ACTUATORS

1. INTRODUCTION
The robot arm can be put to a desired motion of payload, if the actuator modules are fitted into
provide power drives to the system. If the links and joints are considered as the skeleton of the
robot, the actuators act as muscle. They move or rotate the links to change the configuration of
robots. The actuator must have enough power to accelerate and decelerate the links and to carry
the loads. It should be light, economical, accurate, responsive, reliable, and easy to maintain.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTUATING SYSTEMS

The characteristics of the actuators may be used to compare different actuating systems. In
addition to these, depending on the special circumstances in which they will be used, other
characteristics may play a role in the design of robots. Examples include underwater systems,
where waterproof operation of a system is very important, or space systems, where the liftoff
weight and reliability are of absolute importance.

a) Weight, Power-to-Weight Ratio, Operating Pressure

Power-to-weight ratio of an actuator is the power delivered by it compared to its weight. The
weight and the power-to-weight are dependent upon a specific application. The power-to-weight
ratio of electric systems is average. Stepper motors are generally heavier than servomotors for
the same power and thus have a lower power-to-weight ratio. The higher the voltage of an
electric motor, the better power-to-weight ratio it has. Pneumatic cylinders deliver the lowest
power-to-weight ratio.

Hydraulic systems have the highest power-to-weight ratio. However, it is important to realize
that in these systems, the weight is actually composed of two portions. One is the hydraulic
actuator, and the other is the hydraulic power unit. The system's power unit consists of a pump,
which generates the high pressure needed to operate the cylinders and rams, a reservoir, filters,
electric drive motors to drive the pump, cooling units, valves, etc. The actuators' role is only to
move the joints. However, the power unit is normally stationary and located somewhere away
from the robot itself. The power is brought to the robot via an umbilical tether hose. Thus, the
actual power-to-weight ratio of the cylinders is very high for the moving parts. However, the
power unit, which is very heavy, does not move and is not counted in this ratio. If the power
unit must also move with the robot, the total power-to-weight ratio will be much less.

The power that the hydraulic system delivers is also very high, due to high operating pressures.
This may range from 55 psi to 5,000 psi pressures. Pneumatic cylinders normally operate
around 100 to 120 psi. The higher pressures in hydraulic systems mean higher powers, but they
also require higher maintenance, and if a leak occurs, they can become more dangerous.

b) Stiffness vs. Compliance

Stiffness is the resistance of a material against deformation. The stiffer the system, the larger
the load that is needed to deform it. Conversely, the more compliant the system, the easier it
deforms under the load. Stiffness is directly related to the modulus of elasticity of the material.
The modulus of elasticity of fluids is very high. As a result, hydraulic systems are very stiff and
noncompliant. Conversely, pneumatic systems are easily compressed, and, thus, are compliant.

Stiff systems have a more rapid response to changing loads and pressures and are more
accurate. Obviously, if a system is compliant, it can easily deform under changing load or

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changing driving force, and, thus, will be inaccurate. Now consider a robot that is used to
insert an integrated circuit chip into a circuit board. It the system is not stiff enough, the robot
will not be able to push the chip into the board, since the actuator may deform under the
resistive force. On the other hand, if the part and the holes are not perfectly aligned, a stiff
system cannot prevent damage to the robot or the part, whereas a compliant system will
deform and prevent damage. Therefore, although stiffness causes a more responsive and more
accurate system, it also creates a danger if all things are not always perfect. Thus, a working
balance is needed between these two competing characteristics.

c) Use of Reduction Gears

Some systems produce very large forces with short strokes. As a result, there is no need to use
reduction gear trains to increase the torque it produces and to slow it down to manageable
speeds. For this reason, hydraulic actuators which are capable of producing very small
movement can be directly attached to the links, which simplifies the design, reduces the weight
and cost and rotating inertia of joints, reduces backlash, increases the reliability of the system
and also reduces noise. On the other hand, electric motors rotate at high speeds and must be
used in conjunction with reduction gears to increase their torque and to decrease their speed,
as no one would want a robot arm to be rotating at such speeds. This, of course, increases the
cost, number of parts, backlash, inertia of the rotating body, etc.
3. FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR SELECTING DRIVE SYSTEM:
 Low inertia.
 High power to weight ratio.
 Possibility of overload and delivery of impulse torques.
 Capacity to develop high accelerations.
 Wide velocity range.
 High positioning accuracy.
 Good trajectory tracking and positioning accuracy.
 Should operate in high degrees of freedom.
 Should have capacity to withstand high pressure.
 Maintenance of gravitational and acceleration force.

4. TYPES OF ACTUATORS
The various types of actuators available for use in robots are;
1. Pneumatic actuators.
2. Hydraulic actuators.
3. Electric motors.
a. AC servomotor.
b. DC servomotor.
c. Stepper motor.
d. Direct drive electric motors.

4.1 Pneumatic actuators

In the pneumatic drive a source of pressurized air is used to power and drive linear and
rotary cylinders, controlled by manual or electrically controlled solenoid valves. Since the
source of pressurized air is separate from the moving actuators, these systems have lower
inertial loads. However, since pneumatic devices operate at a much lower air pressure, their
power-to-weight ratio is much lower than hydraulic systems.

The major problem with pneumatic devices is that air is compressible, and thus it compresses

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and deforms under load. As a result, pneumatic cylinders are usually only used for insertion
purposes, where the actuator is all the way forward or all the way backward, or they used with
½-degree-of freedom joints that are fully off or fully on. Otherwise, controlling the exact
position of pneumatic cylinders is very difficult. One way to control the displacement of the
pneumatic cylinders is called differential dithering. In this system, the exact location of the
piston is sensed by a feedback sensor such as a linear encoder or potentiometer. This
information is used in a controller that controls the air pressure on the two sides of the cylinder
through a servo valve to control the exact position.

Pneumatic power drive systems use compressed air to move the robot arm. Air is compressed
by an air compressor and then the compressed air is directed through Filter, Regulator and
Lubricator (FRL) units to the hose pipes and then to the pneumatic cylinders through the
directional control valve. For stable supply, air compressor usually pumps air into a storage
tank and from there, it passes through FRL units to the pneumatic cylinder. As the air enters
into the cylinder via the directional control valve, the piston moves on its outward stroke and
when the air is diverted to enter into the other end of the cylinder, the piston makes the
return stroke. The return air is exhausted into the atmosphere. Pneumatic control valve can be
operated by either levers, rollers or solenoids and this can also be pilot operated. Solenoid
controlled valves are most common and they can be operated by micro switches which
energize the solenoids (Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1 Schematic sketch of pneumatic Actuator

Advantages:
1. It is cheapest form of all actuators.
2. Components are readily available and compressed air normally is an already existing
facility in factories.
3. Compressed air can be stored and conveyed easily over long distances.
4. They have few moving parts making them inherently reliable and reducing
maintenance costs.
5. Compressed air is clean, explosion proof and insensitive to temperature fluctuations,
thus useful to many applications.
6. No mechanical transmission is usually required.

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 7. The systems are usually compact.
8. Control is simple e.g., Mechanical stops are often used.
9. Individual components can be easily interconnected.
10. They have a very quick action and response time thus allowing for fast work cycles.
Disadvantages:
1. Pneumatics are not suitable for moving heavy loads and precise control due to the
compressibility of air. This compressibility necessitates the application of more forces
than would normally be necessary to ensure that the actuator is firmly in position
against its stop under loading conditions.
2. If moisture penetrates the units and ferrous metals have been used, then damage to
individual components will result in.
3. If mechanical stops are used, then resetting the system will become slow.

4.2 Hydraulic Actuators

Hydraulic systems and actuators offer a high power-to-weight ratio, large forces al low speeds
(both linear and rotary actuation) compatibility with microprocessor and electronic controls,
and tolerance of extreme hazardous environments. The total force that a linear cylinder can
deliver can be tremendously large for its size. In rotary cylinders, the output is a torque. By
controlling the volume of the fluid going into the cylinder the total displacement can be
controlled and by controlling the rate in which the fluid is sent to the cylinder, the velocity can
be controlled. This is done through a servo valve that controls the volume of the fluid, as well its
rate. However, leakage problems, and high cost and weight of power unit limits its applications.

In a hydraulic actuator, fluid (oil) is pumped from the tank and filtered as shown in figure 4.2. It
then passes through a check valve, accumulator, solenoid-controlled spring centered direction
control valve to the cylinders used for extension of the arm, swing of the shoulder or rotation of
the wrist. The circuit contains a pilot operated relief valve so that the fluid returned to the tank.
The filter separates out any foreign particles that may wear off the hydraulic system elements. It
also filters the dirt that may be present. The accumulator helps the systems to send additional
fluid to the cylinder. If there is a sudden demand for the fluid, then it also acts as a shock
absorber. The pilot operated relief valve maintains the system pressure constant. When the
system pressure increases, it allows the fluid to pass through the central bore of the spool to
open a pilot spool and facilitates the fluid to return to the tank. It eliminates noise and vibration
by streamlining the pulsations of the system pressure and holding the system pressure at the
present value. The check valve allows the hydraulic fluid to flow in only one direction and
restricts the fluid to flow in the reverse direction. The check valve also helps to maintain system
pressure. The direction control valve allows the fluid to enter into the valve from the pump and
then to either the rod end or the blind (head) end of the cylinder by moving the spool to the right
or to the left. A hydraulic power source is generally used for increased payload. It may be used
in hazardous, volatile and explosive environments like a spray-painting booth.

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 Fig. 4.2 Schematic Diagram of a Hydraulic Actuator

Advantages:
1. High efficiency and high power-to-size ratio.
2. Complete and accurate control over speed, position, and direction of actuators are
possible.
3. They generally have a greater load carrying capacity than electric and pneumatic
actuators.
4. No mechanical linkage is required, i.e. a direct drive is obtained with mechanical
simplicity.
5. Self-lubricating and non-corrosive.
6. Due to the presence of an accumulator, which acts as a ‘storage’ device, the system
can meet sudden demands in power.
7. Hydraulic robots are more capable of withstanding shock loads than electric robots.

Disadvantages:
1. Leakage can occur causing a loss in performance and general contamination of the
work area. There is also a high fire risk.
2. The power pack can be noisy, typically about 70 dB or louder if not protected by
acoustic muffler.
3. Servo-control of hydraulic system is complex and is not as widely understood as
electric servo-control.
4. For smaller robots, hydraulic power is usually not feasible economically as the cost of
hydraulic components do not decrease in proportion to size.
5. Change in temperature alters the viscosity of the hydraulic fluid. Sometimes at low
temperature, fluid viscosity will increase possibly causing sluggish movement of the
body.

4.3 Electrical Actuators

When a wire carrying a current is placed within a magnetic field, it experiences a force
normal to the plane formed by the magnetic field and the current. If the wire is attached to a

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center of rotation, the resulting torque will cause it to rotate about the center of rotation.
Changing the direction of the magnetic field or the current causes the wire to continuously
rotate about the center of rotation, as shown in Figure 4.3.

Fig. 4.3 Magnetic field and direction of the force experienced

In practice, to accomplish this change in the current, a set of commutators and brushes are used
for DC motors. The current is electronically switched for DC brushless motors, or AC current
is used for AC motors. This is the basic principle behind all electric motors.

The torque or power output of the motor is a function of the strength of the magnetic fields and
the current in the windings. Some motors have permanent magnets. These motors generate
less heat, since the field is always present and no current is needed to build them. Others have
a soft iron core and windings, where an electric current creates the magnetic field. In this case,
more heat is generated, but when needed, the magnetic field can be varied by changing the
current, whereas in permanent magnet motors, the field is constant. Additionally, under certain
conditions, it is possible that the permanent magnet may get damaged and lose its field
strength. There are many types of electric motors that are used in robotics. Some of these are
discussed below.

Advantages:
1. Widespread availability of power supply.
2. The basic drive element in an electric motor is usually lighter than that for fluid
power.
3. High power conversion efficiency.
4. No pollution of working environment.
5. The accuracy and repeatability of electric power-driven robots are normally better
than the fluid power robots in relation to cost.
6. Being relatively quiet and clean, they are very acceptable environmentally.
7. They are easily maintained and repaired.
8. Structural components can be light weight.
9. Drive system is well suited to electronic control.

Disadvantages:
1. Electrically driven robots often require the incorporation of some sort of mechanical
transmission system.
2. Due to the increased complexity of the transmission system, additional cost is
incurred for their procurement and maintenance.
3. Electric motors are not completely safe. Therefore, they cannot be used in explosive
atmosphere.
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4.3.1 Types of Electrical Drives
The common types of electrical motors are:
a) DC Motor
b) AC Motor
c) Stepper motor
(a) DC Motor
Traditionally, robotics has employed electrically driven DC motors for robots because not only
for their powerful versions available, but they are also easily controllable with relatively simple
electronics.

Fig. 4.4 DC Motor

An electrical actuator (motor) has a stationary part called a stator and a rotating part called the
rotor with an air gap (Fig. 4.4). In a DC machine the field windings are on the stator and
armature windings are on the rotor. In an induction motor, the stator carries a 3-phase winding
which draws a current and sets up a rotating flux pattern with alternate north-south in the air gap
rotating at synchronous speed corresponding to the frequency of the supply and the number of
poles of the motor. The motor runs at speeds below the synchronous speed. The rotating field
induces current in the short-circuited rotor windings or short-circuited conducting bars located at
the slots. The stator and rotor fields will interact and produce the torque. The rotor is placed on
the shaft. In a DC motor brushes and commutator are used. Some large robots utilize field
current control DC motors. i.e., motors in which the torque is controlled by manipulating the
current to the field coils. These motors allow high power output at high speed and can give
good power to weight ratio.

The common types of DC motors are:

(i) Permanent Magnet (PM) DC motor

In the permanent magnet motor, no field coils are used and the magnet produces the field
themselves. In certain permanent magnet coils, wounds are available in order to recharge the
magnet if the strength fails. The field flux being constant, the torque of these motors is directly
proportional to the armature current. The common two types of permanent magnet D.C motor
are shown in Figure 4.5, which are cylindrical and disk type. The cylindrical motor operates in a
similar manner which described earlier where no field coils exist. Disk motor has a large
diameter, short length armature of non-magnetic material. Normally cylindrical motor is used in
Industrial Robot. The excitation power supplies for the field coils are not required and thus
the reliability and efficiency are improved in case of a DC motor.

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 Cylindrical Motor Disk Type Motor

Fig. 4.5 PM DC Motor

(ii) Brushless permanent Magnet DC motors.

A major problem with DC motor is that they need commutator and brushes in order to reverse
the current through each armature coil. Sliding contact with commutators is made with brush as
a consequence sparks jump between the tows and they suffer wear. In order to avoid such
problems, brushless motors have been designed. Brushless motors consist of sequence of the
stator coil and a permanent magnet rotor. A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
experiences a force. With the conventional DC motor, magnet is fixed and the current carrying
conductor is made to move.

Fig. 4.6 Brushless permanent DC motor

The current to the stator coil is electronically switched by transistor in sequence round to
coils, the switching being controlled by the position of the rotor. The DC motors are
weightless, more durable and less expensive. They have reduced rotor inertia and
available with small dimensions with compact power. The absence of brush reduces the
maintenance cost. They have a better heat dissipation; heat being more easily lost from
the stator than rotor. However, the control system for brushless motors is relatively more
expensive.

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(b) AC Motor
Electric AC motors are similar to DC motors, except that the rotor is permanent magnet, the
stator houses the windings, and all commutators and brushes are eliminated. This is possible
because the changing flux is provided by the AC current, not by commutation. As the flux
generated by the AC current changes, the rotor follows it and rotates. The field windings are
placed on the rotor and armature windings are on the stator. The field poles are cylindrical or
non-salient type (Fig. 4.7). The field windings are excited through slip ranges from a DC source.
The machine runs at fixed speed called synchronous speed corresponding to the frequency and
number of poles.

Fig. 4.7 AC motor

Since AC motors can dissipate heat more favorably than DC motors, they can be more
powerful. The AC motors may be of single phase or poly phase. These motors may be of
induction or synchronous type. In robotics, AC motors are not preferred due to the complexity
of speed control.

AC motors have greater advantage over DC motor of being cheaper, more reliable and
maintenance free. Speed control is generally more complex than with DC motors and hence,
a speed-controlled DC drive generally works out cheaper than a speed-controlled AC drive.

(c) Stepper Motor

Stepper motors are versatile, long-lasting, simple motors that can be used in many
applications. In most applications, the stepper motors are used without feedback. This is
because unless a step is missed, a stepper motor steps a known angle each time it is moved.
Thus, its angular position is always known and no feedback is necessary. Unlike regular DC or
AC motors (but similar to brushless DC motors), if connected a stepper motor to power, it
will not rotate. Steppers rotate only when the magnetic field is rotated through its different
windings. In fact, their maximum torque is developed when they do not turn. Even when not
powered, steppers have a residual torque called detent torque. It requires an external torque to
turn a stepper motor. As a result, all stepper motors need a microprocessor or
driver/controller (indexer) circuit for rotation.

Stepper motors come in many different forms and principles of operation. Each type has
certain characteristics unique to it, yielding it appropriate choice for certain applications. Most
stepper motors can be used in different modes by wiring them differently. As with servomotors,
which need feedback circuitry, stepper motors need drive circuitry. Generally, stepper motors
have permanent magnet rotors, while their stators house multiple windings. Let consider a
stepper motor with two coils in its stator and a permanent magnet as its rotor, as shown in

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Figure 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Schematic of a stepper controller

When each of the coils of the stator is energized, the rotor will rotate to align itself with the
stator magnetic field (a). The rotor will stay at this position unless the field rotates. As the
power to the present coil is disrupted and is directed to the next coil, the rotor will rotate
again to align itself with the field in the new position (b). Each rotation is equal to the step
angle, which may vary from 180 degrees to as little as a fraction of a degree, (In this ex-
ample, it is 90°). Next, the first coil will once again be turned on, but in the opposite polarity,
while the second is turned off. This will cause the rotor to rotate another step in the same
direction. The process continues as one coil is turned off and another is turned on. A
sequence of four steps will bring the rotor back to exactly the same state it was at the
beginning of the sequence. Now imagine that at the conclusion of the first step, instead of
turning off one coil and turning on the second coil, that both would be turned on. In that
case, the rotor would only rotate 45° to align itself to the path of least reluctance (Figure
4(c)). Later, if the first coil is turned off while the second remains on, the rotor will rotate
another 45°. This is called half-step operation and includes a sequence of eight movements.

Of course, with the opposite on-off sequence, the rotor will rotate in the opposite direction.
Most industrial steppers run between 1.8 to 7.5 degrees at full stepping. Obviously, to
reduce the size of the steps, the number of poles may be increased. However, there is a
physical limit to how many poles may be used.

The stepper motor converts D.C voltage pulse train into a proportional rotation of the shaft.
The rotation takes place in a discrete way, and hence it is suitable for digital controlled
system. The speed of the stepper motor can be varied by changing the pulse train input rate.
Stepper motors are used extensively in non-industrial robots and robotic devices, as well as in
other devices that are used in conjunction with robots. Since the heat generated in the coils can
easily dissipate through the motor's body, stepper motors are less susceptible to heat damage,
and since there are no brushes or commutators, they have long life too. In different types of
stepper motors, the permanent magnet rotors are different.

Comparison of Actuating Systems:

Hydraulic Electric Pneumatic

 Good for large robots and  Good for all sizes of robots  Many components are
heavy payload usually off-the-shelf
 Highest power/weight ratio  Better control, good for  Reliable components
high precision robots

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  Stiff system, high accuracy,  Higher compliance than  No leaks or sparks
better response hydraulics
 No reduction gear needed  Reduction gears used  Inexpensive and
reduce inertia on the motor simple
 Can work in wide range of  Does not leak, good for  Low pressure
speeds without difficulty clean room compared to
hydraulics
 Can be left in position with-  Reliable, low maintenance  Good for on-off
out any damage applications and for
pick and place
 May leak. Not fit for clean  Can be spark-free. Good  Compliant systems
room applications for explosive environments
 Requires pump, reservoir,  Low stiffness  Noisy systems
motor, hoses, etc.
 Can be expensive and noisy.  Needs reduction gears,  Require air pressure,
Requires maintenance increased backlash, cost, filter, etc.
weight, etc.
 Viscosity of oil changes with  Motor needs braking  Difficult to control
temperature device when not powered. their linear position
Otherwise, the arm will fall.
 Very susceptible to dirt and  Deform under load
other foreign material in oil constantly
 Low compliance  Very low stiffness.
Inaccurate response
 High torque, high pressure,  Lowest power to
large inertia on the actuator weight ratio

4.4 SERVOMOTOR CONTROLLER

A wire carrying a current within a magnetic field will experience a force, which causes it to
move. Similarly, if a wire (conductor) moves within a magnetic field such that it will cross the
field lines, a current will be induced into the conductor. It also means that when the wires of the
windings in a motor are rotating in the magnetic field of the magnets, a current will be
induced in them in the opposite direction of the input current. This current is called back-emf,
and it tends to reduce the effective current of the motor. The faster the motor rotates, the
larger the back-emf is.

As the motor approaches its nominal no-load speed, the back-emf is large enough that the
motor speed will stabilize at the nominal no-load speed with its corresponding effective
current. However, at this nominal speed, the output torque of the motor is essentially zero. If a
load is applied to the motor, it will slow down, resulting in smaller back-emf, larger effective
current, and consequently, a positive net torque. The larger the load, the slower the motor will
rotate in order to develop the larger torque. If the load becomes increasingly larger, there
comes a time when the motor stalls. To be able to develop larger torques without slowing
down the motor, one would have to increase the current (to the rotor, the stator, or both if soft
iron cores are used). In such a case, although the motor rotates at the same speed and the back-
emf is still the same, the larger current will increase the net effective current and, thus, the
torque. By varying the current (or corresponding voltage) the speed-torque balance can be
maintained as desired. This system is called a servomotor. A schematic diagram representing
a servomotor controller where in a sensor sends velocity and position signals to the

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controller, which controls the output velocity and position of the servomotor is presented in
Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9 Schematic of a servomotor controller

A servomotor is a DC, AC, brushless, or even stepper, motor with feedback that can be
controlled to move at a desired speed (and consequently, torque), for a desired angle of
rotation. To do this, a feedback device sends signals to the controller circuit of the servomotor
reporting its angular position and velocity. If as a result of higher loads, the velocity is lower
than desired set value, the current is increased until the speed is equal to the desired value. If
the speed signal shows that the velocity is larger than desired, the current is reduced
accordingly. If position feedback is used as well, the position signal is used to shut off the motor
as the rotor approaches the desired angular position.

5. SELECTION OF MOTORS
In any application, it is necessary to check the available actuators which is suitable or not.
Certain parameters like positioning accuracy, reliability, speed of operation, cost and other
factors may be considered. Electric motors are inherently clean and capable of high precision if
operated properly. Electric motors must have individual controls capable of controlling their
power. In large robots, this requires switching of 10 to 50 amperes at 20 to 100 volts. Current
switching must be done rapidly otherwise there is a large power dissipation in the switching
circuit that will cause it heat excessively. Small electrical motors use simple switching circuits
and are easy to control with the low power circuits. Stepper motors are especially simple for
open-loop operation. Electric motors are preferred at power levels under about 1.5 kW unless
there is a danger due to possible ignition of explosive materials. At ranges between 1-5 kW the
availability of robot in a particular coordinate system with specific characteristics or at lower
cost may determine the decision. Reliability of all types of robot made by reputable
manufactures is sufficiently good. The above mentioned are the common factors considered for
selection of motor.
References:
1. Mikell P. Groover, et. al., “Industrial Robotics, Technology, Programming, and
applications, International Edition,” Mc-Graw Hill.
2. Ramachandran, S. et al., “Robotics”, Air Walk Publications.

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