ratio is required for production of
workable concrete.
When water is mixed with materials, cement reacts with water and hydration reaction starts. This
reaction helps ingredients to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable
stone-like material. Concrete can be casted in any shape. Since it is a plastic material in fresh
state, various shapes and sizes of forms or formworks are used to provide different shapes such
as rectangular, circular etc.
Various structural members such as beams, slabs, footings, columns, lintels etc. are constructed
with concrete.

ACI 318 Building code requirements for structural concrete and ACI 301 Specifications for
Structural Concrete are used in United States as standard code of practice for concrete construction.

There are different types of admixtures which are used to provide certain properties. Admixtures
or additives such as pozzolans or super plasticizers are included in the mixture to improve the
physical properties of the wet mix or the finished material.

Various types of concrete are manufactured these days for construction of buildings and
structures. These have special properties and features which improve quality of construction as
per requirement.

Components of Concrete:

Components of concrete are cement, sand, aggregates and water. Mixture of Portland cement
and water is called as paste. So, concrete can be called as a mixture of paste, sand and
aggregates. Sometimes rocks are used instead of aggregates.

18
The cement paste coat the surface of the fine and coarse aggregates when mixed thoroughly and
binds them. Soon after mixing the Components, hydration reaction start which provides strength
and a rock solid concrete is obtained.

What is Grade of Concrete?

Grade of concrete denotes its strength required for construction. For example, M30 grade
signifies that compressive strength required for construction is 30MPa. The first letter in grade
“M” is the mix and 30 is the required strength in MPa. .

Based on various lab tests, grade of concrete is presented in Mix Proportions. For example, for
M30 grade, the mix proportion can be 1:1:2, where 1 is the ratio of cement, 1 is the ratio of sand
and 2 is the ratio of coarse aggregate based on volume or weight of materials.

The strength is measured with concrete cube or cylinders by civil engineers at construction site.
Cube or cylinders are made during casting of structural member and after hardening it is cured
for 28 days. Then compressive strength test is conducted to find the strength.

19
Regular grades of concrete are M15, M20, M25 etc. For plain cement concrete works, generally
M15 is used. For reinforced concrete construction minimum M20 grade of concrete are used.

Compressive Strength
Concrete Grade Mix Ratio
2
MPa (N/mm ) Psi

Normal Grade of Concrete

M5 1:5:10 5 MPa 725 psi

M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi

M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi

M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi

M20 1:1.5:3 20 MPa 2900 psi

Standard Grade of Concrete

M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi

M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi

M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi

M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi

M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi

M50 Design Mix 50 MPa 7250 psi

20
 M55 Design Mix 55 MPa 7975 psi

M60 Design Mix 60 MPa 8700 psi

M65 Design Mix 65 MPa 9425 psi

M70 Design Mix 70 MPa 10150 psi

How to Make Concrete

Concrete is manufactured or mixed in proportions w.r.t. cement quantity. There are two
types of concrete mixes, i.e. nominal mix and design mix. Nominal mix is used for normal
construction works such as small residential buildings. Most popular nominal mix are in the
proportion of 1:2:4.
Design mixed concrete are those for which mix proportions are finalized based on various lab
tests on cylinder or cube for its compressive strength. This process is also called as mix design. These
tests are conducted to find suitable mix based on locally available material to obtain strength required
as per structural design. A design mixed offers economy on use of ingredients.
Once suitable mix proportions are known, then its ingredients are mixed in the ratio as selected.
Two methods are used for mixing, i.e. Hand mixing or Machine Mixing.
Based on quantity and quality required, the suitable method of mixing is selected. In the
hand mixing, each ingredients are placed on a flat surface and water is added and mixed with
hand tools. In machine mixing, different types of machines are used. In this case, the ingredients
are added in required quantity to mix and produce fresh concrete. Once it is mixed adequately it
is transported to casting location and poured in formworks. Various types of formworks are
available which as selected based on usage. Poured concrete is allowed to set in formworks for
specified time based on type of structural member to gain sufficient strength. After removal of
formwork, curing is done by various methods to make up the moisture loss due to evaporation.
Hydration reaction requires moisture which is responsible for setting and strength gain. So,
curing is generally continued for minimum 7 days after removal of formwork.
21
 Types of Concrete Construction:

Concrete is generally used in two types of construction, i.e. plain concrete construction
and reinforced concrete construction. In PCC, it is poured and casted without use of any
reinforcement. This is used when the structural member is subjected only to the compressive
forces and not bending. When a structural member is subjected to bending, reinforcements are
required to withstand tension forces structural member as it is very weak in tension compared to
compression. Generally, strength of concrete in tension is only 10% of its strength in
compression. It is used as a construction material for almost all types of structures such as
residential concrete buildings, industrial structures, dams, roads, tunnels, multi storey buildings,
skyscrapers, bridges, sidewalks and superhighways etc.
Example of famous and large structures made with concrete are Hoover Dam, Panama Canal and
Roman Pantheon. It is the largest human made building materials used for construction.

Steps of Concrete Construction

The construction steps are:

1. Selecting quantities of materials for selected mix proportion

2. Mixing

3. Checking of workability
4. Transportation

5. Pouring in formwork for casting

6. Vibrating for proper compaction

7. Removal of formwork after suitable time
8. Curing member with suitable methods and required time.

TESTS
1. Slump test before leaving the batching plant and on arrival on site
This is to determine the workability of concrete in terms of slump test. After batching the
concrete, a sample of fresh concrete shall be taken to test for slump tests and the samples for
compressive strength test be taken too. This is to make sure that the batched concrete is
complying with the mix design before it’s released from the batching plan
22
Upon arrival on site, a sample of fresh concrete shall be tested with slump test again, but
temperature shall be checked with the calibrated thermometer beforehand. Three cubes or
cylinders of samples shall be taken for compressive strength tests, these will be the samples from
the site.

The plus or minus sign is the symbol of tolerance of slump. Let say for example the slump of
approved concrete design mix for your suspended slab is 150 mm +/- 25.

2. Compressive strength test

Three samples of cubes or cylinders shall be taken for compressive strength test, but it is not
commonly three samples, sometimes it is two depend on the specification. You might ask why
sometimes there is extra of one sample? Good that you asked. This one sample extra shall be
tested “if!” the two cubes or cylinders samples are tested from the three and if it is failed and the
remaining sample is passed. If the consultant is not satisfied with the result (definitely not!) and
he wishes to test the extra one. It shall be tested in 60 days.

3. Water Permeability test

A water permeability test is one of the tests to determine the durability of concrete. Three
cubes shall be taken from fresh concrete and tested in accordance to the German Standard DIN
1048 at 28 days age. This kind of test shall be taken from substructures concrete elements like
foundations, concrete water tank, retaining wall etc. The frequency of the water permeability test
can be found in this article The Frequency of Various Tests.

4. Rapid Chloride Ion Penetration Test

Like water permeability test, this is also one of the tests to determine the durability of
concrete. Three cubes shall be taken from fresh concrete delivered on site and tested at 28 days
age. The test shall be done in accordance to ASTM C1202-97

5. Water Absorption Test

Here is the other test that would determine the durability of concrete. The three cube sample
shall be taken from the delivered fresh concrete and kept it in the curing tank for 28 days or after
24 hours the concrete sample would be remolded and it will be sent directly to the approved third
23
 party laboratory to ensure its curing. The size of cube sample is 150 mm and tested in accordance
to BS 1881-122.

6. Modulus of elasticity
Modulus of elasticity of concrete is defined as the ratio of stress applied on the concrete to the
respective strain caused. The accurate value of modulus of elasticity of concrete can be determined by
conducting a laboratory test called compression test on a cylindrical concrete specimen. In the test, the
deformation of the specimen with respect to different load variation is analyzed. These observations
produce Stress-Strain graph (load-deflection graph) from which the modulus of elasticity of concrete
is determined.

7. Setting time
The action of changing mixed cement from a fluid state to a solid state is called “Setting of Cement”.

Initial Setting Time is defined as the period elapsing between the time when water is added to the
cement and the time at which the needle of 1 mm square section fails to pierce the test block to a depth of
about 5 mm from the bottom of the mold.
Final Setting Time is defined as the period elapsing between the time when water is added to cement
and the time at which the needle of 1 mm square section with 5 mm diameter attachment makes an
impression on the test block.

24
 EQUIPMENTS USED

Vi Cat apparatus Compression Testing Machine

Slump Cone Fineness modulus

25
 CONCLUSION

As an undergraduate of the AITAM College, we would like to say this training program is
an Excellent opportunity for us to get to ground level and experience the things that we would have
never gained through going straight into a job we are grateful to the AITAM and IVRCL LIMITED
(Hyderabad) for giving us this wonderful opportunity.

The main objective of the internship is to provide an opportunity to undergraduate to identify,

observe and practice how civil engineering is applicable and the real site it is not only to get experience on
technical practices but also to observe management practices and to interact with the field workers. The only
chance that an undergraduate has to have this experience in the industrial training period.

26