1

2 Poetic Stuc Y

In this Unit you will focus on the ways in which language is usad in poetry texts. At
the cent; of this study will be the choices that poets make in terms of language, forra
and structure in arder to achieve the effects that they want. In the examination that you
are working towards, the sti,icly of poetry texts will involve looking at tToth linguistic
and literary issues in the texts and understanding the ways that poets use language to
achieve and enhance literary effects and issues.

Whichever text you study and whichever question you choose te answer, you will be
assessed on your ability to:

O use literary and linguistic frameworks and terminclogy to describe key features
of poetry as well as commenting on variation in meaning and forra

o explain and interpret the language of poetry, including sound features:,

vocabulary and meaning, grarnmar and structure as appropriate, showing how it
provides insights hato literary interpretations.
2,1.
The nature of •poetry

Like prose, poetry cannot be neatly categcrized and the question of what exactly
poetry is what it is that marks it out as being different from prose — is a question that
has testad writers, critics,:philosophers and ah concerned with literatura for centurias.
Certainly poets can choose from a whole range of different forms, structures,

techniques ancistyles when writing their poetry. ; They can play with language and
manipuiate it, even invent a 'new language to express their feelings, ideas and
theinselves. Because, generally, the ideas in poems are expressed in fewer words than
are used in prose, the messages or ideas expressed in a poem are sometimes more
difficult to understand than if they were expressed in prose. Also, the poet may be
expressing himself or herself in a unique way — it is more acceptable for the language
of poetry to deviate from generally observed tules. This 'poetic licence' allows poets to
experiment with language, perhaps playing arenad with word arder, or using dialectal
forbs, or using lexical or syntactical patterning to create or reinforce meaning. Of
Course, prose writers can use these techniques Loo, but they will be much more
frequently found in the language of poetry..

Throughout your life you will probably have encountered various kinds of
poetry, at school, coilege, in reaeling for pleasure, on the radio, television, etc.
Basad on your experience write down all the features you can think of that
makes poetry different from other kinds of writing.

Features of poetry
Poetry is an extremely Varied gente in every respect — in content, structure, style,
intention and every other way. Some poems present narratives that tell stories; some
are written to be performed; son-se explore .philosophical, emotional, or spiritual
concepts and ideas; soma are arausing, soma ara sad. In fest, it is probably safe to say
that in ene way or another poetry covers the whole range of human expeliendo and the
': tSC , t3 i, features that it possesses can be many and variad. Poems can rhyme or not, they can
use figurativa language or not, they can be organizad in stanzas or not, they can be
; written in conventional English o; they can break all the rules of grammar. In other
, clryi a„.
evcrds every poem is an individual piece of work with a range of features peculiar to
itself. When you are reading a poem for the first time therefore, it is important to
establish what the poet is saying to the reader —in other words,

to examine
what the purpose of the poem is. Having identified that, you can then go on
how
the poet says whatever it is that he or she wishes to sav.
 2_5. The purpose of poetry
2_
in pcietry, language is used in both poetic and expressive ways to convey meariing, to
the nadar, and the purpose of the poem could be
to serve any one of a wide ranga of funclions. For example, a poem could:

entertain
Ci describe
arouse emoticns
telt a story
provoke thought
inform
console
celebrate
express grief

or any combination of these things.

.0f course the lexis, style, form and other linguistic choices that a poet makes are closely
linked te the purpose of the poem, and all provide useful ches
. as to what the poeta intentions are.

In order to comprehend fully any message that a poem might carry . for us, it is
important to look at the linguistic and stylistic features of the peen. Poeta can draw upen
possible to consider theta ah
many variad linguistic features and it is not l in detall
here. However, there are certain devices and forma that are well worth examining asid
we will look at some of them now.

Manner
The first thin o consider when encountering a poem for the first time jato establish ti
manner n which it is written. Basically the manner can be either formal or in ormal,
depending on the kind of relationship the poet' wants to establish with the reader. Of
formality or informality. Poetry is often
course, there can be •different levels of
associá
.ted with a heightened use of language — the poet generally uses fewer words
than the Prose writer and therefore the language is in a more concentrated form. Not all
poema work on a Iheightened' leve!, however. Some poeta use poetry to mirror the
language of everyday speech to, create a quite different tone.

a.
5 Ton.e, mood and atmosphere
The overall effect that a poem creates in the mind of the reader is very closely linked to
the mood and tone that it creates. The 'voice of the poem can create a certain tone that
conveys to the reader certain messages about the peen itself. Obviously there are many
different kinds of tone.

Think of as many words. as you can to describe tone.

Tone can be difficult to delineate exactly, but there are main, words that can be used to
describe it. This is not an exhaustive list — add any more you have on your own list. It
may help you when you are uncertain as to how to describe a particular tone. (Make
sure you know what all the words mean.) •

Playful 'nonio Asseitive Frivolous Gloomy

Humorous Sarcastic Cynical Cala). ' Heavy
Melancholy Sardonic Dogmatic . Serious Personal
Mocking Light-hearted Dramatic Impersonal Angry
San Philosophical Flat Intimate Wistful
Evaluative Clinical Sharp Solemn Religious
 Just as you might pick up clues as to how a fricad feels through the tone of .3
voice that he or she uses, so you can pick up clues from the 'voice' of the
poen.
The mood of the poem, although closely linked to the tone, is a slightly

different thing — it refers to the atmosphere that the poem creates. Very
often tone and naced are closely linkecl and a certain tone produces a
certain mood:.For example, if a poet uses a lively, humorous tuse it is far
more likely to produce a light atmosphere than a nielancholy ene. In your
--Language and Literature course you will not only need to recognize the
tone, mood and atmosphere of poems but you will also need to examine
the ways in which poeta use language to create their tones, moods and
atmosphere.
2. 6. Form and structure
Form and structure can alsc tell the reader something about the poeta

intentions. The way that the language of the poem is laid out will have been
carefully chosen by the poet to enhance or reflect the meaninw of the poem.
There are many different ways in which poema can be structured, and in
looking at the structure of a particular poem we must ask ourselves why the
poet has chocan to use a particular forra.
Form can refer to the way that the pocas is . actually.written on the paga,

or the way that the Unes are organized or grouued. Basically, poetry can
be divided into general categories. First there is the kind where the Unes
follow en from each other continuously without breaks. Long narrative
The Prelude
poems often take this forra, and poems such as Wordsworth's
or Keats's Lamia. The technical term for this kind pf poetic forra is stichic
poetry.
The other kind of poetry is that where the unes are arranged in groups,
which are sometimes incorrectly called 'verses'. The corxect term for these
groups of Unes is stanzas. This kind of poetic form is called strophic poetry
Eve of St. Agries,
and examples of its use are in poems such as Keats's
Christina Rossetti's An Apple Gathering or Simon Arititage's C.V.
Stanzas can be organized in many different ways. Fiare are some
examples.
2,G.-1. The sonnet

The sonnet is a verjpopular farm in English poetry, and one that poeta have
used for centuries. Basically a sonnet consista of fourteen unes with a
structured rhyme scheme and a deftnite rhythm pattern (usually iambic
pentameter). There are two main kinds of sonnet, the petrarchan or Italian
sonnet (so called because it is named after the medieval Italian write:,
Petrarch). The Petrarchan sonnet divides the fourteen Unes jato an octave
(eight unes) and a sestet (six Unes). The rhyme scheme (see page 54) can vary
cdcdcd. The
but generally the pattern is abbaabba cdecde or abbaabba
octave sets out the tiene or key idea of the poem and the sestet provides
some kind of response to it."
The other main kind of sonnet is the Shakespearean or English sonnet. In
this kind of sonnet the linea are divided jato three quatrains (of four unes
each) and end with a couplet (two limes). The rhyme sclaeme in this kind of
sonnet generally follows the pattern of abab cdcd efef gg,. The teme or idea
is developed through the quatrains.
 Ballads

Ballads date back to the oral tradition of the late Middle Ages and originally were often
set to musi.O. They are poems that tell a story, and therefore the focus tends to be oil
action and dialogue rather than the contemplativo exploration of some kind of theme.
The structure of the bailad normally consists of rhyming quatrains, sometimes using
dialect forma or repetition to create effects.

Z.(4 . 3. Odes

Odes are lyrical poems, often eiaborate, addressed to a particular person or thing or an
abstract idea. They can present straightforward praise or they can develop complex
philosophical ideas, and they can focus on positive or negative feelings with, perhaps,
involved arguments. They are complex poema — the language often refiects the
cornplexity of the content and rnany
.images rna'y be contained within the poem. Odes are generally organized into fairly
long stanzas. In the odes of Keats, for example, the stanzas are usually ten linos long.

Free verse
A final form of verse that we should mention at this poi-it is free verse. Although
modem poeta also write in forms which adhere to strict patterns and forma, some of
which we have already looked at, it is true that in the Twentieth Century there was a
moya towards poetry. that does not have constraints of form, structure, rhyme or
rhythm. Sometimes this ty-pe of verse does not even have regular Unes, and the
fiexibility of free verse allows poets to use language. izi whatever ways seern
appropriate to their purpose, and to
create the effects they desire in their work.
Here is a poem .
written in free verse. Read it carefully.
Tú Women.
. As Far As i'm Concerned
The feelings 1 don't have 1 don't have.
The feelings 1 don't have 1 won't say I have.
The feelings you say you have, you don't have.
The feelings you wouid like us both to have, we neither
of os have.
The feelings people ought to have, they never have.
If people say they've got feelingspyou may be pretty sure
They haven't gol them.
Sol you
want either of os to feel anything al oil
You'd better abandon ah
l ideas of feelings altogether.
D. H. Lawrence
O Free verse does not follow 'any regular syllabic, metrical or rhyming
pattern.
O It tends to follow speech rhythms of language.
O
The une is the basic umt of rhythm.
O Spaces on the page can indicate pauses in the movement of the poern.
2_ Poetic devices'
There are a range of poetic devices and techniques of lanauago use that poeta

can dravir upon in writing their poetry, For the most part tieso techniques,
lile the use qf iringery for exampie-
,re common to all kinds of literary
writing. However, some devices are found only in poetry. Here are some of
the main ones.
 Enjambment

Enjambment is the term used to describe an instance where, because of its - grammatical
structure, verse runs on from one une to another. This can sometimes take the reader by
surprise, as the meaning is not complete at the end of the une. Often, punctuation
elsewhere in the une reinforces the need ,to run on at the end of the une.

2_ End stop

End stop, iri contrast, describes an instance where the grammatical break coincides with
the end of a line. The break is often marked by a punctuation mark, and the meaning of
the Une is complete in itself.

Caesura

A caesura is simply a break or a pause in a lime of verse, but it can be very important in
influencing the rhythm of the poem.

1 never had noticed it until

Twas gone, — the narrow copse,

Edward Thornas

2-.i
Rhythm
Rhythm can be an important element in poetry and some of the earliest poems you
Humpty Dumpty
remember, nursery rhymes such as Hickory, Dickory Dock or
Set on a Wall,
have very strong rhythms. It is these strong rhythms, along with the
sounds of the words themselves and the rhymes, that give them such appeal to young
children.
o
However, the influence of rhythm is not something exclusively reserved for nursery
rhymes — a sense of rhythm can exert a profound infiuence on the overall effect of any
poem. The rhythm can help to create mood and influence the tone and atmosphere oía
poem. It is this rhythm that can give a poem its feeling of 'firiovementi and life, and the
poet can use rhythm to create a whole variety of effects within the poem.

2,8.1 Syllable stress

Poets can create rhythms in.poetry in various ways. Language has natural rhythms built
lato it, which we use autornatically every time we pronounce words. For example, with
syllable and not the
the word Irandomlyr, we naturally stress the first . second. It we
did not do this, the word would sound rather strange. Poets, then, use these natural
stresses and in-built rhythm patterns to contribute. to the overallanythmic effect

2_.E. I. Emphatic stress

Poets Often deliberately place the emphasis on a particular word or part of the word in
order to achieve a particular effect. The stress could be shifted to erhphasize a
particular meaning or reinforce a point, or even change meaning.

Phrasing and punctuation

The rhythrn of poetry, along with other kinds of writing, can be influenced by factors
such as word order, length of phrases or the choice of punctuation marks, lime and
stanza breaks and use of repetition.
a ,8 .CE. Metre

;
Poetic metre is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a lime oí . poetry, and as I
such is very closely linked to the idea of rhythm The concepi originated from the
principies of classical Greek and Latín verse and wag. adopted by English poeta from 1
early times. These principies stated that each; une of verse should follow a precise and
regular pattern in terna of how many syllables it contained and the stress pattern used.
These regular patterns of .stressed and unstressed syliables are called metres. By
analysing the metre, the reader can see how the poet is using the stress patterns within the
language as one of the ways by which the meaning of the poem is conveyed. Variations
in the Dattern could mark changas in mood or tone, or signify a change of direction in the
movement of the poem.

In identifying the metre of a peen, the first thing to do is to establish how the rhythm
pattern is created. Te help do this, the syllables are
- divided up into groups of two or three (depending en the particular pattern). Each
of these groups is called a foot. The number of feet .in a une can var)'.

Here are the main patterns:

One foot . monometer

Two feet dimeter
Three feet trimeter
Four feet tetrameter
Five feet
pentameter
Six feet hexameter
Seven feet heptameter
Eight feet octameter

The process of identifying the metre is called

. scansion. Stressed syllables are
marked while unstressed syllables are marked 'and the feet are divided up
using vertical unes
double vertical line 11 indicates a caesura.
2.9. Lexical choice
The lexical choice (sornetimes referred to as diction) is the decisions about language
that a poet has nade when writing his or her poem. The choices that are nade will
inevitahly be influenced by the complex relationship
.
between the reader and the poet. They will depend en the levet of formality or
informality of the poem, the poet's intentions and the effect that the piece is intended to
have en the readeic. Abstract or concrete nouns can be dhosen depending en the subject
matter of the poem, and mcdifiers can be used to add detail to descriptions of people or
places, te create atmosphere, arouse emotions or express opinions and juclgements.
Verba will be selected to express actions of various kinds, as well as adding to the
message that the poet wishes to convey to the reader.

Of the various aspects considered in lexical choice, probably the most important is a
word's connotations, or the alsociations suggested by a word. This is quite separate
from its denotation, or dictionary- definition. Words can carry with them many
connotations that might bring suggested meanings quite different from the dictionary
definition of the word. Connotations are acquired by woras depending en how they have
been used in the past.

.Look at the following list of words. Although they share a common basic
meaning, they have very differem connotations. Use each of the words in a
sentence, to show the difference in connotation between thern.
cunning; sly; devious; crafty; wily; artful; shifty subtle; guileful.

There are occasions when writers choose words which have the clearest meaning or
denotation, without complicating connotations. It all depends en the saeta that the
writer wishes to achieve words are c'nosen to sui.i the audience and purpose.
Sometimes a writer or poet might choose words that
 are particularly coloquial or particularly formal, according lo context. Sometimes
archaisms are used to give a sense of the past or add a sense of dignitv and solemnity
to the language, or dialect words may be usad to creafe a certain social or regional
atmosphere — for example, as in this poeta .by Simon Armitage, written in the
Yorkshire dialect:

On an Owd Piktcha
(from german)

Int swelterin eet, mongst birds n tbeez,

side cool watter n rushes n reeds,
tChrahst Chahld sithee, born bath taint,
laikin arahnd on tVirgin's knee.

N poorakin its nooas aht o tleaves n tmoss,

already green, tTree o [Cross.

Read Armitage's poem carefully.

1 Try writing a 'Standard English' version of it.

2 What are the differences between the two versions?

3 Why do you think Armitage chose to write this in dialect forro?

Poets can make their lexis very modern by using neologisms (invented words), which
.can add a sense of individuality to the poem. Sometimes a word rnay be citasen
because it is incongruous and doesn't fit in with the ' other lexis. It mayjar or shock the
reader, or defy the reader's expectations.

Look at the following extracts from various poems.

Fill each blank with one word from the selection, and explain why you have
nade your choice.
1 a the spring onions,
She nade this mental note:
You can tell it's lave, the real thing,
When you b of slitting bis throat.
Wendy Cope
a Slicing, decapitating, washing.
b Tnink, talk, dream.

2 On shallow straw, in a glass,

Huddled by empty bowls, they sleep:
No dark, no dam, no b , no grass —
Mam, get us one of them to keep.
Philip Larkin
a transparent, glaring, shadeless
b water, earth, food
 3 It is a beabteous evening, a and free;
The holy time quietas a Nun.•
8reathiess with b ; the broad sun
Is sinking ciown in lis c .
William
Wordsworth
a calm, still, fine .
b prayer, devotion, adoration
c clase, tranquillity, stillness

Now let's have a look at

a complete poeta. This is by Dylan Thomas.
Do not go gentle frito that good night

Do not go gentle loto that good night,

Old age should burn and raye at clase of day;
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.
Though Wise men at their end know dark is right,
Because their words had-forked no lightning they
Do not go gentle loto that good night.
Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright
Their frail deeds might have danced in a green bay
Rase, rage against the dying of the light
Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight,
- And learn, too late, they grieved it on its way, Do not go
gentle intothat good night.
Grave men, near deat'n, who see with blinding sigh
Blind eyes could bine like meteors and be gay,
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.
And you, my father, there on the sad height,
Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray.
'Do not go gentle intó that good night.
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.
.
Dylan Thomas

Read the poem carefully.

1 What effect is Created by the openina stanza?

2 What effects does Thomas create through his choice al lexis (vocabulary)?

3 Rick out any words or phrases that you find particularly striking. What effects do
these create?

4 What overall effect does Thomas create in his poem?

Grammar
Many poets use standard forms ofgraminar, although sometimes t'ne language can be
manipulated to fit the restrictions of a particular poetic form.
 In the following example, Byron uses standard forms of graminar to create a ,
iogical progression that forms the structure of the ,poem.

So We'll Go No More A-Roving

So we'll go no more a-roving
So late into the night,
Though the heart be still as loving,
And the moon be still as bright.
For the sword outwears its sheath,
And the soul wears out the breaste
And the heart must pause to breathe,
And love itself have rest.
Though the night was made for loving,
And the day returns too soon,
Yet we'll go no more a-roving
By the light of the moon.
Lord Byron

In terms of Byron's use of grammar in dais poem, itere are some points you might
note:

the grammatical relationship hetween 'So', which opens the poen and 'Yet',
which begins the closing sequence these signal the movement through the
poen
Ci in unes 3 and 4, worcis that link to these appear, giving us, so, [hong&
still, yet
these words indicate a state or 'sise a question
the unspoken question is: though the heart is still as loving, though the
moon is still as bright, the roving will stop — why?
the second stanza provides,the answer with four parallel exarnples
(sword, soul, heart, love)
the final stanza completes the grammatical and the narrativa sequence,
repeating the key- p'nrases from the opening — the peralte] structure
allowing for boda the repetition and expansion uf the central idea.

,Q.44. Descriptive analysis

Grammatical analysis of a•poem can help to shed light on how the text of the
poeta works. tu order to look at the granular of poetry it is useful to be aware of
the various word classes or 'parts of speechl, as they are sometimesl called. Here is
a list of the key ones to be aware of, although it is not e,xhaustive. They can be
used to describe how the language is working and are sonaetimes referred to as
units of structure.
Word class Examples
Verb rail, said, eat, served, made, went
Noun table, window, book, beautyi, planet, daughter
Adjective happy, small, clean, hard, rnetallic
Adverb swiftly, harshly, probably, soothingly he,
Personal pronoun s'ne, they, it, theirs, his, hers
Indefinite pronoun ányone, someone, everyone, everybody, anything in,
Preposition on, up, beside, after, at, underneath, towards the, a, an
Article
IJemonstrative this, that, those, these
Modal should, could, must, might, can, shall, would how,
Degree word Viry, rather, quite
Quantifier some, every, all

Thinking about what poets are doing with language through describing its grammatical
make-up canihelp you understand just how a particular poem is working.

Some poets might deliberately disrupt our expectations to create their effects, and
sometimes they.go further sil in breaking the conventions of gram.mar. E. E. Cummings
is well known for the unconventional ways un which he uses language in his poerns.
Here is the first stanza from one of his poema. Some of the words have been removed.

a ived in a pretty b town

(with c so floating many bells d )
spring summer autumn winter
he sang his e he danced his f

Fill in the blanks in this stanza choosing words from the appropriate lists.

b c d e f
someone small light din • song, iig
Bill quiet gleaming clown didn't round
She how up bright turn dance
They hot down clamour notes did
anyone sloW chimes clash solo favourite

Now check your version against the original. Here are the words Cummings used:

a anyone b how c up d down e didn't f did

You probably found some or all of these choices rather surprising — not least beceuse
they apparently produce unes that seem nonsensical. This is because Cummings breaks
the grammatical rules for combining the parts of speech or units of structure togethe,r.
In order to see exactly what Cummings
 1-1
has done it is useful tu identify each of the parts of sneech. In the Erst Une of the poeta
this works out as —

pionoun verb preposition article adjective degree word noun

anyone ji ved 111 o pretty how town

One of the problems with this une is Ene use of 'how' in the position that it is in. Cummings
uses a degree word where we would expect to seo another

adjective. In fact that word order of article —> adjective degree word n'aun is not a
combination that is possibie under the miles of English grammar.

Apart from the use of the word 'how', the other problem with this opening Une is the use of the
word 'anyone'. In this context, 'anyone' is an indefinite pronoun. Othenindefinite pronouns such as
'someone or 'it' would fit 'nem and varicias personal pronouns such as 'he', 'she', 'they' would also
make sense. Cummings has clearly .chosen to use none of these but deliberately to

use a word that cuts across the rules of grammar. The-big question is, why? This is a
question that you rnight be in a better position to answer after you have read the whole
poem.

T'ne other words missing from the first stanza pose similar problems. Neither ; 'up' flor 'down' seem
to make sense in the positions they appear in. 'Didn't" and did' sinilarly seem very puzzling, but they
also appear deliberately balanced — 'up/down', 'did/didn't' — as if the poet is, in fent, workingto a
set
of rules. It is just that they are not the normal rules of grammar that we recognize and
understand.
Now haya a look at the whole Domar

anyone liv.éd in a pretty how town

anyone lived in a pretty how town (with up one day anyone diedl guess
so floating many bells down) spring (and noone stooped to kiss his face)
summer autumn winter busy folk buried them side by side
he sang his didn't he danced his did. little by little and was by was

VVomen and men(both little and small) alI by all and deep by deep
cared for anyone not at all and more by more they dream their sleep
they sowed their isn't they reaped their sane sun noone and anyone earth by april
moon stars rajo wish by spirit and if by yes.

chirdren guessed(but only a few

Women andmen(both dong and ding)
and down they forgot as up they grew
summer aUtumn winter spring
autnmpwinter spring summer)
reaped their sowing and went their carne sun
that noone loved him more by more
moon stars rain
when by now and tree and leaf
she laughed his joy she cried his grief E. E. Cummings
bird by snbw and stir by still anyone's any
was ahlto her
Now you have read the whole poem, answer the following questions:
someones married their everyones laughed
1 Does the poet's use of the word 'anyone' mean more to you now in the context of
their cryings and did their dance (sleep wake
the whole poem? How do you think we are meant to interpn 'anyone' and
hope and then)they
domeone'? •
said their nevers they slept their dream
2 How does Cummings use pairings of words such as, 'up/down', 'bid/ didn't'?
stars rain son moon Have you found any more such pairings of opposites?
(and only the snow can begin to explain how
3 How does Cummings make use of repetition in the poem?
children are apt to forget to remember with up so
floating many bells clown) 4 Now write a brief summary of what the poem is about.

5 The key question is why Cummings chooses to break the conventions of

grammar and write his poem in this way..What effects do you think he
achiefves by this?
02.42. Metaphorical devices
Very often the language of poetry is nade more intense through the use of metaPhorical
devices, which can add layets of meaning to a noem beyond the literal sense of the
words on the page. You are likely- to encounter several of these linguistic de-vices in
the poetry you study. You may sometimel see these devices referred to as 'figurative
language' or see individual examples called. figures uf speech. These are blanket terms
used to describe the
.individual features that we will now look at. This kind of language use, in which the
words require en intellectual and/or emotional response beyond their literal meaning, is
also called representational language and the snecific features are callad representational
imagen, features.

Old English poets used a device of figurative language called the 'kenning' which
consisted of a word or phrase made up to identify a particular object or thing witbout
naming it directiy. They had a large selection of kennings for their most frequently used
nouns. For example, instead of 'ocean' they could say 'swan's road' or taming field' or
'realm of monsters', for 'ship' they might say 'sea goer' or 'sea wood', for a 'lord a
'dispenser of rings' or 'treasure giver', for the 'sun', 'candle of the world'.

Look at this poen]. by John Updike.

Winter Ocean

Many-maned scud-thumper, luto

of mala whales, maker of worn wood, shrub-
ruster, sky-mocker, rave!
portly pusher of waves, wind slave.

1 How many kennings can you identify here?

2 What is the effect of the use of kennihgs in this poem?

3 Make up three or tour kennings of your'own.

In this use of kennings, the Old English poets were using a 'dad of imagery to describe
their particular subject. Images can work in several ways in the mind of the reader. For
example, en image can be used literally to describe something, as in Wordsworth's
description of taking a boat out on to the lake at night, as the boat moves forward

leaving behind her still, on either side,

small circles glittering idly in the moon,
Until they meited all into one track
of sparkling lig'nt

Wordsworth, Prelude Bk 1

This creates a literal image as we can picture the scene in our minds from the way 111
which Wordsworth describes it. Non-literal, figurative or representational indagas can
be created when the thing being described is compared to sornething_else. You will
probably already be familiar with the simile, in which the comparison is nade very olear
by the poet using the words 'like' or 'as'. Often the elements being compared are
different in nature, but they come
essentially • together in the poet's perception and
ultimately in the reader's perception. Fiera are some examples of the sirhile in aculen:

Her goodly eyes like Sapphires shining bright

Her cheeks like apples which the sun hath redded,
Her lips Hice cherries charming men to bite.

Edmund Spenser
 The metaphor is another represeutational device that noets often use, and with which
you are familiar. In some ways a metaphor is hice a simile in that it Loo creates a
comparison. However, the comparison is lesa direct than the
the subject as being
sima in that it does not include the terne or 'as', but often describes the
thing to which it is compared. For example, in Simon
Armitage's poem Tfle Anaesthetist he describes the anaesthetist entering the operating theatre:

Hard to.believe him when he trundles in,

Scrubbed upi and squeaky clean, manoeuvering
A handcart of deep-sea diving gear.

,S. rnon Armitage

Of course, Armitage does not literally mean that the anaesthetist enters
metaphorically.
pus'ning a cart piled high with deep-sea diving gear — it is meant
-
The look of the anaesthetist's equipment reminds Armitage of deep-sea diving gear.

Another kind of representational devine freguently used by poets is pezsonification.

This is really a kind of metaphor in which the attributes of a person are given to either
abstract or non-humen things. In this example ftom Wilfred Owen's poeta Futility, the
sun is persoMfiedi

Futility
'Move him into the sun —
Gently its touch awoke Hm once,
AL homo, whispering of fields unsown.
Always it woke hirn, even in Feance,
Until this morning and this snow.
if anything might rouse him now
The kind old sun wiU knovv.

Wilfred Owen

Closely associated with the idea of personification is that of apostrophe. This term
describes a feature where an inanimate thing is addressed as if it were animate, those
absent are addressed as if present, or the dead 'are addressed as if alive. In this
example, John Donne uses apostrophe when he addresses Death as aperson:

Death, be not proud, though some have called thee.

Mighty and dreadful for thou art not so

Two other representational features that you might encounter your poetic studies are
metonymy and synecdoche. IvIetonymy is the figure of speech where the term for .one
thing is substituted forthe term for another thing with which it has become closely
associated. For example, if we say 'The pan is mightier than the sword', then 'pen' ánd
'sword' are metonymies for written, intellectual ideas and military or bruto force,
respectively. If we use tse term 'the Crown' to mean royalty we are similarly using a
metonyrn. A synecdoche is a figure of speech in which part af something is used to
represent the whole. For example, Shakespeare uses this device in the fallowing lime:

Nay, if you read this loe, remember-not

The hand that writ it •

The 'hand' itere means the whole person who wrote the line.
- j,
Another metaphorical device that poets often usa is that of symholism, sometimes
drawing in commonly recognized symbols and sometimes inventing their own. In basic
temas a syrabol is simply a device whereby a word or phrase representa sornething sise
— for example the opinar white could be used to represent peace. Symbolism in poetry
can be very complex, with some poems operating on two levels, the literal and Lite
symbolic. Sometimes in orcler to fully understand the signiEcance of a poem it is
necessary te understand the sy-mbalic importarme of some of the ideas or images used.
Q.{3, Rhetorical techniques
Poets use rhetorical techniques to provide extra effects or meanings for their poems.
These rhetorical techniques fall jato two categories: phonological patierning, through
such devices as alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhyme, and structural patterning, through
the use of parallelism, repetition, antithesis and listing. Let us lave a closer look at these
features.

Phonological features
The term 'phonological will probably have already told -y-ou that diese kinds of features
are to do with sound. Of course, the notion of sound and the repetition of sound is .very
important in poetry and contributes to what is— sometimes called the 'muslo' of the
words. Sometimes a sound or words ' might be repeated simply because the effect created
is pleasing to the ear, but more often the repetition plays an integral part in supporting the
sense and oyeran effect of the poen. Sometimes the repetition =light be of a word, a phrase
or a whole stanza, as in the case of a refrain, but there are many other smaller units of
sound that can be repeated. Here are the key ones that you will come across in your
studies.

Rhyme

Rhyme can make an important contribution to the 'musical quality' of a poem and, like
rhythrn, it affects the sound and the overall effectiveness. The, system of rhyme within a
poem, or rhyme scheme, can inftuence this effect in a variety of ways. The rhyme
scheme could help to unify the poem and draw it together, it could give it an incantatory
quality or add emphasis to particular elements of the lexis (vocabulary). There_ are
various kinds of rhymes and rhyme schemes. The most common rhymes work on the
basis of a rhyme occurring at the end of a line and are called ;complete rhymes', as in
'free' rhyming with 'tree', or 'feel' with 'seal'. Sometimes rhymes occur within the line
itself. These are called interna) rhymes. Coleridge makes use of this kind of rhyme in
The Rime of the Ancient Marine:.

The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,

The furrow followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
loto that silent sea.

In this case, the rhyming of 'blew' and 'flew' stresses these words and adds emphasis to
the image of the ship's speed and movement

A rhyme may appear incornplete or inaccurate in various ways. The vowels may not be
pronounced in the sume way, for example love/move or plough/ rough. These are called
eye rhymes or sight rhymes. Some poets choose deliberately to weaken the force of the
rhyme by making either the consonant or vowel different Wilfred Owen frequently uses
this technique, as here for example:

Like twitching agonies of meo among its brambles

Northward, incessantly, the flickering gunnery rumbles_
Or:

We only know war lasts, rain soaks, and clouds sag stormy Dawn
massing in the east her melancholy army
Attacks once more in ranks on shivering ranks of gray,

This kind of rhyme is called half rhyme, slant rhyme or para-rhyme.

In the sane way that the rhythcc, in a poem often follows a recognized
oattern, so can rhyme. Working out the rhyme scheme is quite a straight-
 iotwardhusMess and is done hy indicarán% lines that riaryme togdner ilrabut í.
giving thein tne sane lettet of the alphabet. Ver example, look at 'the Stst
ranza from Thomas isiardy's The Darkling Thrush:
1 leant upon a coppice gate a
Whrn Frost was spe.ctre-gray
AH Winte.r's dregs made de.solate. a
The weakening eye of day. •
The tangled bine-stems scored the sky e
bike strings of broken lyres
And all mankind that haunted nigh
Had sought thek-household fires

Mere Hardy uses a straightforward

abab cdcd rhyme scheme, where pairs of
alternate lunes rhyme within the stanza. Vareas rhyming patterns are described by
particular ternas. Mere are the main enes.

C011piCtS or rhyrning couplets: pairs of lunes that rhyme together - pairs of

linee that are written in iarnhic pentameter
(sea pagas 32-40) are called heroic couplets

Quatrain: a set of four rhyming limes, usually with a

rhyme scheme abab, abcb, actea, or abba

Sestet: a six-line unit that can rhyme in a variety of

ways, eg ababcc; this can also refer to the
concluding part of an Italian sonnet
Octave: an eightane unit which can be constructed in a
number of ways. It can be formed by linking
two quatrains together (as in Hardy's stanza)
or it can have a rhyme scheme which
integrates all eight Enes. It is also the llame
given to the first eight limes of an Italian
sonnet.

The important thing in looking at the rhyme scheme of a poem,•though, is not spotting
the rhymes or working out the scherne but being able to•identify what effect the rhyme
scheme has on the poem. tu other words you need to be able to explain why the post
has chosen to use language in this particular way, and what the overall effects of those
language choices are. Mere are some of the effects that the use of rhyme might have on
a poem.

It can make a peen sound musical and pleasing to the ear.

It can create a jarring, discordant effect.
It can add emphasis te certain words and give particular words an added
prorninence.
It can act as a unifying influence on the poem, drawing it together through
the rhyme patterns.
It can give the peen a rhythmie, incantatory or ritualistic feel.
It can influence the rnythm of the verse.
It can provide a sense of finality - the rhyming couplet, for example, is often
used to give a sense of 'ending'.
It can exert a suheonscious effect on the reader, drawing together certain wards or
bragas, affecting the sound, or adding emphasis in some way.

Alliteration
Another phonological feature often used by poets is alliteration. This inyolves !
the repetition of the arme consoilant sound, usually at the beginning of:
each word, over two or more words together, as in Shakespeare's lines froml
The Tempest:

Fall fathorn five thy father lies,

Of his bones are coral made:
" OD UeLIOSSV
uonazasme 0 re/7ms asma; e sr azuweossv pamsur s4steu0suOD 30

uv •;oajja in-manad e anargon en spunos laman jo uonnadas am santona/

am sr a/Muesca smeld arnpts!jo aun ssm am m spunos ,o, snoff umasp
:uunnn y 2arg
saspow papoolg-piop 'pm smos2 sawwns

te sasuazo sita sassud sausums 56. en/ jo ael plan asan/al jo uoissaidun

sanoeozdde sagnm pe
t ewouo.e!aodoi
— Sumara nam papas tunos rmp,. Áq !zezpIpsom in alojas a/Godo/aman°
acinosap Lag sas/ou am asm /s'unos zem saldmaxa aiduns ase-,2f/d, SO ,2f -eq,
ru s,a9ppaps3 mog . !aldusexa palea-pan/dos ama e a/ azaH oip Jo atan]
UalITION pleptly
'asatp SEM aD! am 19 190. SEM UD! aqj

punare HE sem aD! atu

iparmoy pue pazeoz pise tajmos8 gua papen 11
punoms e ut saslou asn

G DEJO , spsom asa JO spunos am /sa2gns ,paimog, pun ,pareoz, ',pa/mon?,

punoze 2uspung shaqam am uondpasap am azieoz asojasam pun ddrirs !
•

2unou tprom s'amad .sr !Áam rens/n sn Hank sa lama int al orfdrs2 Gnu/
n/ ;azulan' am Sulzrsanduta 'asan /sor/nadas ;o asn sa/retu dprialop /En asta I
GIOISMÁS'EAUSEM

1 3-?i,"`• aisanneu s.q.leanpn

mur/5 g/ maod e narnm ur Áam am !ÁIsnorngo
Izad nansodun un /luid uno paz-
uo man/ o; samnap resanas nen saod azu, !saonpord n ;paga //mano am
!eznyonzzs s t uraod u sz2norm'Spdga mema
Id" su.6up pue aded.p.uon
zununs so auras asn q-srm spions as.tezari Sunsn so Burjeadoz jo anfnufom ata

paso fallo si (folla/num paueo saumatuos) 2upreaus u so sssandma pisa

anrsunszad pisa creo sprom ro paom e jo uonnadas f,ons! nuaod oip o;
u/remain E sprenunIsom 01 pasn aq L-ED 710 rSaaíqns ars; o; Jamad pue anzoj
maod muss/dor-1 ÁarneN mano ur !xunann aldoms am niapurno s,poo
Zumeaus am saosojmas normadas , :atm
pos/ anny pOii aiNEU 'pos/ aney suogesauaD

astas u sayeaso ;0w m1g.4q2n atu JO SUSII9U0 am 42 ,iocg, jo normadas any

:szr/s arn. ;looro so sa2m /aod am su mama/runa jo

I saos aql SE do >upen lool istals am E>loa]

Ile le 01 0! Sups am

hve ied.wsuaile
za9re/ ;o ummadar atp samonur mq normadas jo tnioj samoue st msgagazad

jo uognadas ami apnpu/ p/noo fl sarnlaaj lannonns ! .urapj @atan ames

Jo asn am so- Migad am jo @main ureux am Zursolum 'spzom rtsasamm 2u/sn
slogads so smotn Sunznaas
UED msr/agered pire uo aislas uaann/aq aofaralm ata ! asan; n/ uaas aq

:se/anexa
magna dan paz/Juan x/s aqT apos premuo 'pramuo

fusganered alup son !op i 11/2p / /uf/ asoqi,

men?, / /Eso asma j ano/ /pu on
7Dorbthy Parker uses a parallel structure in her poeta Resume.
Resume
Razors pain you;
Rivers are clamp;
Acid stains you;
And drugs cause crarnp.
Guns aren't lawful;
Nooses give;
Gas smells awful;
You might as well live.
Dorothy Parker
, S Poetic intention
15. '1 To create a sense of character
How does Chaucer use language to:
1 tell you about the Pardoner's physical appearance?
2 tell you about the Pardoner's character?
Look particularly at Chaucer's choice of lexk, and the metaphcrical and:
rhetorical features he uses.
Antithesis (2 .1(-P, 3)
Antithesis involves contrasting ideas or words balanced against 00 another. Usually
Caere are two groups of words with a parallel syntax R word order) but with a
contrasting or opposite meaning, as for example 1 the phras e:
to live a sinner or to die a saint
or la Alexander Pope'sImitations of Horoce:
'Tis the first,Virtue, \rices 'ro abhor
and the first Wisdom, to be a fool no more.
Poets, like other writers, use language to fulfd various intentions. In atto. poems, of
course, there may be elements of a range of pioetic intention each serving a particular
purpose. Mere ase some possible kinds of pont intentiont
to create a sense of character
to describe or present a scene
to create a particular mood or atmosphere
to experiment or play with language.
Very often poetas fccus on the physical description of a character characters, but
sonaetirnes ethe description moves beyond this surface lev to tell you something about
the inner person. For example, Chance) description of the Pardoner tells us about the
pkysical aspects of ti character, but we also learn sometbing about the linner man from
it. Look the followMg extract.
The Portrait of the Pardoner
(From The General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, Unes 675-706)
This Pardoner hadde heer as yelow as wex,
But smothe it heeng as(dooth a strike of flex;
By ounces henge his Iokkes that he hadde,
And therwith he his shuldres overspradde;
But thynne it lay, by colpons oon and con....
A voys he hadde as smal as hath a goot.
No berd hadde her ne nevere sholde have;
As smothe it was as it were late shave.
I trowe he were a geldyng or a Mire. But
of his craft,,fro Berwyk into Ware Ne was
ther swich another pardoner.
Por in his male has hadde a pilvve-beer,
Which that he seyde was Oure Lady veyi;
He seyde he hadde a gobet of the seyl
That Seint Peter hadde, yvhan that he wente
- Upon the see, til Jhesu Crist hym hente.
He hadde a croys of latoun ful of stones,
And in a glas he hadde pigges bones.
But with thise relikes, whan that he fond
: A povre person dwellynge upon lond,
Upon a day he gat hym moore rnoneye
Than that the person gat in monthes tweye;
And thus, with feyned flaterye and japes,
He made the person and the peple his apea
 To describe or present a scene
Scene setting can be important in' poetry, particularly if the opera.has a narrativa quality
to it or the setting is important. The languaee of the poem may orovide specific details
about a particular place, or the setting could be created sy•mbolically and changes in the
description could sigual changas in mood or tone.

Read The Combe by Edward Thomas.

The Combe

The combe* was ever dark, ancient and dark,

Its mouth is stopped with bramble, t'norn, and briar;
And ho ore scrarnbles over the sliding chalk
By beech and yew and perishing juniper
Down the half precipices oí its sides, with roots

And rabbit holes for steps. The sun of winter,

The moon of summer, and ahl the singing birds
Except the missel-thrUsh that oves juniper,
Are quite shut out. But far more ancient and dark.
The combe looks since they killed the badger'there,
Dug him out and.gave him ro the hounds,
That most ancient Briton of English beasts.

*A valley or hollow on the:sido of a hill.

The setting is an important element in this poem. Examine the ways in which
Thomas uses the language here to set the scene and create a seise of place.

,9 35,5 To create a particular Mood or atmosphere

The creation of atmosphere can be a very important element in poetry. The atmosphere is
often linked very plosely to the mood and tone of the poem. .
Read the poem Discord in.Childhood by D. H. Lawrence.
_
Discord in Childhood

" Outside the house an ash-tree hung its terrible whips, And
at night when the wind rose, the lash of the tree
- Shrieked and slashed the wind, as a ship's Weird
rigging in a storm shrieks hi'deously.

Within the house two voices arose, a slender lash

Whistling she-dehrious rage, and the dreadful sound
Of a male t'nong booming and bruising, until it had drowned The other
voice in a silence of blood, 'neath the noise of the ash.

Make notes on the ways in which Lawrence creates atmosphere in this poem.
You should refer specifically to the following:

physical description
the use of connotations
metaphorical language
phonological and rhetorical patterninc.
Q.15 To experiment or play with language {9
•
We have already looked,at some of the ways in which poets can use language in al'
írinds of ways that cieviate from normal usage. Poetry as a me,dium is very
flexible, and poeta can effectively eonvey their ideas in ah l sorts of ways using
non-standard forma. Look at the foilowing poem by Wencly Cope:

Strugnell in Liverpool
For Allan Cinsb erg, Charlie Parker,.T. 5. Eliot,
Paul tvicCarrney, M'arce! Proust ahd all the
o cher great men who have infiuenced my writing
Waking early
listening to
birdsong watching
the curtains brighten
likeu shirt
washed in Orno
feeling the empty
space beside me
thinking of you
crawling out of
bed searching
for my glasses
piles oí clothing
on the cárpet
none of it yours
alone in the toilet
with the Harpic
and the Andrex
thihking of you
eating my cárnflakes
plastic flowers on
the windowsill gree.n
formical table lovesong
on the radio bacteria
in the drainpipe
thinking of you
going
up
stairs
again
and
getting
dressed
Un ink-
ing
of
you
thinking
of you your pink
nylon panties
and your blue bra
Borly Mist
ha,issmell of Silvikrin
shampoo and your white
nylon panties
thinking of you.

Why do you think Cope uses language in the way she does here? What
effects do you think she wants to achieve, and how does she use language to
achieve it? How successful do you find the poem?
 Checklist of language features in poetry
This list may help you to identify key features, but be aware that not every type of
poetry will contain ah l these features,

Poetic form and structure O Metaphorical language

Form Imagery
Metro Metaphors / similes
Rhythm Symbolisin
Layout Other poetic devices
Structure
O Rhetorical language
O. Register Patterning
Mode Repetition / listing
Manner Parallelism
Field Phonological patterning

Lexis O Poetic intention

Standard / non-standard language To characterize
Connotations ' To set the scene
Modifiers To evoke atmosphere
Nouns Verbs To experiment with language
Collocations

Grarnmar Formal /
informal Standard
Modes / archaic
Dialect form
Sentence structure