Sperling 2004

Urban Transport and the Environment
Environmental Impacts due to Urban Transport

Daniel Sperling Shinya Hanaoka Akira Okada Makoto Okazaki Wolfgang Shade
Masaharu Yagishita
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Wolfgang Shade Masaharu Yagishita . "Environmental Impacts due to Urban Transport"
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CHAPTER3
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS DUE TO

URBAN TRANSPORT
LEAD AUTHOR Daniel Sperling
AUTHORS Shinya Hanaoka Wolfgang Shade

AkiraOkada Daniel Sperling
Makoto Okazaki Masaharu Yagishita
100 Urban Transport and The Environment
KEY MESSAGES
According to the emission inventory analysis of developed countries, road transport

including private cars, trucks and buses is the main contributor to local air pollution.
Transport typically accounts for 20% to 35% of all greenhouse gases in developed
countries, and is the largest source of their growth in most countries and particularly so in
developing countries.
The emission controls that have been enforced in a number of developed countries have
contributed significantly to reducing the emission of air pollutants and have led to
advances in internal-combustion engine technology.
It is necessary to compare the environmental conditions between cities to stimulate policy

developments. There are two approaches for measuring air pollution; estimating the
emissions and monitoring the concentration of pollution in the atmosphere. We need to
develop a set of indicators and a standard measurement method.
Vehicle energy consumption, and hence greenhouse gas emissions, are related to the
travelling preferences of people, urban land use structure, and socio-economic desires.
Therefore, strategic transport policy is essential.
Road transport, railways, and aviation are the principal sources of traffic noise.
International comparisons show that in many countries the noise regulation thresholds
have been set too high. Consequently, regulations cannot effectively prevent the adverse
effects of noise. Technical measures for noise reduction require time to be effective.
Environmental Impacts due to Urban Transport 101
3.11NTRODUCTION
This book deals with the problem of environmental pollution caused by urban transport,
including air and noise pollution in the local environment, together with global warming. Since
urban transport is not the only cause, its contribution to environmental pollution first needs to
be understood and will be discussed in this section.
Vehicles such as private cars, trucks and buses are the main contributors to air pollution
in urban areas, emitting pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
hydrocarbons (HC), particulate matters (PM), benzene, etc. in gaseous and particulate forms,
directly into the air. Many of these undergo chemical reactions in the air, producing other
pollutants such as ozone (see 3.3). In addition, road traffic emits carbon dioxide (C02), which
is a typical greenhouse gas.
Figure 3.1.1 shows an inventory of the major air pollutants and C02 for all emission
sectors, together with the emission category for road traffic in the U.S., where data is widely
available (For details in Europe and Japan, see 3.3). Note that Figure 3.1.1 shows the
contribution rate of each category on a national basis and so does not necessarily correspond
with data based only on urban transport and varies between cities. For a comparison on a city
basis, see 3.4. In the U.S., on-road transport contributes a large share of every air pollutant,
except PM 10. In fact, the contribution of on-road transport to PM 10 in the U.S., is
exceptionally small, especially considering the figures for Europe and Japan, which show
contributions just short of 30%. Also in the case of C0 2emissions, the share contributed by the
total traffic category (on-road transport plus non-road transport) is 31%, with on-road transport
contributing 25% of that.
The inventory of on-road transport differs according to the air pollutant. CO and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are mainly emitted by vehicles run on petrol engines, while NOx is
emitted in large quantities by both petrol and diesel engines, with the latter also emitting
slightly more PM. The differences between the emissions from petrol and diesel engines is due
to their structures (see 3.2). The C02 emission rate of gas vehicles and diesels is generally
defined by the number of vehicles in each country or city, mileages, and fuel efficiency of
engines. In the U.S., petrol vehicles contribute 76% and diesels contribute 24%, which means
that petrol vehicles take a larger share of C0 2 emissions.
Non-Road Transport includes aircraft, ships, rail, etc. In the case of rail, NOx and PM are
emitted by diesel locomotives. In a country like Japan however, only 7.5% of railroad
locomotives are diesel-driven (in 2000) and electric locomotives are generally used (MLIT,
2002). Although the ratio of diesel to electric locomotives may vary, in developed countries
electric locomotives are generally used in urban areas. In addition, the low frequency of rail
services in non-electrified areas, particularly in developing countries, means that the actual
contribution of rail to air pollution, is insignificant. Other modes of transport generally have a
small share in urban areas (except for water carriages and aircrafts in some cities), and
contribute little to the problem of localised air pollution.

The level of C(h emissions by any transport category is related to the amount of energy
consumed. Figure 3.1.2 shows plotted population density and energy intensity for each mode
(private vehicles, buses, subways, and suburban rails), in the world's major cities. It notes that these
calculations are based on operating energy, and do not consider the energy consumption associated
with capital construction or facility maintenance. It indicates that the energy intensity of bus and rail
is lower than that of private vehicles. Comparing rail and buses, indicates that in most cities rail has a
smaller energy intensity. In Tokyo, for example, the energy intensities of rail and bus are one-tenth
and one-third that of private vehicles (see the left of Figure 3.1.3). In Paris, the energy intensity of rail
is one-eighth that of private vehicles. Furthermore, in most cities in developing countries, the average
energy intensity of every mode is below that of developed countries (see the right of Figure 3.1.3).
This is because the number of passengers per vehicle (load factors) in developing countries, is higher
than that of developed countries. In developing countries, the energy intensity of private vehicles is
much higher than that of public transport.
CO !On-::ad
Transport
VOCs
l '"
On-Road
Transport
PMIO l M'
On-Road
Transport
2:
co,
l '"
On-Road
Transport
O"o 20°o
All : Air Pollution j • On-Road Tmn>lX>rt ~ Non-Road Transport 0 Fuel Combustion

I0 Industrial Processing 0 Misccllmk>ous
1111 Industrial D ~ Commercial
J
All: CO, Residential
On-Road fll Light-Duty Gas Vehicles & Motorcvcles 0 Ligh-Dutv Gas Trucks!
D Heavv-Dutv Gas Vehicles B Diesels
- - ----··· -- --- -----
Sources: U.S. EPA (2003a, b).
Figure 3.1.1 Inventory of atmospheric gas in the U.S. (Year of 2000)

~AX
.-BKK .JKI • . .• o--CAI

•
I
BKK 7CAI
! /JKT
X X
150 200 250 300 350

Population Density (personslha)
•Private vehicle ''Bus Subway X Suburban rail

BKK: Bangkok CAl: Cairo JKT: Jakarta LAX: Los Angeles PAR: Paris TYO: Tokyo
Source: Authors made from illTP (2000).
Figure 3.1.2 Energy intensity and population density in cities
Suburban Rail
Bus Private Vehicle
-
Los Angeles ~~~~~~=====::J
London~
' ' ~ '
Berlin F~=====:::J
Paris~
Lyon '-'--------, Santiago
2 3 4
Energv use per Passenger km (MJ/pkm) Energy use per Passenger km (MT/pkm)
Ill Suburban Rail D Subway D Bus Cl Private Vehicle

-·-·· Average Energy use in developed countries
Source: Authors made !rom illTP (2000).

Figure 3.1.3 Energy use per passenger of each mode in representatit>e cities
It can be concluded that road traffic, and automobiles in particular, is the major cause of
localised air pollution and global warming from transport. It follows therefore, that the
development of automobile engine technology is an effective means of improving air quality
(See Section 4.5). There remain however, many problems in this area, such as the trade-off
relationship between NOx suppression and C02 increase (See 3.2). To begin to solve the air
pollution problem, it is essential that appropriate urban transport policies are developed and
implemented which suit the circumstances of individual cities, while at the same time,
promoting advances in technical development (See 3.5).
The relationship between transport and noise pollution is a different one, with not only
automobiles, but also rail and aircraft being major contributors. In urban areas however, road
traffic is still considered the most significant source of noise pollution (See 3.6).
The remaining sections of this chapter will discuss the following: source of emission and
its control, local air environment, international comparisons of air quality, global warming and
noise environment, as environmental problems caused by transport.
3.2 SOURCE OF EMISSIONS
3.2.1 Combustion Engines
Mechanism of combustion engines

Internal-combustion engines include petrol engines, diesel engines, jet engines, gas turbine and
rocket engines. When they are used as the power source for automobiles, the following
qualities are required: output performance, transient performance, dynamics such as drivability,
cost efficiency such as fuel efficiency and maintenance costs, degree of comfort such as noise
and vibration, and reliability. Weight reduction, miniaturization, and effect on the environment
are also important aspects of the design. The engines currently used in standard automobiles
are spark ignition petrol engines and compression ignition diesel engines.
Petrol engines. There are two types of petrol engine. One is the 4-cycle engine that repeats the
processes of gas mixture compression, ignition/combustion, combustion gas expansion,
combustion gas exhaust, and new gas inhalation. The other is the 2-cycle engine that repeats
the processes of gas mixture compression and new gas inhalation, ignition/combustion and new
gas inhalation, combustion gas expansion and new gas compression, combustion gas exhaust
and new gas thrusting (crank chamber compression engine).
Inside the cylinders of a petrol engine, NOx is produced in high concentrations, when the
following conditions are met: (i) a high combustion temperature, (ii) long duration of high
temperature (iii) presence of surplus oxygen. Incomplete combustion in areas of excessive fuel
produces high concentrations of HC and CO. The concentration of HC also increases with higher
air-fuel ratios, because the lowered temperature in parts of the combustion chamber's inner wall,
leads to insufficient combustion of the air-fuel mixture. Figure 3.2.1 shows the relationship
between the concentrations of the compounds NOx, CO and HC, and the air-fuel ratio (excess air
factor: actual air-fuel ratio/theoretical air-fuel ratio). As the generation of these three compounds
is strongly affected by the excess air factor in the cylinders at the time of combustion and with
each showing a different emission tendency, it is quite difficult to control their generation
simultaneously. The fact that the concentration of NOx reaches its maximum level with an excess
air factor of around 1.1-1.2, instead of where the combustion temperature is at its highest, results
from the presence of excess oxygen. The most general system to clean up the exhaust gas from
petrol engines is the catalytic converter rhodium system, which oxidizes or reduces CO, HC and
NOx in the exhaust gas and converts them into C02, H20 and N2•
'~ ,,00
-~
-"'o.
E -
'§ "'000
..... 0 ...
j 10 !.000 2.500
c3 ~ 1.500 800 2.000

,o
.:..:.6 sc. 600 1.500
::0
5
6 -5-
0"
6'4 ~ 400 1.000 z
u
200 500
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Air-Fuel Ratio
Excess Air Factor t/J
0.8 l.O 1.2 1.4 1. 6 Thin
Dense
Mi:-..1ltre Mixture
1.50 !.25 1.0 0.75
ElfuiYalcnt Ratio¢'
Source: JSAE (1997).

Figure 3.2.1 Impacts of air:fuel ratio on engine performance
cmd characteri.~tics of exhaust gas
Diesel engines. In diesel engines, air is compressed to reach a high temperature and then fuel is
injected under high pressure. The atomised and injected fuel is heated and becomes vaporized
to mix with the air and undergo combustion. Unlike petrol engines, there is no need to reduce
the inhaled air and adjust the overall mixture ratio to the ignitable range. Combustion can be
controlled by the amount of fuel injection (injection ratio). The larger the load becomes, the
more fuel is supplied, leading to longer injection and combustion periods.
Although diesel engines have advantages over petrol engines in terms of their thermal
efficiency, COz emissions and efficient use of fossil fuels, their characteristic combustion in a
state of excess air, means that the catalytic converter rhodium cannot be used. Because of this,
diesel engines have until recently emitted large volumes of NOx and particles, contributing
significantly to local air pollution. Major technological advances, in the development of diesel
engines have reduced emissions of NOx and particles to very low levels (Brodrick et a!., 2001 ).
There are two types of diesel engines. One is the direct injection type, where fuel is
directly injected to the combustion chamber via a fuel injection valve. The other is the indirect
injection type, where fuel is injected to a side chamber for ignition and combustion gas is
injected from the side chamber to the main combustion chamber, using its energy to mix fuel
and air. The former is used for large vehicles due to its excellent fuel consumption and
durability, while the latter is used for smaller vehicles. The direct injection type makes a loud
sound because of the rapid combustion, and exhausts a lot of NOx because of the high
combustion temperature.
As combustion inside the cylinder proceeds, the fuel concentration in the air-fuel mixture
ranges from thin to excessively dense, vis-a-vis the theoretical mixture ratio. The complex
behaviour of the air-fuel mixture is further complicated by the wide range in temperatures from
the unburned gas temperature to the adiabatic flame temperature. Also, by constant changes in
fuel distribution and temperature distribution due to turbulent mixing. Although the mechanism
for NOx generation is similar to that of a petrol engine, the rapid premix combustion in which
the fuel vapour and air mixture is combusted at an early stage of the combustion process,
generates much NO •.
The fuel used for diesel engines has a higher boiling point than petrol and areas of
insufficient oxygen tend to appear inside the combustion chamber. This increases the
likelihood of diesel engines producing unburned PM. Reduction of the NO. through an
improved combustion performance can be achieved by either lowering the combustion
temperature or the oxygen concentration in the combustion area, but this leads to an increased
production of PM.
Technological improvement of combustion engines

Internal combustion engines power virtually all motor vehicles. Although the technology has
been commercially available for over 100 years, it continues to undergo substantial
improvements, especially in terms of its environmental performance. The two most commonly
used engines are: (i) spark ignition engines, which are used in most cars and light trucks and
are usually powered by petrol and (ii) compression ignition engines, which are used in most
trucks and buses and are usually powered by diesel fuel.
Spark ignition (Petrol) engines. Since the 1960s, great advances have been made in reducing
the pollution from petrol engines. Emissions of conventional air pollutants have been reduced
by 90 percent or more. Further advances are expected, facilitated by the reformulation of
petroleum fuels and by reducing sulphur levels, in particular, which allows the use of even
more effective pollution control devices. Modem petrol cars have emissions that approach
zero; they are barely measurable.
Achieving improvements in energy efficiency has been more elusive, not because of
limitations in technology, but mainly because of consumer preferences. In the U.S., the average
petrol-powered light duty vehicle sold in the year 2000, had a slightly worse fuel economy than
the average vehicle sold in 2000, but weighed 21% more, had 79% more horsepower, and
accelerated from 0 to 60 miles per hour 26% more quickly, and also offered many more
energy-consuming accessories and capabilities, including 4-wheel drive and air conditioning.
The modern U.S. car is therefore about 30 percent more energy efficient than it was 20 years
ago, even though its fuel economy is no better. Efficiency improvements are continuing to be
made, including the use of lightweight materials and the conversion of mechanical and
hydraulic subsystems to electric. In the European Union, car manufacturers have agreed to a
25% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions per vehicle kilometre, between 1995 and 2008.
Japan revised "The Law Concerning the Rational Use of Energy" in 1998, to include a method
to provide standards with consideration of the best technology (top-runner method). In 1999, a
code based on this law was adopted, requiring automobile manufacturers to reduce fuel
consumption by 20 to 25%, for all classes of automobiles. Of the major car-buying regions,
only the U.S. did not adopt more stringent fuel consumption rules during the 1990s.
Compression ignition (diesel) engines. Diesel engines are commonplace. Freight companies
and bus operators rely almost exclusively on diesel engines to power their trucks and buses.
Indeed, diesel engines continue to increase their market share worldwide, now accounting for
about 40 percent of all roadway fuel consumed. In Europe, diesel cars account for about 1/3 of
sales (compared to less than 1% of cars and 4% of light trucks in the U.S., and about 10% of
cars in Japan) and the share continues to increase. Diesel cars are taking an increasing share of
the market in Europe, because of the lower tax on diesel fuel and also because automakers are
pursuing diesel engines, as their primary strategy to meet the requirement for a 25% reduction
in carbon dioxide emissions.
Newer engines are being fitted with particulate filters that greatly reduce soot emissions,
and are expected to bring particulate levels close to those of petrol engines. However, even
with continuing improvements, diesel engines are expected to continue emitting higher
emissions of NOz.
The controversy over diesel engines is likely to continue and even intensify. In the U.S.,
stronger pollution control rules are hindering the introduction of diesel engines in cars and light
trucks, and disrupting heavy-duty engine manufacturing. But diesel engines are considerably
more energy efficient than petrol engines. Advanced direct injection diesel engines are up to 45
percent more efficient than current petrol engines, and about 20 percent more efficient than
advanced petrol engines. European regulators have set less stringent NO. and particulate
emission standards for diesel cars, relative to petrol cars, in order to encourage their
introduction. The U.S. has not done so, insisting that diesel cars must meet the same emission
standards as petrol cars.
In summary, internal combustion engine technology is still evolving, especially for
diesel engines. Future engines will be even cleaner and more efficient - with improved after
treatment devices, improved engine design and operation, and improved low-sulphur fuels.
Internal combustion engines are here to stay for the foreseeable future, operating mostly on
petroleum fuels. They have compelling advantages that are difficult to replicate with other
propulsion technologies and fuels (see Section 4.5).
Aspect offuel
In order for the engine to be stable and perform reliably for a long period, the quality of the
fuel used is very important. In the case of spark-ignition engines, the following factors are
critical:
1. Antiknock rating (rated by the octane number. Oxygen-containing compounds such
as TBA: tertiary butyl alcohol and methyl tertiary butyl alcohol are used as octane
number increasing agents.)
2. Volatility (Related to startup, warming, acceleration, vapour lock, etc. Rated by

indexes such as 10% distillation temperature, 50% distillation temperature, 90%
distillation temperature, vapour pressure, and vapour-liquid ratio.)
3. Storage stability and corroding potential. In fuels for compression-ignition engines,
various properties including 1) viscosity, 2) pour point, 3) ignition quality (related
to cetane number), 4) volatility, 5) carbon residue, 6) ash, are important.
There is a close relationship between vehicle emissions and the quality of the fuel. In
Japan, pollution caused by lead (added to petrol as an anti-knock agent), attracted a lot of
public attention, resulting in the introduction of low lead petrol in 1970. In 1987, the complete
removal of lead (including from premium petrol) was achieved, before anywhere else in the
world. As lead reduces the effectiveness of the catalytic converter rhodium, its removal
contributed to the widespread use of vehicles equipped with catalytic converters, in subsequent
years. It is also known that the sulphur content of petrol, poisons the catalytic converter
rhodium.
In the case of diesel engines, a reduction in the sulphur content of diesel is required to
reduce PM, to prevent abrasion of the dynamic valves for the recycling of exhaust gas and also
to prevent deterioration of the performance of catalytic converter oxidation.
3.2.2 Emission Control
Since the Clean Air Act was enacted in the U.S. in 1970, emission controls have been enforced
in a number of developed countries including Japan, the U.S. and the European countries. As
discussed in the previous section, such emission controls lead to advances in internal-
combustion engine technology and contribute significantly to reducing the emissions of air
pollutants from automobiles. Since historical development of emission control has already
been described in Section 1.2.2, this section summarises the current circumstances of emission
control mainly in Europe, U.S. and Japan and makes international comparisons.
United Nations
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE) held consultations regarding
the standardisation of automobile technology in European nations according to the Working
Party 29 (WP29) stipulated in 1955. In 1958, experimental procedures were developed in
WP29, to establish standardised regulations related to car production. At the same time, a
uniform exhaust gas testing procedure was created. The WP29 is now known as the World
Forum for Harmonisation of Vehicle Regulations, and in 1998 achieved the Global Agreement
for international cooperation for unifying standards of automobile technology.
Europe
The first emission control in the EU was the directive 70/220/EEC in 1970. Since then, Euro
emission standard 1 and 2 were stipulated by directives 93/59/EC and 96/69/EC, and Euro 3
and 4 standards were stipulated by directive 98/69/EC. The regulative values for Euro1-4
petrol/diesel automobiles are shown in Table 3.2.1. The Euro 2-4 standards specify different
values for petrol automobiles and diesel automobiles. The standards for diesel automobiles
have lower CO values and higher NOx values, whereas petrol-driven automobiles are exempted
from PM emission standard.
The European Commission declares that the five points of contribution to air
composition, technical feasibility, cost efficiency, possibility of applying technical
advancement, and conformity to other purposes, shall be considered when setting up the
standard values for automobile emission control.
United States
Table 3.2.2 shows the passenger vehicle emission control in the U.S. Tier 0 refers to the
emission control stipulated by the 1977 Clean Air Act and Tier 1 refers to the emission control
stipulated by the 1990 Clean Air Act. Tier 2 rules were adopted in 1998 and are scheduled to
take effect in 2004.
The emission control on old automobiles or automobiles with large total running
distances, is tighter in Tier 1 than in Tier 0, as is the regulation on light duty trucks, although at
a less stringent standard value than that for automobiles. Tier 2, in addition to tightening the
standards further, requires light duty trucks (vans, pick up trucks, and sports utility vehicles), to
meet the same standard as cars.
Automobile emission control in the U.S. is regulated by U.S. EPA. In setting up the
emission standard values, the following are considered: (i) four points of effect on health, (ii)
research results related to the exhaust gas, (iii) technical advancement (technical feasibility)
(iv) cost efficiency.
Japan
As described in Chapter 1, emission control in Japan was tightened considerably, by the
enactment from 1975 to 1978, of the Japanese version (Japanese Muskie Act) of the U.S. Clean
Air Act. There was concern at the time, about its possible impact on the automobile industry
(decreased sales due to decreased demand), and the economy as a whole. In fact however, the
effect of the Act on the macro economy was extremely small (Asia-Pacific Region
Environmental Committee, 1991). There was no large-scale change in regulation values for
petrol-driven passenger cars, until regulation was tightened in 2000 (see top Table 3.2.3), in
contrast to diesel passenger vehicles, for which regulations first applied in 1974. It was not
until 2002 that the regulation values changed dramatically (bottom Table 3.2.3), as a result of
recognition of the major health risks associated with PM.
Emission control values are provided by the Air Pollution control Law. The Ministry of
the Environment considers various factors, including the possibility of advances in technical
development, the results of various tests and effects of different measures, health risks and so
on, in deciding the regulation values, under the Law.
Table 3.2.1 Passenger vehicle emission control in Europe
ECmode
2.3 0.15
NewECmode
0.10 l.O 0.08
Note: THC is Total Hydrocarbons and NMHC is Non-Methane Hydrocarbons on Table 3.2.1 - 3.2.3
Diesel-drh·en passenger ,·ebicles (unit: glkm)
Source: Created by author with reference to http:/Avww.dieselnet.com/standards/eu/ld.html

Table 3.2.2 Passenger l'ehicle emission control in tile U.S.

Petrol-drh·en passenger vehicles (unit g/km)
Testing Tail Pipe Emission
Vehicle Requirement
Method TIIC NMHC co NO, PM
Tire 0 ----- 0.256 - -
2.12 0.625 - -
5Ycar/ 0.256 0.156 2.12 0.250 0.050

Tire I 50,0il!lmilcs
LA-I mode
(1996) lOYear/ 0.194 2.62 0375 0.063
For passengers IOO.OilOmilcs
of 12 or fe\\·er
Tirc2 50Jl00miles --- NMOG 2.12 0.031 OJJ06
(Applied in I. A......J. mode. etc. (Ul47
steps since SFTPmodc 120.000miles NMOG 2.62 0.044 OJJ06

2004) 0.056
Diesel-drh·en passenger ,·chicles (unit g/km)

Tc•iing Tail Pipe Emission
Vehicle Requirement
Meti10d THC NMHC co NOx PM
TircO 0.256 2.12 0.625 0.125
5year/ 0.256 0.156 2.12 0.650 0.050
Tire I 50Jl01hnilcs
(1996) lOY ear/ 0.194 2.62 0.781 0.063
For passengers
LA-! mode IOO,Oil!lmilcs
of l~ or tewer
Tire2 50,000miles NMOG 2.12 0.031 0.006
(Applied in 0.047
steps since 120,001hniles NMOG 2.62 0.044 ll.OIJ6
2004) 0.056
~- - - - ----- - - ~-- -- - - -~- ----- ------- -
Source: Created by author with reference to U.S. EPA (2000).
Table 3.2.3 Passenger l'ehicle emission control in Japan

Petrol-driH."R passenger Yehicles (unit glkm)
Diesel-driven passenger vehicles (unit g/km)
Source: Central Environment Council (2002).

Box 6 Age of Freight Vehicles and Emission Control Regulations in Japan
Emission regulations in Japan only applied to newly registered vehicles and there were
still many vehicles in use, which were registered before the PM regulations were enacted.
This reduced the effectiveness of the emission standards and led to new regulations on
vehicles being recently introduced.
The Japanese PM emission regulation for diesel vehicles was enacted in 1993. It
only applied to newly registered vehicles, leaving PM emissions from vehicles already in
service, which perform worse in terms of PM emissions, totally unregulated.
Figure 3.2.2 shows the share of unregulated diesel vehicles for freight transport in
Japan, in 2002. The share of vehicles in use, which were registered before the regulations
applied was still more than 40%, indicating that emission control regulations take a
considerable time to become fully effective.
As a countermeasure, the "Automobile NOJPM Act" (see Section 5.14 Nagoya)
and ordinances by local governments in the national capital region were enacted in 2002
and 2003 respectively. The ordinances apply to all freight diesel trucks operating inside
the selected metropolitan areas. In Tokyo, the ordinance obliges truck operators to renew
or attach devices to their vehicles, so that they meet the required emission standard. The
Tokyo government inspects the vehicles through a video-tracking and a licence plate
matching system. Operators who violate the ordinance will receive restriction orders
regarding road use inside the area and a financial penalty of up to 500 thousand yen.
-1984
1990-92
22%
Souce: Engineering and Safety Department,

Road Bureau, MLIT (2003).
Figure 3.2.2 Share offreight vehicles by

registered year 2002
Asia/Pacific region
Many countries of the Asia/Pacific region, do not develop emission control regulations of their
own, but adopt those of other countries. Figure 3.2.3 shows that many have opted for the EU's
gas emission standard, Euro1, with the exception of Taiwan which in 1999, adopted the
American gas emission standard, Tier 1.
Figure 3.2.3 Passenger vehicle emission regulation in Asian countries

Notes: Italic~ proposed; • Four cities: **Euro 3 in 7 megacities.

Source: Created by author with reference to ADB (No date).
3.3 LOCAL AIR ENVIRONMENT
3.3.1 Effect of Air Pollutants
What are air pollutants?

Air pollution comes from two sources: natural and anthropogenic. Natural sources include
volcanic emissions, forest fires, pollen scattering, dust scattering by the wind, sea salt particles,
and subsidence of ozone from the strato to the troposphere, etc. Human pollution generating
activities (social & economic) are known as anthropogenic sources, which can be divided into
stationary and mobile sources. Stationary sources include (i) fossil fuel combustion processes
in business activities, such as plant and thermal power generation, (ii) production or storage
processes that handle raw materials or chemical substances, and (iii) waste processing. Mobile
sources include automobiles, ships, aircrafts, etc. In general, air pollution refers to pollution
caused by anthropogenic sources and not natural sources.
Sulphur oxides (SOz, S03), nitrogen oxides (NOx: NO consists approximately 90% and
NOz approximately 10% for general combustion sources), smoke, dust, harmful substances
{cadmium, lead, fluorine, organochlorine solvents, etc.), and hydrocarbons (HC), are examples
of pollutants generated from stationary sources. Automobiles, which are the most important
mobile source, emit three exhaust gases: (i) exhaust gas from the exhaust system (largest
percentage), (ii) fuel vapour gas from the fuel supply system, and (iii) blow-by gas from the
engine crank case.
Table 3.3.1 Classification of air pollutants by EEA
Air Acidifying Tropospheric Ozone

Pollutant Substances Precursors Particulates
so,
NOx •• • •••
NH,
NMVOC • ••
co
CH,
PMIO
• •
Source: EEA (2002a).
Types of air pollutant and their impact

In many developed countries, the concentration of air pollutants such as S02, NO., CO, PM,
ozone (OJ), heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and volatile hydrocarbons
(VHC), are monitored constantly or at regular intervals. (WHO, 2000).
The EEA (European Environmental Agency) uses the following indicators: acidifying
substances, tropospheric ozone precursors, and particulates to assess the quality of the
atmospheric environment. Related substances are classified according to their effect and not by
type, as shown in Table 3.3.1.
The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) in the U.S., regards SOz, NOx, PM, CO,
OJ and lead (Pb), as the six principal air pollutants (U.S. EPA, No date b), as does the
international community at large. Their impact on the human body is outlined below.
Sulphur dioxide (SOl). S02 is produced when the sulphur content of fossil fuels, such as coal
and oil, is oxidised by burning. Sulphur also exists in light oil, the fuel used in diesel
automobiles and ships {heavy oil and light oil). S02 can cause acute or chronic respiratory
disease (asthma, chronic bronchitis and vesicular emphysema, etc.). When S02 is present along
with PM, acute abnormalities are observed. Such abnormalities are judged to be the result of
mixed exposure. S02 remains in the air for a long time allowing it to be carried long distances
and affect large areas, in the form of acidic deposition.
Nitrogen oxides (NO,J. When a fossil fuel, such as coal or oil, is burned, NO is generated
through oxidation of the nitrogen content in the air (thermal NOx) and the nitrogen content
within the fuel. The NOx emitted by vehicles usually takes the form of NO, a fairly large
proportion of which changes to nitrogen dioxide (N0 2), as it reacts with the oxygen in the air
to achieve equilibrium, with the involvement of sunlight and OJ. The environmental standard is
thus set for N0 2, while monitoring at source is conducted for NOx. As well as being toxic, NOx
cause acid deposition and photochemical air pollution. Since they do not dissolve easily in
water, they can penetrate deep into the bronchial tubules. They also reduce the body's
resistance to bacteria. Epidemiological studies show a positive correlation between NO,
concentrations and the numbers of people suffering from continual coughs and phlegm.
Particulate matters (PM). PM is the generic term for air pollutants, existing as solid or liquid
particles. Aerosols, suspended dust particles, dust, mist, etc. all fall into this category. Among
these, particles (suspended dust and aerosols, etc.) of 10 mm or less in size and suspended in
the air, are called (suspended) particulate matter (PM-10). Artificial as well as natural sources
exist. Primary particles are discharged directly from the source, whereas secondary particles
are produced when substances which were gaseous at the time of discharge, become particles
in the air (eg. NO. and S0 2) or become condensed into dust. PM cause obstruction to vision
and damage buildings and clothes. PM also have adverse effects on the respiratory organs, due
to being deposited into the lungs and bronchial tubes when coexisting with gaseous air
pollutants. Carcinogens (asbestos, etc.) and toxic substances (mercury, etc.) may be present in
PM. Carbon is the main component of particles contained in smoke and soot (produced by the
incomplete combustion of coal or oil) and of exhaust gases from diesel engines. The particles,
with a diameter of 2.5 mm or less, deposit themselves deep inside the alveoli. Since many
harmful substances from the same sources, attach themselves to these particles, they are
considered more harmful to human health, than larger PM-10 particles. The EPA of the U.S. is
currently considering whether to use this PM-2.5, as its new environmental standard.
Carbon monoxide (CO). CO is a highly toxic substance, produced by the incomplete

combustion of carbons contained in fuel and exhaust gas from vehicles. It combines with the
haemoglobin in the blood and disrupts the transport of oxygen around the body. It has a
negative impact on health, resulting in symptoms such as headaches and dizziness. In the air, it
prolongs the life of the greenhouse gas, methane.
Ozone (OJ). When primary pollutants, mainly consisting of NO. and HC, undergo
photochemical reactions in the air, photochemical oxidants (Ox) are produced. Most Ox is in
the form of OJ. OJ causes photochemical smog and due to its strong oxidising power has
adverse effects on the eyes, throat and respiratory organs. The level of OJ tends to be high in
the summer, because of the strong sunlight. The most common complaint or subjective
symptom is irritation of the eyes and this is considered to be the most sensitive indicator for the
presence of OJ.
Lead (Pb). Pb is a heavy metal which accumulates in the human body. It is toxic and when
large amounts find their way into the human body, acute poisoning results leading to possible
death, after severe stomachache and vomiting. Small amounts of Pb accumulating in the body
over a long time, cause loss of appetite, constipation and stomach ache.
Other toxic chemicals existing in the atmosphere include benzene, trichloroethylene, and
tetrachloroethylene. It is believed that long-term exposure to even small concentrations of these
substances, may adversely affect human health and as such they are known as Hazardous Air
Pollutants (HAPs). The EPA in the U.S., classes 188 substances and Japan's Ministry of
Environment 234 substances, as HAPs. The EPA classifies pollutants from moving sources
(mainly automobiles) as MSATs (Mobile Source Air Toxics) (U.S. EPA, 2001) and identifies
21 such chemicals, as shown in Table 3.3.2.
Table 3.3.2 List of mobile source air toxics (MSATs)
Diesel PM + diesel organic gas (DPM +

Acetaldehyde MTBE
DEOG)
Acrolein Ethyl benzene Naphthalene
Axsenides Fonnaldehyde Nickel compounds
Benzene n-hexane Polycyclic organic substances

I ,3-butadiene Lead compounds Styrene
Chromium compounds Manganese compounds Toluene
Dioxins/furans Mercury compounds Xylene
Source: U.S. EPA (2001 ).
The main adverse effects of air pollution on plants, is the visible damage to leaves,
caused by the destruction of leaf cells. S02 and hydrogen fluoride (HF) can destroy whole
forests and lead to poor growth and harvests of agricultural produce. Air pollution does not
only affect living things, but also damages man-made products, such as metal materials and
cultural assets. SOx for example, can cause major damage to steel and stone, while OJ
adversely affects high molecular organic materials.
Box 7 Air Pollution in Kathmandu Valley Takes its Toll on Tourism Industry
Kathmandu Valley, Nepal's administrative capital and a home to as many as seven

World Heritage sites of cultural, artistic and architectural importance, was once a
"tourist's paradise" with a pristine environment and a majestic view of giant Himalayas
in the north. The worsening air quality of the Valley primarily due to rapidly increasing
vehicular traffic gradually changed that image. Tourists discouraged by high levels of
pollution, shortened their stay and shared the experience to others. Besides, reporting by
domestic and international media on the problem of air pollution in Kathmandu had a
significant negative impact on tourism. As a result, Nepal's tourism industry, which is
the most important source of foreign exchange, suffered significantly. A study estimated
an annual loss of approximately U.S.$ 6 million in tourism revenue due to air pollution in
Kathmandu Valley (World Bank, 1997b). Responding to a survey conducted during
May-June 2001, departing tourists revealed that the most important measure to promote
tourism in Nepal would be to improve Kathmandu's air quality (Business Age, 2001).
As a result, it is now much easier for the residents of Kathmandu to realise that the dirty
air is responsible not only for occasional health problems but also for inflicting a more serious
"hand-to-mouth" problem. Fortunately, the visibly direct impact on the livelihood of the Valley
population contnbuted to the heightened public awareness and unwavering commitment to
address the air pollution issue. Kathmandu's nature-loving residents are hopeful that the strict
implementation of policy measures will help to restore the good old image of the Valley.
Air quality standards

Environmental standards exist for all the major air pollutants, but the standards differ between
countries.
The WHO issued the Air Quality Guidelines for Europe in 1987 and distributed it to all
European countries. The standard values set, were based on the results of epidemiological and
toxicological research, carried out in Europe and North America. It was decided however that
applying these standard values to all countries and to developing countries in particular, where
the climatic conditions are so different, was not reasonable. The guideline was hence revised to
make it internationally applicable and was issued in 1997, as the Air Quality Guidelines (WHO,
2000).
The EU standard is based on the guideline provided by the European Bureau of WHO,
and sets values at levels considered to have no harmful effect on human health. The aim of
providing this guideline is to inform EU member governments' decisions, in setting
environmental standards and not to monitor its application in individual countries. In setting
standard values, governments take account of factors such as exposure of residents, climatic
conditions, plant/animal species and their habitats, historical heritage, economical/technical
feasibility, and the generation of secondary pollutants.
In the U.S., state governments are obliged to develop and disclose plans to achieve the
goal of air quality (U.S. EPA, No date c). There are two standards in U.S. The Primary
Standards "set limits to protect public health, including the health of 'sensitive' populations
such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly," while the Secondary Standards "set limits to
protect public welfare, including protection against decreased visibility, damage to animals,
crops, vegetation, and buildings."
The Japanese environmental standard related to the atmosphere, is set as "the standard
required to be maintained to protect human health." (Shibata et al., 1995).
Table 3.3.3 shows a summary of environmental standard values for major air pollutants
by the WHO, the U.S., and Japan. In developed countries, atmospheric standards are also
provided for ammonia, benzene, and dioxins. The environmental standard for a pollutant is
based on one or more of the following time periods: annual average, 24-hour value, 8-hour
value, and 1-hour value, depending on how it affects human health. For example, the 1-hour
value is used as the standard value in many cases for S0 2, 0 3 and CO, because they cause
acute symptoms. Differences between standard values reflect the circumstances of the country.
It should also be noted that comparisons based solely on numerical values cannot be made,
since the statistical processing methods for environmental standards vary between countries.
Table 3.3.3 Environmental standards of WHO, Japan, U.S. and Europe
Standard Value
Pollutant Countrv Annual 24 hour 8 hour l hour
ppm ~g/m3 ppm ~gJm3 ppm ~Lg/m 3 ppm ~gim'
WHO 511 125
so, us om 80 11.14 365 11.5 2
131111 '
Japan 11.04 11.1
WllO ¥1 21111
NO, us 11.1153 lOll
Japan II 114-0116
Wl!O
PMlO us 50 1511
Japan IIIII 21111
WIIO 1211
Ozone U.S. lUIS 157 11.12 235
Japan*3 11116
WHO Ill 311
co* 1 us 9 Ill 35 40
Japan 10 20
WllO 0.5
Ph IJ.S. *; 1.5
Japan
Notes:
*l In the US., only primary standards are used for SO, and CO while both primary and secondary·
standards are used for other pollutants.
*2 3-hour mean value.
*3 Japan classifies not only ozone but also photochemical oxidants (Ox) as air pollutants.
*4 mg/m3 for CO only.
*5 Quarterly mean value.
Sources: WHO (2000); U.S. EPA (No date); MOE (No date).
3.3.2 Mechanisms for the Localised Effects of Pollutants on Air Quality
Air pollutants emitted from sources such as automobiles, spread due to the effects of
geography and weather while undergoing chemical reactions (depending on the pollutant), to
finally reach humans, animals, plants and man-made features, where they have adverse effects.
This section divides the mechanism of air pollution damage into the stages of (i) emission, (ii)
chemical reaction and diffusion, and (iii) measurement of concentrations. For each stage, it
describes the system, the methodological outline, and the relationship to the transport sector.
Emissions of air pollutants

Estimation of emissions from vehicles. As described previously, air pollutant sources are
divided into stationary sources, such as plants and mobile sources mainly consisting of
automobiles. Emission levels for each are estimated, based on the methodology devised for the
particular source. Such methodology is usually developed into manuals, like the Inventory
Guidebook (EEA, 2002b). This section uses Japan as an example and summarises its
methodology for estimating pollutant emission levels.
The emission from automobiles is estimated by calculating the emission factor and
multiplying it by its running distance. Factors affecting the emission of pollutants from
vehicles are (i) type of vehicle (model, relevant year for emission control and emission control
method, etc.), (ii) weight (vehicle weight and load), (iii) travelling conditions (idling,
deceleration/acceleration and slow speed), (iv) road structure (surface and gradient of) and (v)
age and condition of the vehicle. When determining the emission factor however, it is not
practical to take account of all of these factors in detail. According! y, the typical travelling
mode in a local area is firstly established, by use of a survey and the chassis dynamometer test
and engine dynamometer test are conducted for each type and relevant year for emission
control, etc. of the vehicles to establish the unit emission. The emission factor is calculated by
the weight average of such a unit with the vehicle composition ratio.
Several test modes are used to measure the volume of exhaust gas and fuel efficiency in
Japan. For passenger cars, the 10-15 mode (average travelling pattern in urban areas) and the
11 mode (average travelling pattern heading towards the city centre after a cold start) are used.
For heavy vehicles of which the total weight exceeds 2.5 tons, either the diesel 13 mode or the
petrol/LPC13 mode are used. All of these modes are recognised as typical travelling conditions
in Japan from the macroscopic viewpoint. Strictly speaking, when a specific area is targeted for
analysis, the difference in real travelling conditions becomes problematic.
Average travel speed, including stop time is usually used as a variable of the emission
factor which reflects travelling conditions. Figure 3.3.1 shows an example of Emission -
Velocity (speed) Curve of carbon monoxide. When vehicles are running in urban areas,
average travel speed slows down for more stop and goes, so that emission factor is increasing.
However, the emission factor also gradually increases on high speed travelling. The curve is
generally drawn with the minimum value at around 60 km/hr.
• 4 cycle gasoline
co
-Small & middle size diesd
lll 20 _,() 40 50 60 70
Speed (km/hr)
Figure 3.3.1 Emission- velocity (speed) curve of carbon monoxide
Box 8 Emission Factors for Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine Vehicles in Tokyo
Table 3.3.4 compares the emission levels of various pollutants under average travelling
conditions in Tokyo (average speed: 18.2 km/hour) in 1997. Ratio against passenger
vehicle is in brackets. In the case of larger and heavier vehicles, there is an increase in
emissions and this tendency is particularly noticeable with NO. and PM. When the total
emission of a petrol engine passenger vehicle is given the value of 1, one 10 ton truck
emits NOx equivalent to that emitted by 31 petrol engine passenger vehicles. The figure
increases to the equivalent of 55 petrol engine passenger vehicles in the case of PM. The
emission of CO is low in the case of diesel engine vehicles and a 10 ton diesel truck
emits a similar quantity of CO to a petrol engine passenger vehicle. In the case of HC, as
its emission by petrol engine vehicles is extremely low, its emission rate by a 10 ton
truck becomes relatively high. However, the volume of HC emitted by a 10 ton diesel
truck is not much higher than a heavy petrol engine vehicle
Table 3.3.4 Emission levels ofpollutants of vehicle types
~·~~ (~~~~~
NOx
co
1.11 ! (5 sJ!Js6 , (9.8)1
o.5o5 ku-1 l I o.656l(S4.7ll
Source: Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center (1998).
Inventory of air pollutants

An inventory of air pollutants according to their source (called emission inventory hereafter), is
produced by all developed countries. Here, the inventories are summarised for each of Japan,
the U.S. and Europe. In the transport sector, automobiles are the main contributors to the
emission of air pollutants. Figure. 3.3.2 shows that air pollutants with large contributions from
automobiles are CO, NO., VOC, and PM, although their quantities may vary between countries
and cities. With the exception of CO whose level is below the atmospheric environmental
standard in most of the developed countries, the concentrations of all other pollutants are still
at seriously high levels. Reducing road traffic is extremely important in combating air
pollution.
United States. In the U.S., the EPA estimates the national emission level of air pollutants. The
measured concentrations for each pollutant, are compared to its Summary Report (U.S. EPA,
2002). The emission volume is made up of that emitted by fuel combustion, industrial
processing, transportation and others. The transport sector is, in fact, divided into on-road
vehicles and non-road engines and vehicles. On-road vehicles include lightweight vehicles,
lightweight trucks, heavyweight vehicles, medium weight passenger cars and motorcycles.
Non-road engines and vehicles include not only airplanes, ships and railway engines, but also
recreational engines and vehicles, construction equipment/vehicles, airport equipment/vehicles,
railway maintenance equipment and recreational ships. The EPA also estimates the emission
volumes of VOC and ammonia, in addition to the six main pollutants (S02, N02, 03, PM, CO
and lead).
Figure 3.3.2 summarises the emission trends from 1990 to the present day, for each of
the major air pollutants. Among these, the contribution rate by road traffic is high for CO 62 %,
NOx 37%, and VOC 27 % (based on the 2001 rates). The U.S. on the other hand, has very low
contribution rates by the road traffic sector, for PM. It is characteristic of the U.S., that the
contribution by fuel combustion and industrial processing, is larger than that of road traffic.
Although levels of NOx have tended to decrease since 1997, the rate of contribution from the
road traffic sector has not changed great! y. In contrast, it is evident that reducing road traffic
emissions, has led to a reduction in the total emission levels of CO and VOC.
Europe. The EEA has summarised the emission trend and inventory for major air pollutants
(S02, NOx, NH3, NMVOC, CO, and PM10) based on the data collected from EU member
countries (EEA, 2002a). As shown in Figure 3.3.3, the air pollutants with large contributions
from the road traffic sector are NOx, NMVOC, CO, and PM10. Figure 3.3.4 shows with the
exception of NH3, that the levels of these pollutants have decreased over the past 10 years.
The reduction rate from 1990 to 1999 in Table 3.3.5, shows that this reduction is largely due to
the road traffic sector. The reason why emission levels of air pollutants have decreased, while
the vehicle-km for automobiles and ton-km for trucks continue to increase, is due to advances
in technology, such as catalysts. As described in Section 3.2.2, such technology has developed
against a background of strict emission regulation. Unlike the problem of global warming, it
clearly shows that reduction is possible to some degree by technical development.
Japan. In Japan, estimates of emission levels are established by local public bodies. In
metropolitan areas in particular, where "the Act concerning Special Measures for the Volume
Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides and Particulate Matter Emitted by Automobiles in Designated
Areas" applies (see Section 5.14 Nagoya), the NOx inventory is estimated at regular intervals
(every few years). Table 3.3.6 shows an inventory of NOx, for 1997. While regions with
seafront industries such as Chiba, Hyogo and Mie Prefectures have high rates of contribution
by plants and businesses, the rate of contribution by automobiles is high in other regions,
especially Tokyo and Osaka, where it exceeds 50%.
Figure 3.3.5 provides a breakdown of the 2000 emission inventory for several air
pollutants within the automobile sector, for the whole of Japan. The largest source of CO is
petrol-driven cars, contributing approximately 80% of the total. Diesel cars contribute
approximately 80% of the share for NOx, as well as approximately 60% of the HC emissions.
As regards PM10, 100% is emitted by diesel cars. The Japanese Ministry of Environment,
realistically assumes that ash and unbumt combustible material are discharged by petrol engine
combustion as PMlO, resulting in a 0% estimate for petrol cars. Since NOx and PM seriously
pollute urban areas and diesel cars and trucks contribute large shares of these pollutants in
Japan, regulations against diesel vehicles are enforced as a means of regulating the source.
Carbon Monoxide Emi:illuus

180 30
'"' 160
~ 25
"
.s 140 .s
t:
0 120
l 20
~
100
~" ~" 15
g 80
g
60 10
00
:a
-~" 4() -~
·e 20 "§
'"'" 0 '"'"
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 ()() 01
Year Year
25
30
25 ~ 20
.s" .s
t:
0 20 ~
~ ~ 15
~" 15 ~"
g
10
§w
:a I'!
·~ ·~
s ·§
'"'" '"'"
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 !XI 01
Year Year
6
00 00
.s" .s"
t: t:
0 0
~ ~ 4
"
.8
:=:
g
6 a"
g
00 00
4 2
-~" -~"
·a 2 a
'"'" '"'" 0
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 (I() 01
Year Year
•On·Road DNon·Road ~ Industrial Processing ill Fuel Combustion

D Miscellaneous
Source: U.S. EPA (2003a).
Figure 3.3.2 Trends in emission inventory of major air pollutants in the U.S.
• Road transport ~ Other transport D Energy Industries D Industry • Agriculture

II Solvent and other product use D Other
Source: EEA(2002a).
Figure 3.3.3 Emission inventory of major air pollutants in Europe
100
0 80
s:
... Ammonia
0
II
"':0:
..."'
60 -- Nitrogen Oxides
NMVOC
Carbon Monoxide
""'.5 •••
-
Particulate Matter (PM 10)
40
Sulphur Dioxide
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year
Figure 3.3.4 Transition in emission of major air pollutants in Europe (1990= 100)
Table 3.3. 5 Reduction rate of major air pollutants in Europe

from 1990 to 1999
Note: *Though this may seem like an abnormal value, it is a copy ofEEA's data.
D Gasoline car IZI Gasoline truck D Gasoline others • Diesel car

D Diesel truck !] Diesel others
Source: Environmental Council (2002).

Figure 3.3.5 Emission inventory of automobile sector sources in Japan (2000)
Table 3.3.6 NOx emission levels in Japanese metropolitan areas

(1997, ton/year)
Mobile
Sources Construction
Machinery
/Ships/Airciafts
Source: Ministry of Environment (2003).

Box 9 Atmospheric Pollution Caused by the Use of Spike Tyres in Japan
In cold regions, where snow piles up, cars are an important means of transport from the
viewpoint of ensuring mobility during winter. Snowy and icy road surfaces, and reduced
visibility due to snow are problems peculiar to such regions (Figure 3.3.6). As a result the
cars must be well-equipped to run smoothly in winter. Winter tyres are fitted onto cars to
ensure that there is some friction even when the surface of the road is frozen and
slippery.
However, since 1970, the use of these winter lyres, particularly "Spike Tyres" has
led to a lot of debate regarding transport and environmental safety.
Figure 3.3. 6 State of car transport during winter (Sapporo)

(Speed reduces due to the frozen road surface, and accidents are caused by skidding)
Photo Courtesy: Independent Administrative Institution, Civil Engineering Research
Institute of Hokkaido
In 1959 lyres with metal spikes were developed in Finland. In the 1960s these lyres
became popular all over Europe. In Japan, the sales of these lyres began in 1963, and
towards the latter half of the 1970s, their use in cold and snowy areas was almost 100%.
These lyres enabled the driver to drive on frozen roads at almost the same speed as in the
summer, and they became indispensable for cars that would be driven in winter.
However, with an increase in the sales of these spike lyres, there was an increase in
coughing, sore throats, and bronchial asthma among young children in these regions.
These symptoms among the general populace worsened considerably and had to be
reported. Moreover, the spikes on these tyres damaged the road surface, resulting in ruts
on the road, aggravated the problem of noise pollution, and led to other social problems.
For this reason, in the 1980s, the activities of citizen groups against the use of spike tyres
gained popularity. Furthermore, rules that either restricted the period for which these
spike tyres could be used, or restricted the use of the spike tyres altogether were enforced
in the cities located in the cold and snowy regions of Japan. Additionally, in 1988, the
environmental ministry publicly announced the results of the effect of the dust of these
spike tyres in rats. Contaminants were found in the lungs and livers of rats, and the
necessity of controlling dust generated by spikes was clearly suggested. In a social

context, the Central Pollution Countermeasures Council declared that from 1990 a law
related to regulation of Studded Tyres would be proclaimed and enforced. In 1992,
regulations regarding fines came into effect.
Along with the enforcement of the above laws and the replacement of spike tyres,
which were after all consumables, the use of spike tyres gradually decreased. The graph
indicates the usage levels of spike tyres in Sapporo, before and after the regulations
(1988 - 1995). The damage caused by the falling dust of spike tyres is shown in Figure
3.3.7. There was a marked decrease in the falling dust in winter (Nov. to Mar)t; a
significant change can be seen in the graph. From the graph it is evident that as the use of
spike tyres fell, the dust levels were also reduced. Currently, the use of spike tyres is
almost down to zero. The tyres most often used in its place are non-spiked studless tyres.
- •-- falling dust( ton) -+- equip rate of spike lyres(%) I

160 lOll
14{I
121)
• 75
~100 ~
·~
0
Ei
8 80 511 ..
-'"'
- 60
~ •
41 I
'\. • 25
20
~
-~
..
• • I
O 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 199-1 199' I
year
Source: Hokkaido Department ofEnviromncnt and Lifestyle (1994-1998).
Figure 3.3. 7 Reduction in the amount offalling dust generated
during winter in Sapporo and the corresponding
reduction in spike tyre usage (1988 -1995)
Due to the restriction on the use of spike tyres, the weather in the cities changed to
reflect clear blue winter skies once again. Moreover, the problems of friction with the
road surface and noise pollution were also resolved. However, though the use of studless
lyres is currently very popular, it leads to the problem of a drop in speed, which causes
an increase in the commuting time. The studless tyres polish the road surface to provide a
mirror-like surface, which makes them extremely slippery. As a result of these slippery
frozen road surfaces, the cities are facing a new problem of a rise in the number of road
accidents due to skidding. For this reason, new innovations that simultaneously ensure
transport safety during winter and achieve the objective of environment conservation are
required.
tFalling dust: Particles or granules present in the atmosphere that fall due to gravity or rain.
Chemical reaction and diffusion

Relationship among air pollutants. While some air pollutants cause damage in their original
state, others undergo chemical changes in the atmosphere, to become different substances,
which are then dispersed over wide areas.
These chemical reactions are of four types:
1. NO•. emitted as NO undergoes oxidation and becomes NOz.
2. NO. and HC (highly reactive aromatic compounds), undergo photochemical
reactions (due to ultraviolet radiation from the sun) and generate photochemical
oxidants.
3. so., NO., HC, etc. undergo photochemical reactions, generating secondary particles,
which contribute significantly to levels of PM.
4. SOx or NO. change into sulphuric and nitric acid, become incorporated into rain or
snow and fall as acid rain.
Automobile emitted gases are less amenable to diffusion through advection, compared to
smokestacks of plants, since they are emitted near to the earth's surface. This means that in the
proximity of roads, they are not diluted and high-concentration pollution tends to occur.
Furthermore, they are prone to the effects of road structure, buildings near to the road,
topographic features, etc.
In Figure 3.3.8, the characteristic chemical reactions and spatial scale of advection
diffusion are shown conceptually for each pollutant. The diffusion distances increase, in
accordance with the chemical reactions, in the following order: (1) NOz, (2) photochemical
oxidants, and (3) secondary particles. The phenomenon of acid rain involves movement over
even larger distances.
Chemical Reactions
As a typical example of chemical reactions in atmosphere, this section briefly describes the
reactions of NOz and photochemical oxidant generation. Most of the NO. emitted from
automobiles are in the form of NO. This then reacts, with the involvement of sunlight and
ozone, until it reaches the equilibrium shown by the following formula, and a significant
portion changes into NOz.
NOz + hv -+ NO +0
Reactions for generating photochemical oxidants are even more complex. HC is added to
the above three formulae to cause a diverse chain reactions as follows:
RH+O -+ R·+OH·
R·+O~ -+ ROz·
ROz· + Dz -+ RO· + 03
03+RH -+ RC0 2• +RCOH
RCOz· +NO -+ NOz+RCO·

RCO· +Oz -+ RC03·
RC03· +NOz -+ RC03NOz (PAN)
As a result, ozone, aldehydes, ketones, hydroperoxides, peroxides, peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN), nitric acid mist, etc. are formed
Interrelation among
Air pollutants and their
Areal Distribution
The concentration of
photochemical ozone and
secondary particles becomes high
in some distant places away from
their sources.
(}Circulation of~
~land- and sea
.::::::>
General wind in the
lowerlf:jjifl. . . . . . . .~~
Urban Area Rural Area Mow1tainous Area
Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants
Conccntration
Distance
Source: Wakamatsu and Shinozaki (2001).
Figure 3.3.8 Conceptual figure of mutual relationship anwng air

pollutants and spatial distribution in urban areas
Diffusion
Pollutants discharged by various sources are then diluted in the atmosphere due to air
movement (wind and turbulence, etc.) This phenomenon of air diffusion is relatively simple if
the topography is flat with constant meteorological conditions in terms of time and space. The
phenomena observed in the actual field are, however, very complicated and are difficult to
predict or estimate. Meteorological phenomena affecting air diffusion include:
1. down draft (where pollutants rapidly descend in a downward swirl created by an
obstacle, such as a building or hill, whose height is similar to the nearby source of
smoke),
2. down wash (where smoke rapidly descends in a downward twirl created at the back
of a stack, when the discharge velocity of the smoke from the stack is slow),
3. fumigation (when a stable stratification develops above a stack, making it difficult
for smoke to diffuse; smoke is confined in the lower layer to produce a high
concentration on the ground surface)
4. street canyon (in which high-concentration pollution occurs due to automobile
emitted gases, on a road surrounded by high buildings - depending on the weather
conditions. When the wind above the buildings blows parallel to the road, a similar
wind occurs in the canyon. When the wind direction is at a right angle to the road; a
unique circulating wind occurs inside the canyon, preventing diffusion and dilution
of automobile emitted gases and causing pollutants to accumulate).
In general, in the proximity of roads, the distance between the source and the receptor is small
and the emission height is nearly equal to the earth's surface. This means that the pollutants
will not be dispersed/diluted sufficiently and result in high concentrations in a small range.
Figure 3.3.9 shows the distance attenuation of pollutant concentrations, in the areas near main
roads. Concentrations decrease rapidly from the road edge to 20- 30m, and level off at farther
distances from the road.
A quantitative understanding of the atmospheric diffusion phenomenon, is required for a
discussion of air pollution measures in urban areas.
1. which source contributes and to what degree, at the points where high air pollution
concentration is measured. How much emission needs to be reduced, at a particular
source to achieve a value within the environmental standard.
2. How much environmental improvement effect can be expected, when traffic
measures such as by-pass road construction or traffic regulation are taken.
3. Implementation of environmental assessment in road construction.
In order to address the above needs, various diffusion models for vehicle emissions have
been put forward, including that using normal plume and the numerical solution model. There
are also guidelines for the selection of a suitable model, for administrative purposes. "The
Guidelines for Air Pollution Model" of the EPA of the U.S., recommend CALINE 3
(California Line Source Model3), for areas along an expressway (U.S. EPA, 2003c). In Japan,
"The Manual for Total Emission Control of NOx'' of the Environment Agency lists the normal
diffusion models (plume model and puff model), the JEA linear smoke source diffusion
method, the revised JEA linear smoke source diffusion method and the area smoke source
diffusion method (Center of Pollution Research and Measures, 2000). The SRI (Standard
Research Institution) model is used alongside other models, for studies on the air diffusion
phenomenon of street canyons.
Monitoring of air pollutants concentration

Monitoring mode. In developing policies and regulations to combat the problem of air
pollution, it is necessary that the condition of the atmospheric environment is accurately
understood. Monitoring the concentrations of air pollutants in the atmospheric environment is
also critical, so as to evaluate the effectiveness of developed policies. As a result atmospheric
environment monitoring stations are located in major cities of the world.
The monitoring methods of major air pollutants for which environmental standards are
provided, are shown in Table 3.3.7. As seen in the table, several monitoring methods are
presented as legally applicable methods. The underlined methods are those normally used
worldwide at present.
In contrast, systems to certify the automatic monitoring instruments are used in the U.S.
and Germany, with performance standards, test methods, test result summarisation schemes,
etc. for certification provided. Most Asian countries use certified instruments from the U.S. and
European countries use certified instruments from Germany (Mikasa, 2001 and 2002).
200
NO, (Yokohama)
0 50 100 !50 200

Distance (m)
Source: Sato eta!. (1987).
Figure 3.3.9 Distance attenuation ofNO, N02

from edge of the road
Table 3.3. 7 Monitoring methods of major air pollutants in Japan

(constantly monitored items)
Moni11lring Method
so, • llitraviolet fluorescence method • Solution conductivity method
co • Non-dis~sive infrared (NDIR) absomtion method
• Beta ra):: absorption method • Mass concentration measurement
SPM
• Piezoelectric balance method • Light scattering method
NO, • Chemiluminescence method • Absorption spectrophotometJ~v (Saltzman reagent)
• llitraviolet absomtion method • Chemiluminescence method
o,
• Absorption spectrophotometry (KI solution) • Coulometry (KI solution)
Sources: Mikasa (200 I), Mikasa (2002).
Development of automobile emitted gas monitoring technology. It is difficult to determine the

quantity of air pollutants emitted by individual vehicles, using the measures of monitoring
stations. Because of this, a technology has been developed to measure emissions during
travelling (Mouri and Morio, 2001). As the emission volume of NOx, fluctuates mostly as a
result of the travelling conditions, it is important to simultaneously clarify the actual travelling
conditions and NOx concentrations. For this purpose, a vehicle mounted-type NOx measuring
instrument, using a small lightweight NOx meter is currently being developed. Also, under
development is an instrument to measure air pollution gases, using remote sensing technology
without the need for sampling. With this remote sensing method based on the principle of
infrared (ultraviolet) spectroscopy, infrared (ultraviolet) rays are emitted from the source
towards a reflector and the attenuation of the reflected rays is measured to calculate the level of
air pollution, through which the rays have passed. Measurement of the emissions from
travelling vehicles is possible, by setting up the instrument at the roadside and targeting
emissions from the exhaust pipes of travelling vehicles. The EPA of the U.S. uses such remote
sensing measuring results, to exempt vehicles with a low pollutant emission level from the
emission test and to recommend vehicles with high pollutant emission levels, to undergo
proper maintenance and/or repair.
State and Local Monitoring (SLAMS) Network National Air Monitoring (NAMS) Network
Source: U.S. EPA (No date).
Figure 3.3.1 0 Distribution of air pollution monitoring stations in the U.S.

(SLAMS and NAMS)
Monitoring network
United States. In the U.S., the monitoring network is designed to meet following four basic
objectives (U.S. EPA, No date a).
To determine highest concentrations expected to occur in the area covered by the
network.
To determine representative concentrations in areas of high population density.
To determine the impact on ambient pollution levels of significant sources or source
categories.
To determine general background concentration levels.
There are three categories of monitoring stations. The first type, called the State and Local Air
Monitoring Stations (SLAMS), provides a network to constantly monitor the air pollution
situation. Their results are compiled in an annual report and are also used to provide immediate
and detailed information. The SLAMS network covers the entire country and consists of some
4,000 stations (see Figure 3.3.10). The second network consists of National Air Monitoring
Stations (NAMS), which are part of the SLAMS. They act as a supplementary network to the
SLAMS and meet more stringent monitoring location, equipment type and quality assurance
criteria. There are 1,080 such stations, which are located mainly in urban areas. The third type
is called Special Purpose Monitoring Stations (SPMS), which are used by state and local
governments for specific or short-term monitoring goals. Photochemical Assessment
Monitoring Stations (PAMS) to monitor concentrations of ozone, were established as the
fourth network type in 1990, when the Clean Air Act was revised.
Europe. In Europe, the EEA leads the development of EuroAimet, an air pollution monitoring
network covering the whole of Europe (Larssen and Kozakovic, 2003). The main objectives of
establishing EuroAimet are:
Facilitation of general description of air quality and trend
Comparison of air quality across Europe
Estimation of exposed population, materials and ecosystems
Estimation of health effects
Quantification of damage to materials and vegetation
Production of emission/exposure relations and exposure/effect relations
Support of development of cost-effective abatement strategies
EuroAimet assumes evaluation of the following three stages:

1. Assessments of exposure level at the unit of monitoring station,
2. Assessments of exposure level, by a combination of several monitoring stations
using dispersion models for improved spatial resolution,
3. Quantitative assessments of exposure and effect as a basis for proposing cost-
effective abatement strategies.
Currently, Europe as a whole is in the process of implementing the first stage, ie.
selecting the appropriate monitoring stations. In some cities, the second stage has already been
implemented experimentally.
Since EuroAimet is interested in using the results recorded at monitoring stations, to
evaluate the link between pollutant source and exposure, it decides both the type and position
of such stations. Monitoring stations are classified for each source type: Background, Traffic,
Industrial, and for each population scale (zone): Urban, Suburban, or Rural, or by
characterisation of land use such as: Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural, or
Natural. Based on these classifications, detailed requirements for monitoring stations are
provided, to suit the evaluation purposes. The following section 3.4 highlights the difficulty of
identifying the source using pollution concentrations, which is one of the main issues facing
EuroAimet.
The current status of monitoring station establishment in each European nation, is shown
in Table 3.3.8. The total number exceeds 5,000, with Spain and France having the largest
number of stations. The monitoring stations to be used for EuroAirnet are selected from these
existing stations.
Table 3.3. 8 Status of air pollution monitoring stations in European countries

Notes:
UG - Urban general( in-city background)site; liT - Urban traffic site; UI - Urban industrial site
RI -Industrial site not in urban area; SO,+ - Sand N compounds in air (gases and aerosol)
Dep - Precipitation chemistry; 0 3 - Ozone
I) Total for urban and regional. Site classification not known.
2) All stations measure pH, conductivity and acidity/alkalinity. 14 sites measure major ions.
3) Not complete.
4) Only EMEP sites.
5) Plus I I 00 passive NO, sampling sites
6) Plus 12 passive SO, and 102 passive N0 2 sites.
7) All cities with >20,000 inhabitants.
8) The number of sites may not be quite correct.
Source: Larssen and Hagen (1996).
Japan. The purposes of establishing air pollution monitoring stations in Japan are summarised
as follows (MOE, No date):
Understanding of air pollution status by air pollutants
Judgment of conformance to environmental standards related to air pollution
Developing measures to combat adverse effects on human health and improve the
social environment.
Developing air pollution prevention measures and evaluating their effects
In Japan, there are two types of monitoring stations that continuously monitor the air
pollution status; General Environment Atmosphere Monitoring Stations (GEAMS) and

Automobile Emitted Gas Monitoring Stations (AEGMS). Mobile monitoring stations
incorporating those for use in emergencies are also used. GEAMS are mainly located in
residential areas and are intended to assess pollution levels, including conformity to
environmental standards and evaluation of the impacts of air pollution measures. In the 1970s,
when society faced devastating air pollution, there were many monitoring stations in positions
where high pollution levels were apt to occur due to the effect of specific sources, etc. These
were intended to take measures in emergencies. At present time, GEAMS are located in places
where there is no direct influence from specific sources, so that the monitoring data represents
the status of the general atmospheric environment. AEGMS on the other hand, are intended to
assess the status of air pollution along roads. They are located in places used for residential
purposes, such as near crossroads or roadsides that are strongly affected by automobile emitted
gases. On the AEGMS, monitoring stations with air inlets for environmental monitoring and
located on the roadsides may be called roadside stations, and those with air inlets at the median
strips or on roadways may be called the roadway stations.
The number of established monitoring stations is shown in Table 3.3.9. The numbers vary
depending on the air pollutant, with very large numbers for NO, and PM10, because many Japanese
cities do not satisfy the environment standards of these pollutants. Figure 3.3.11 shows the trend
(1980- 2001) in average pollution concentrations of NO, NOz, and PM10 in Japan. Concentrations of
PM10 are declining, but the concentration values of AEGMS are always higher than those of
GEAMS. The diagram also shows the significant contribution of automobiles to NOx and PM 10.
Table 3.3. 9 Number of monitoring stations for each air pollutant in Japan (as of 2000)
GEAMS AEGMS
No of No of No of No of
Local Government Monitoring Station Local Government Local Government
so, 674 1.501 80 96
NO, 726 1,466 238 395
PMIO 722 1,531 192 301
co 116 134 192 313
Ox 659 1,161 23 31
Source: MOE (2002).

(ppm) (mgim')
om . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , o . o 6 5
0.06
0.06 0.055
..,
o.os E
"el.' o.o5
~
0.045 ~;.-.
;.-. 0.04 ]
] 0035;
.::·
~
0.03 ·~
·e
0
o.o3 Q
0.025 ~
"g
8 0.02
0.02 :l'!
.ll
0.015 -3u
g 0.01 ~~~------~~~-~---~~--~ 0.01 ·~
0.005
0.,
0 1L9~8-o~~82~L-8~4~-8~6~-8~8~-9~o~-9~2~~9~4~~96~~9~8~-2~oo_o_u 0
-<>-NO, (GEAMS) -{!)-NO (GEAMS) -l>-N0 2 (AEGMS) -0-NO (AEGMS)

-o-PM(GEAMS) 9PM(AEGMS)
Source: MOE (2002).
Figure 3.3.11 Trends in average pollution concentrations in Japan of

NO, N02 and PM10
3.4 LOCAL AIR QUALITY AND TRANSPORT IN DIFFERENT CITIES
3.4.1 Approaches and Difficulties in Comparing Cities
In Section 3.3, the emission inventory and concentrations of air pollutants in the U.S., Europe
and Japan were compared. In this section, we will compare local air quality in the major world
cities.
As described in the previous section, EuroAimet attempts to evaluate the relationship
between emission source and exposure from pollution concentration results, collected at
monitoring stations. This data cannot be used to provide objective and scientifically accurate
comparisons however, because it was not collected under comparable conditions. It is
extremely difficult to provide an objective and scientifically accurate comparison among these
cities. The major reason is the fact that the data from different cities, observed and estimated
on the basis of comparable fixed conditions, is either limited or incomplete.
The mechanism by which vehicles affect human health can be divided into the following
steps: (i) emission, (ii) chemical reaction and diffusion, and (iii) physiological effects. Three
different approaches have been adopted for making comparisons between cities.
Total emissions approach

In this approach, the pollution levels are compared on the basis of estimated pollutant
emissions in different cities. Even where quantities emitted are equal, their effect differs
greatly, depending on geography, topography, weather conditions, etc. Mexico City (see 5.12)
is often cited as a city with extreme air pollution. This example indicates that the altitude and
basin-like topography of Mexico City make the problem more serious.
The advantage of the total emissions approach is that it shows the amount of original
load on the environment due to various activities in cities. Its most important benefit is that it
enables emission levels from different sources to be estimated.
In making comparisons between cities, the problem is to decide whether emission levels
are estimated on the basis of comparable fixed conditions. Strictly, it is necessary to obtain the
emission data for a representative running mode which reflects the mix of vehicle types and
operating conditions in the city. At present, there seem to be very few cities carrying out such
estimations and when this kind of data is collected, there are inconsistencies in the year of
collection and in the accuracy of the estimations.
Concentration of air poUution approach

Comparisons between cities based on the concentration of air pollution approach provide more
direct answers to questions about how a particular city compares to others. It does not however,
provide any information about the emissions of a pollutant from a particular source.
The main problem when comparing the air pollution concentrations between cities is that
the average value of the data collected at different monitoring stations within each city is not
representative. If cities had many monitoring stations, then a comparison based on the average
value would, to some extent, be possible. But when the observation points are few and
generally concentrated at points where pollution is high, they cannot be representative of the
entire city. To overcome this, a comparative analysis, which classified the data by type of
recording point, would be necessary.
Human exposure approach

Human exposure to the local environment can be considered a substantial problem. However, it
is difficult to specify the cause and effect relationship between concentration of pollution and
human exposure. Large amounts of environmental assessment data exist in epidemiological
investigations, but since they do not attempt to evaluate the risk population for an entire city,
this method cannot be considered a feasible approach for a comparison among cities. However,
the concept of human exposure is important, because the higher the population density of a
particular city, the greater the social effect, even when the total emission or the concentration
of air pollution is the same.
3.4.2 Comparison of Air Pollution Concentration
As noted in Section 3.4.1, there are many difficulties in trying to compare the air quality of
various cities and these need to be properly understood. Air pollution concentration data for the
world's leading cities 1 is published in World Bank (2001). In the explanatory note, it is
mentioned that "The data on air pollution are based on reports from urban monitoring sites.
Annual mean are average concentrations observed at these sites .... Pollutant concentrations are
sensitive to local conditions, and even in the same city different monitoring sites may register
different concentrations. Thus these data should be considered only a general indication of air
quality in each city, and cross-country comparisons should be made with caution." (World
Bank, 2001, p.174).
Data are available for World Development Indicators of SPM, S02 and N02 for 110
cities. In the analysis below we have used only data from the 59 cities for which we also have
access to emissions data. Most values are for the year 1995. Figure 3.4.1 shows the
concentrations for each city, together with its population. An initial analysis shows that there
are significant correlations between SPM and S0 2 (correlation coefficient of 0.50) and between
S02 and N02 (0.58), but not between SPM and N02 (0.30).
SPM. The average concentration of SPM data across 47 cities is 110 p_g /m3 (standard
deviation 100), 10 of which exceed the 200 p_g!m3 • In Figure 3.4.1, the cities are arranged in
order of population density and the SPM concentration is generally highest for the higher
population densities. The correlation (0.60) with population density is statistically valid. It
should be remembered that major cities in developing countries, generally have high
population densities. SPM concentration shows a significant negative correlation (-0.67) with
the city's GOP per person.
In many developing countries, high SPM values in cities, which have inadequate
environmental measures, are attributed to smoke emitted from power plants, factories,
household heating, direct burning of fuel in kitchens (for example, heating coal in the winter in
Beijing), waste disposal, dust from unpaved roads, etc. High levels of dust affect the SPM
concentration, making it necessary to distinguish between SPM emitted by human activity and
that produced naturally. Needless to say, in the case of urban traffic, the effects of exhaust gas
from poorly maintained car engines, especially diesel engines are extremely harmful.
S02. In the fifty nine cities, of which data is available for only fifty five, the average
concentration of so2 is 32 p_g!m 3 (standard deviation 37) and the variations are large compared
with SPM or N02. Although its correlation (0.31) with population density is also valid to some
extent, its correlation (-0.49) with GDP, is statistically more significant. Many developing
countries show concentrations exceeding the WHO guidelines of 50 p_g!m 3 (See Table 3.3.3). A
majority of the twenty nine cities with so2 concentrations less than 20 p_g!m 3, are in developed
countries, with the exceptions of Bangkok and Chennai. This can be explained by the fact that
Mumbaigg:r
Cairo
Seoul
Manila
Barcelona t=J=~
Shanghai~
Jakarta -1--+--
Delhi
Caracas -~oo--
Mosco\\
Bangkok
ChcliDai
Beijing
Guangzhou
Bogota
Tehran
Mexico Citv
osaka
Santiago
Singapore
Tokyo
Madrid
Sao Paulo
Milan
Buntssels
Vienna
London
Rio de Janeiro
Kuala Lumpur
Amsterdam
Berlin
Rome
Munich
Warsaw
Manchester
Budapest
Prague
Frankfurt
Paris
Zurich
Helsinki
Montreal
Joharmesburg
Stockhohn
Copenhagen
Toronto
Los Angeles
Oslo
Vancouver
Sydney
Ne;York
Chicago
Melboume
Perth h-,rrr+r,..,.,.+r,..,.,.+r,.
100 200 300 200 400 100 200 100 200
Population Density SPM(flg·m') SOo(flgm 3 ) NOo(/lgm 3 )
(Personiha)
Notes: Population density from UITP (2000). Although 59 cities are analysed in this text, in this figure Turin,
Lisbon, and Istanbul, for which population density data is not available, arc excluded. In addition, some cities
show a concentration level of zero, due to lack of data. Pollution concentration from World Bank (200 1).
Sources: UITP (2000); World Bank (2001 ).
Figure 3.4.1 Urban population density, and concentrations of SPM, S02, and N02
in developed countries, controlling S02 emissions preceded measures taken to control air
pollution in general. Two cities in developed countries which exceed the S0 2 concentration
average are Seoul and Athens. The S02 concentration is also high in many Chinese cities, due
to the burning of coal in power plant boilers and for heating in cold districts. Measures such as
desulphurisation of the smoke emitted by combustion gas and of the fuel itself should be
implemented to reduce S02 concentrations.
N02• The picture for N0 2 concentration differs from that of SPM and S02• The average
concentration for the forty eight cities, for which data is available, is 59 p,g/m3 (standard
deviation 38) and as compared to SPM or S02, the variance is less. More than half of those
cities have N0 2 concentrations that exceed the WHO's guideline of 40 p,g/m3• Not only cities
on developing countries, but cities in developed countries, such as Milan, Sydney, New York,
London and Los Angeles also have fairly high values. The N02 concentration in Milan, with
car ownership at 400 vehicles/1000 people, is 248 p,g/m 3• This is unusually high, especially
when compared with New York, with a higher car ownership at 440 vehicles, but a lower N0 2
concentration (79 p,g/m3). Even taking into account the fact that the proportion of diesel cars,
which have a relatively high NOz emission factor, is high in Europe, the difference in
concentration is still very large. It is not clear whether this is due to unique factors such as
geographical features and climate, other NOz emitting sources, or the result of differences in
the method of measurement or statistical errors.
3.4.3 Comparison of the Total Amount of Emission
The total emission levels of various pollutants in different cities which are recorded in UITP
(2000) are analysed below2• The four target pollutants are CO, S02, VHC (volatile
hydrocarbons), and NOx. They are defined as emissions originating from urban transport which
will predominantly be automobiles (See Section 3.1).
Table 3.4.1 Pollutant emission levels per unit area (tonlha) and their correlation
Mean SD.
MAX MIN Coefficient of correlation
Value City Value City co so, VHC NOx
co 4.79 4.16 21.48 Tehran 0.84 Osaka 1.00
so, 0.09 0.10 0.49 Cairo 0.00 Berne 0.58 1.00
VHC 0.88 1.09 7.78 Ho ChiMing City 0.10 Perth 0.81 0.47 1.00
NO, 0.78 0.64 2.92 Bangkok 0.09 Daka 0.60 0.69 0.49 1.00
Source: UlTP (2000).
The emission levels of these pollutants per hectare, vary radically between cities (Table
3.4.1). For example, the minimum value of CO is 0.8 ton/ha (Osaka), while its maximum value
is 21.5 ton/ha (Tehran). The average value of CO for eighty seven cities is 4.2 ton/ha and the
standard deviation which shows the degree of variation in the data is 4.2 ton/ha, which means
that the coefficient of variation reaches 87%. The same coefficient for SOz, VHC, and NO. is
108, 124, and 84% respectively. There is however (see Table 3.4.1), a weak but statistically
significant correlation between the levels of these pollutants, especially between CO and VHC,
where the correlation coefficient is 0.81.
Figure 3.4.2 compares the emission levels of CO, S02, VHC, and NOx per unit area, in
eighty nine cities across the world. The data is organised in order of increasing total emission
index. For the total emission index, the Z-score (a standardised index with an average of 0 and
a variance of 1) of the emission level per unit area, for each of the four pollutants is calculated,
and defined as the average value in each city. Many cities with high total emission indexes also
have high population densities (the correlation coefficient of both indices is 0.7), implying an
intensified health risk.
Defective combustion in engines is the most important source of CO emissions. In various
cities in Asia, where two-wheelers with a 2-cycle engine are more widely used, emission levels
are higher. The cities in high emission levels of S02 are some cities in developed countries as
well as developing countries. In addition to traffic volume, SOz levels are also affected by the
use of diesel vehicles which use fuels with a higher sulphur content than petrol. In Ho Chi
Ming City, annual VHC emissions are reported to be as high as 7.8 ton/ha.
It is possible to aggregate this data to global regions to draw more general comparisons.
In Table 3.4.2, the total emission weight of the four pollutants (CO, SOz, NO., VHC) emitted
from cars, is considered as the index of comprehensive emission amount.
Table 3. 4.2 Density, nwdal share, and atnwspheric pollution from pri1•ate vehicles
Proportion of foot
Density (Inhabitant Emissions Emissions
Region bicycle and public
per hectare) per inhabitant (kg) per hectare (kg)
transport (%)
U.S. and Canada 19 14 237 3.950

Oceania 15 21 189 2,8tXI
Western Europe 55 50 88 4.8tXI
Centm1 and Eastern F.umpe 71 72 89 4.6tXI
Asia (atlluent cities) B4 62 31 3.9tKI
Asia (other cities) 190 68 84 14.200
Middle East 77 27 215 15,0txl
Africa 102 67 148 8.6tKI
Latin America 90 64 118 9.3tKI
Source: UI1P (2000).
According to this table, countries with high proportion of trips by car, such as
U.S./Canada, Australia, and the Middle East, show high values for the amount of pollutant
emitted per citizen. Among the cities considered, Atlanta, where cars account for 95% of the
total traffic, has the highest value- as much as 498 kg/person. This is followed by Riyadh in
the Middle East (379 kg), and Brisbane in Australia (286 kg). However, since the population
densities in cities of countries like U.S./Canada and Australia is extremely low, emission per
hectare is lower. For example, in Atlanta where the population density is just 6.4 persons/ha,
the emission level is only 3,200 kglha, whereas cities in the Middle East with higher population
densities, show higher emissions per area. Tehran (223 kg/person, 114 persons/ha) for example
has emission levels of 22,500 kglha, which is the maximum level recorded. In cities in
developing countries (in Asia, Africa and Latin America), the emission levels per person are
comparatively low, because the number of pedestrians, bicycles, and public transport users is
high. But since the population density in these cities is high, the emission levels per hectare are
still high. The pollutant emission levels per hectare, are also high in cities like Ho Chi Ming
City (24,200 kglha) and Bangkok (21,500 kglha) in Asia, Johannesburg (10,200 kglha) in
Africa, and Mexico City (20,900 kglha) in Latin America.
Some analysis of the existing data was attempted. There are however, several problems
in comparing the data across cities, making it more appropriate to draw only qualitative
conclusions, that the total amount of pollutants emitted by vehicles increases with a high
volume of traffic per area, lax emission regulations, and the use of two-wheeler vehicles in
large numbers, as was observed in Asian cities.
Bangkok
Ho Chi Minh City
Tehrai1
Cairo
Bologna
Marula
Guangzhou
Mcxi}~k~
shJ:ih~~
Hon~i(~ng
Johrum~£~~
Murubw
Riyadh
Barcelona
Sao Paulo
Athens
Milan
s~::Rl'~~
Rome
Seoul
Brussels
Curitiba
Madrid
Nantes
Morscille
Frankfurt
Vierum
Paris
London
Lille
Sa~:U
Prague
Kuala Luf"J:.fs
Manchester
Montreal
San francisco
Ca~ToVIn
Calgary
Budapest
Dakar
Denver
Aros~c~~
Ottawa
Toronto
Ruhr
New York
Berlin
Houston
Wellington
Chicago
Dusseldorf
Stockholm
Sydney
Washmgton
Harore
San Diego
Los An~eles
Stung art
Glasgow
Vancouver
Oslo
Helsinki
Atlanta
Copenhagen
Phoenix
Osaka
Rio de Janeiro
Cracow
Newcastle
Brisbane
Tel Aviv
Tokyo
Chcnnai
Geneva
Zurich
Melbourne
HaJOburg
Graz
Berne
Perth Jm:rf=rrrn-rrrn-rrr
-1 I 2 3 10 20 0.2 0.4 2 6 0 2
Ave. Z-score CO(lon/ha) sao (lon/ha) VHC (lnniha) NO, (lon/ha)
Source: UITP (2000).

Figure 3.4.1 Annual emissions of transport related pollutants
Box 10 Electric Scooters in Rome
Sustainability plays an important role in Rome's current transport policies. One of the
most interesting actions involves the introduction of electric scooters, as a substitute for
the highly polluting fleet of mopeds and motorcycles. This minor but popular mode of
transport is supported by the introduction of 400 electric scooters, owned by the
Municipality, available for rental at two P&R Jots. A three year strategy for their use is
currently under discussion. The implementation of a network of recharging stations has
identified 12 priority sites located mainly in central areas, based on the results of an
origin-destination survey of scooter movements.
Figure 3.4.3 An electric scooters' recharging station
3.4.4 Impact of Travel Conditions on Pollutant Emission Levels
Correlation analysis of car related index and the amount ofpollutant emission
First, we assessed the relation between the car traffic related index and the pollutant emission
levels, using data provided by UITP (2000). The important limitations of this data must be kept
in mind, however. The index includes passenger cars, taxis, buses, and two-wheelers, but lacks
any data on trucks, leading to the following assumptions being made. In each country, it is
assumed that the percentage of trucks among the total vehicles, is the same as the percentage in
the cities. Also, that the mileage per truck is 1.3 times3 that of a passenger car. Based on this, a
correlation analysis is performed between the following indices and the levels of pollutant
emitted per unit area. The direction of the expected correlation is shown in brackets.
Index 1. Number of vehicles (including two-wheelers) per unit area [+]

Index 2. Mileage-number of vehicles per unit area [+]
Index 3. Average speed of the vehicle[-]
Index 4. Average GDP per capita[-]
Average GDP per capita, (index 4) is included for analysis, because it is seen as a
representative variable of car usage conditions in a particular city, since vehicle life, the
popularity of eco-friendly cars, and quality of engine maintenance, are closely related to
income level. The results are shown in Table 3.4.4. All coefficients are statistically significant
(Significant Ievell% except S02 of Index 2 is 5% ).
Table 3. 4.3 Correlation coefficient between the level ofpollutant emissions and index
Index Ave. Z-score co so, VHC NOx

1. VNumber/ha 0.54 0.44 0.38 0.61 IU6
2. v.kmlha 0.37 0.31 026 1!.31 IU7
2'. v.km/ha* (only developed countries) 0.55 0.43 0.52 0.46 0.45
3. Speed -11.59 -0.47 -11.54 -11.47 -11.48
4. GDP per capita -0.67 -0.49 -0.29 -0.41 -11.29
The correlation coefficient for the traffic per unit area (Index 2), which is supposed to be
most close! y connected to the total emission levels in an area, is lower than that for the number
of cars (Index 1). However, if the correlation is based only on the data for cities in developed
countries, the coefficient (Index 2') increases. However, the value of coefficient is still not high.
This might be due to the macro analysis, which omits the type of car. More likely however, it is
due to differences in the emission factor used for estimating the emission levels in each city.
The average emission factor shows that with respect to all four pollutants, the top ten
cities4 have values that are three to four times higher than the average of the 87 cities.
Although there are problems such as restrictions on the data available and on the possibility for
comparing with original data, the above result can be considered a reflection of the actual
condition in cities in developing countries, where pollutant emission levels are high, due to
longer vehicle life and poor maintenance.
Emission levels of model vehicles

As mentioned above, the main factor which determines pollutant emission levels, is how
efficient! y vehicle exhaust gas is controlled. In order to eliminate the differences between the
emission levels of cars in various cities, it is assumed that all vehicles have the same emission
factor. We call these model vehicles. The relative difference in the amount of pollutant
emission in each city can then be analysed.
The formula given below was used to calculate the emission levels, i.e., the number of
running vehicles of each type (per unit area, so as to standardise each city), is multiplied by the
emission factor of each model vehicle per km. In order to reflect the running conditions, the
emission factor is considered as a function that depends on speed as a following equation.
where as
j: type of vehicle, v: speed (km!hr)
TE: annual emission levels per unit area (g!Year. ha)
Hj, number of vehicles per unit area (Vehicles/ha)
Mi (v): mileage per vehicle of different speed given by the Q-V curve (km/Year)
Ei (v): emission factor given by the Emission-Velocity (speed) curve (g!vehicle.km)
In this calculation, the data used and assumptions made was firstly that although, due to the
limitations of the data, only passenger cars (including taxis) and two-wheelers were considered.
The data of UITP (2000) was used for the number of vehicles per unit area, for each city. It
was assumed that 90% of passenger cars have a 4-cycle petrol engine, and for the remaining
10%, small- and medium-size diesel engine vehicles contribute 5% each. All two-wheeler
vehicles were assumed to have 2-cycle petrol engines. Although, UITP (2000) data can be used
for calculating the annual total mileage per passenger car and two-wheeler, it needs to be
analysed according to speed. Here, for the total mileage of each vehicle with different speeds,
covered in a year, a lognormal distribution was assumed. Average speed data of roads was
taken from UITP (2000) and the coefficient of deviation was considered as 50% for standard
deviation5• It is necessary to obtain the data of emission factor according to the type of each
engine. In this calculation, corresponding values of the 1986 regulation in Japan were used for
CO and VHC, and corresponding values of the 1990 regulation in Japan was used for NOx.
Using this method of calculation, the emission levels for the following cases were
calculated: in Case 1 model vehicles are running in the present volume and speed of car traffic
and in Case 2 the speeds are faster than Case 1.
Case 1 Present flow and speed of car traffic. The annual emission level per unit area, for CO,
NOx, HC (emitted from all passenger cars and two-wheelers) in eighty seven cities across the
world, is calculated. The calculation value for each of these pollutants is then converted into a
Z-score (for standardisation) and the average value of each score for every city is referred to as
the total emission index.
In this calculation, the total emission level index for ten cities (Taipei, Seoul, Ho Chi
Ming City, Bangkok, Barcelona, Bologna, Mexico City, Geneva, Stuttgart, and Madrid), is
high; in other words a large amount of pollutant is emitted, per unit area. Whereas, in Chennai,
Perth, Johannesburg, Bogota, Shanghai, Curitiba, Brisbane, Cracow, Harare, and Dakar, the
index is low, i.e., a small amount is emitted per unit area. In the first group of cities, since the
volume of car traffic is large and running conditions are bad, even if it is assumed that the
model vehicle runs with same emission factor, the emission level of pollutants is high.
Whereas, in the second group, which includes cities like Shanghai, the emission level of
pollutants is low, only if the cars that are running are model vehicles.
It should be pointed out that a large number of cities in developed countries, are included
in the ten cities with the highest total emission level indexes. The environment of cities in
developed countries- (where the rate of car ownership is generally high, distance covered by
a vehicle in a year is more, and the ratio of the share of public transport is low) - is much
better than the environment of cities in developing countries, because the level of exhaust gas
emissions of cars are cleaner.
Case 2 The effect of improved running speed. Case 2 assumes that the average running speed
improves by 20%. Emissions are compared with Case 1, and the percentage reduction in
emissions, using Case 1 as a base, is calculated. The effect of easing traffic congestion by
improving road maintenance and traffic flow control is calculated. The volume of car traffic
remains the same as in Case 1. The calculation method is similar to that of Case 1, but the Q- V
curve, based on the logarithmic normal distribution type, is shifted towards the right as
compared to Case 1. The results of Case 2 are as follows.
All of the top twelve cities, i.e., Bangkok, Jakarta, Guangzhou, Taipei, Shanghai, Ho Chi
Ming City, Chennai, Beijing, Mumbai, Tehran, Kuala Lumpur, and Manila, where the
percentage reductions of CO is high (ranging from 9.4% to 7.5%.), are in developing countries.
With respect to the percentage reduction of HC, the top twelve cities are Mexico City,
Cairo, Cracow, Manila, Marseille, Geneva, Tokyo, Sao Paulo, Hamburg, Lyon, Vienna, and
Graz. Unlike the case of CO, many cities in developed countries are also included. The
percentage reduction is from 19.7% to 17.4%, which is a rather remarkable result. However, if
this is considered in terms of the absolute value of the amount of reduction, then it can be said
that in cities like Taipei, Bangkok, Seoul, and Ho Chi Ming City, Barcelona, Mexico City,
Manila, Bologna, Jakarta, and Athens, which are in developing countries, the effect was high,
when the speed was improved by better running conditions.
In the case of NOx, cities like Manila, Cairo, Mexico City, Marseille, Cracow, Taipei,
Bangkok, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Beijing, Tokyo, and Geneva are at the top, with the percentage
reduction ranging from 10.0% to 6.8%. However, in the low-speed regions, the NOx emission
levels increase once again, when the speed exceeds the fixed level. For this reason, in this
calculation, an increase in speed leads to increased NOx emission levels in twenty four cities,
including San Diego, Houston, Denver, Atlanta, Riyadh, Brisbane, Toronto, Copenhagen,
Harare, Phoenix, Calgary, and Los Angeles. The average running speed in these 12 cities is 47
to 61 km/hr, and a 20% increase in the average speed increases the NOx emission rate, by 5.4
to 20.0%.
The calculation of Case 2 shows that for cities across the world, especially in developing
countries, an improvement in the running conditions of vehicles can achieve a significant
reduction in pollution. However, in cities where high running speeds have already been
realised, speed control must be focused upon, as a means of reducing NOx emissions.
3.4.5 Summary
In this section, the problem of comparing the local environmental conditions in various cities
across the world is discussed. It was pointed out that the existing data on air pollution
concentration or the amount of pollutants emitted by cars does not always satisfy the fixed
conditions that enable comparisons among cities. Therefore, the development on a data set of
urban transport and environment and a standard measurement method are required, because
they would satisfy the comparable fixed conditions in response to the standards setting for
ascertaining target urban areas.
3.5 GLOBAL WARMING
3.5.1 Status and Effects of Global Warming
Types of greenhouse gases and emission trends in developed countries

Although there are large differences across the world, the average atmospheric temperature of
the earth is 15°C, making the conditions ideal for many organisms. The reason why the earth's
temperature is stable, is because greenhouse gas (GHG) in the atmosphere cover the earth, in a
similar way to the glass in a greenhouse. Any increase in the temperature of the atmosphere,
caused by increases in GHG concentrations is called "Global Warming." GHG include COz,
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N20), hydro fluoro carbon (HFC), per fluoro carbon (PFC),
and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). The Kyoto Protocol has stipulated that all these substances
should be targeted for reduction. However, the contribution percentage of each GHG to the
greenhouse effect is changing over time. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) uses an index called "Global Warming Potential (GWP)," which expresses each gas's
contribution to the greenhouse effect, compared to the contribution of C02, which has a value
of 1. Based on this index, the contributions of CH4, nitrogen monoxide, HFC/PFC, and SF6 are
expressed as approximately 20, approximately 300, few thousands to 10 thousands, and more
than 20 thousands, respectively (IPCC, 2001).
The greenhouse effect has been increasing since the Industrial Revolution. From 1750 to
1998, C02 was the greatest contributor, accounting for 60% of the total. The percentages
contributed by CH4, NzO and other gases were 20 %, 6% and 14%, respectively (IPCC, 2001).
In recent years, however, C02 emissions have accounted for more than 90 % of the total
greenhouse effect. As a result, attempts to reduce levels of greenhouse gases have focused on
COz.
As outlined in Section 1.3, COz emissions continue to increase. To achieve the reduction
target set by the Kyoto Protocol, counter measures against each C02 source need to be
considered. C0 2 sources are mainly categorised into three sectors; the Industrial sector, the
Transport sector and the Household and Commercial sector. Other sources are categorised into
the Energy Conversion sector (including power plants), the Industrial Processes sector
(including limestone consuming industries), the Waste Disposal sector (including plastic
treatment) and other sectors, depending on the characteristics of its emission source. At present,
the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) calculates the C0 2
emission inventory for each nation, using a standardised method and presents the figures on its
Website.
Table 3.5.1 shows the emission levels of C0 2 in the Transport sector and other sectors in
the U.S., the 15 EU member nations, Japan, Germany, the U.K. and France. In each country,
the percentage contributed by the Transport sector is high, accounting for more than 20 % of
the total. Figure 3.5.1 shows C0 2 emission levels for the last 10 years, in the Transport sector
and other sectors in each country with the level of 1990 as 100. In the U.S. and Japan, C02
emissions have continued to increase, in Transport and other sectors. Likewise in Europe, C02
emissions in the Transport sector are still increasing, while in other sectors, emission levels
have been on the decrease since 1990 (particularly in Germany).
Table 3.5.1 C02 emission level in major developed countries (2000)
Unit: 1 million tons in conversion to carbon

Source: UNFCCC (No date).
Effects of global warming

If GHG emissions continue to increase at current rates, the IPCC, in its third report (IPCC,
2001), estimates that the average atmospheric temperature of the earth will have increased by
1.4 - 5.8 °C, by the year 2100. The size of this change is not large, compared to the natural
changes in temperature that have occurred throughout the earth's 4.6 billion year history.
Between the ice ages, the size of the temperature change is thought to have been approximately
10°C. In comparison, the value of 1.4 - 5.8 °C estimated by IPCC is by no means large. Why
then, is global warming such a cause for concern?
The problem with global warming, is that the rate of temperature change is fast. From
the glacial to the interglacial age, the temperature change occurred at a rate of about 0.08 °C per
hundred years, while the current temperature changes, thought to be occurring at a rate of about
0.5 °C per hundred years, are 40 times larger. Such rapid change in temperatures has no
precedent in the entire history of the earth.
130
125
120
00
ii'
0
115
"'~ 110
~
~ 105
..5
100
95
90
90 91
Year
130
120
00 110
ii'
:3(
~
100
~ 90
"0
..5
80
70 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
Year
--·+-----Canada --.-France - • * •- Germany ---Italy

--Japan ····-·-•·-····UK ···X··· USA EUl5
Unit: I million tons in conversion to carbon

Source: UNFCCC (No date).
Figure 3.5.1 Changes in C02 emission levels in the major

developed countries(Top: transport sector,
Bottom: other sectors)
Rapid increases in temperature lead to changes in climate, which the IPCC considers will
have the following effects:
Effects on water resources. Precipitation is expected to increase in high-latitude areas and

Southeast Asia and decrease in Central Asia, Mediterranean shore areas, South Africa and
Australia and that this will lead to in increases in the frequency of floods and droughts. It is
possible, especially in Africa, that scarcity of water supplies could lead to disputes. Water
quality may also deteriorate due to increases in temperature and contamination from the
overflow of drainage.
Effect on agriculture and food security. Changes in the atmospheric temperature and
precipitation will lead to increases or decreases in grain production, depending on the area.
Production levels in mid-latitude areas are expected to increase, due to modest increases in
atmospheric temperature, whereas production is expected to decrease in tropical or arid/semiarid

areas due to stress caused by high temperatures. In Asia, crop production and cultivated fisheries
will be threatened by high temperatures, increases in sea level and frequent flooding. Crop
production is also expected to decrease in South America. Food security is expected to worsen,
as increasing demand leads to an increase in grain prices on the international market.
Effect on ecosystems. Terrestrial, freshwater and seawater animals and plants, with limited
capacities to adapt will be adversely affected and whole ecosystems may be destroyed. Though the
emerging effect may vary by the area, negative effects will occur in general such as interference of
current plant growth by increase in temperatures. While terrestrial ecosystems have functions to
respire/release carbons, this function may become affected by high temperature stress.
Effect on living conditions and industry. Climatic changes, including increases in

precipitation will lead to a rise in sea level, which will in tum cause floods, landslides,
mudflows, avalanches. Living on or near rivers and coasts will become hazardous. Floods, etc.
are expected to directly affect some parts of the infrastructure, buildings, city services and
specific industries (agriculture, fishing, tourism and construction). Small island countries in
particular will suffer adversely from any increase in sea level, since the majority of their
residential areas lie on coasts. These areas will be more exposed to increases in the frequency
of anomalous weather conditions. Although losses are currently covered by insurance
companies, this may not be possible in the future, if the incidence of extreme weather increases.
Effects on human health. Increased temperatures during the summer months, might lead to
increases in the incidence of heat stroke. Increasing temperatures may also mean that
mosquitoes and other insects, responsible for the transmission of diseases like malaria, will be
able to survive in areas where they previously could not, leading to an increase in the spread of
some insect borne diseases. The effect of these two phenomena is said to be especially
significant in Asia. Moreover, global warming will reduce the air quality by inducing localized
air pollution, leading to increase in health damage.
In addition to the above, the IPCC has pointed out that even greater climate changes will
occur in the Antarctic and Arctic regions. This is supported by the significant losses of shelf ice
which have already occurred in Antarctica.
Of particular concern is that the areas which will be most affected by climate change are
concentrated in developing countries. While these countries produce fewer GHG compared to
developed countries, the effects they will suffer as a result of global warming, in terms of water
resources, agriculture, food production, human health, etc. will be greater. It is evident, that the
North-South divide exists even in the issue of global warming.
In the transport sector however, it is expected that GHG emissions in developing
countries will increase rapidly in the next few years. This means that strategies must be
identified and policies developed to reduce GHG in developing, as well as developed countries.
3.5.2 Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Greenhouse gas emissions are far more difficult to control than emissions of conventional air
pollutants, especially in the transport sector. One reason is that GHG emissions are the end
result of a long chain of decisions and desires. GHG emissions are related to energy use, which
is related to desire for travel, which in tum is related to a variety of social and economic desires.
Secondly, transport decisions are made by a variety of people and organisations, with different
interests. The third reason, is that strategies to slow the growth of GHG emissions in the
transport sector are not as amenable to technical fixes as other sectors, and far less so than
conventional air pollutants such as hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, which are readily
reduced using "after-treatment" devices.
Controlling vehicle demand and use

Slowing the increase in GHG emissions from transport requires the use of strategies which
have significant broad impacts on lifestyle and behaviour. As a general rule, the more people
affected and the more behavioural change required, the more difficult any kind of change will
be. Given the widespread demand for and use of private vehicles, strategies to significantly
reduce the increases in GHG emissions from transport will require behavioural changes by
most individuals.
These behavioural changes can be modest and can even bring about economic benefits.
Most journeys made do not require full-sized cars and in developing cities, full-sized cars are
often not the best option in terms of cost or travel time. While non-car options are generally
cheaper, they are usually also slower. The ideal situation for many travellers is ready access to
a motor vehicle, but only when it is really needed. For other trips, some form of rapid and
comfortable public transit, walking, or cycling might be preferable.
Buying a vehicle is a major investment. Most of the costs of vehicle ownership are fixed,
paid upfront, and do not vary significantly with vehicle use6 • This gives owners a strong
incentive to use their vehicles for as many of their transport needs as possible. As private
vehicles are usually the most greenhouse gas-intensive transportation mode per passenger-
kilometre, private vehicle ownership and transport GHG emissions tend to rise together.
Once people own their vehicles, use of public transport drops and it loses money, as well
as political backing. Often, the government responds by consolidating routes and reducing the
frequency of services to save money, which inconveniences those who continue to rely on
public modes. More of these people buy private vehicles and the cycle continues, leading to
increasing traffic congestion, high emission levels, rising transport energy use, and the need for
costly, large-scale roadway infrastructure development.
For these reasons, motorisation levels largely predict carbon emissions from the
transport sector. Using only the nine countries in Table 3.5.2, vehicle ownership statistically
explains 90 percent of the difference in carbon emissions per capita. This high level of
correlation indicates that a key part of any strategy to reduce the increase in carbon emissions
from transport should be to slow growth in vehicle ownership and use. This strategy will also
give developing cities more time to develop their transport infrastructure, so that it supports
other kinds of motorisation. Policies that enhance non-car modes of travel, including buses, rail,
bicycles, and walking, place much of the cost burden on car owners. This strategy helps reduce
car ownership, traffic congestion, air pollution, and GHG emissions.
Technology strategies
The other broad set of strategies to reduce GHG emissions is technology based. Technological
strategies tend to require fewer behavioural and lifestyle changes, and are therefore easier to
implement than policies that reduce vehicle demand and use. In practice, though, the two
strategy types usually complement each other. Technological strategies focus on fuels,
propulsion technology, other vehicle attributes (such as size), and the use of communication
and information technologies.
Table 3.5.3 presents estimates of GHG emissions for different vehicle types and
technologies for developing countries. These estimates are based on a number of assumptions:
They are based on the typical vehicles likely to be operating in developing countries, by 2020.
They roughly reflect circumstances expected to exist during the next 20 years - that is, small
increases in energy prices, and gradual adoption of existing and state-of-the-art efficiency
innovations. If fuel prices were to be substantially higher than at present or aggressive efforts
were pursued to reduce fuel consumption or GHG emissions, these emissions would be lower.
The GHG emission factors are C02-equivalent measures. They include the principal GHG and
emissions from the full fuel cycle (from "well to wheels"f. Taking these limitations into
account, the results in Table 3.5.3 indicate that:
Collective modes of transport consume far less energy and generate fewer GHG
emissions than private vehicles.
Vehicles powered by electricity and fuel cells tend to generate considerably fewer
GHG emissions than those powered by internal combustion engines.
Small scooters and motorcycles have relatively low GHG emissions, roughly
comparable to rail transit and jitney type transit services.
Petrol tends to have the highest GHG emissions per km of the commonly used fuels.
Natural gas tends to rank somewhat better, diesel even better, and electricity best of
all (except when coal is mainly used to produce the electricity).
Some of these findings are more precise than others. For instance, diesel-associated
GHG emissions are typically about 40 percent lower than those associated with petrol, because
diesel engines are more efficient, contain less energy per litre, and generate emissions with a
lower "global warming potential" than petrol engines. Natural gas used in place of gasoline, is
likely to generate about 20 percent fewer GHG emissions 8•
Table 3. 5. 2 C02 emissions and 1•ehicles per capita for selected countries (1998)
CO, EmhlsiOIIS Per Tl'IIIISpOrtation Sector Pen:ent
Colllltry Cars Per 1000 People(l996)*"
Capita from !l'IIIISpOrlation (kg} ofTolal CarbonEmissio!lll
Chile 1028 28% 110
China 178 8% 8
India 120 13% 7
Mexico 1010 27% 143
South Africa 1740* 20%* 121
France 2257 35% 526
Japan 1971 22% 552
United Kingdom 2238 24% 441
United States 6082 30% 769
Notes:
• These data on South Africa CO, emissions were adjusted upward by authors to account for large amounts of upstream
ernissiollll resulting from their use of coal-based transportation fuels.
•• These car ownership numbers include light duty trucks (important in US), mini-cars and mini-trucks (under660 cc) in Japan,
and exclude motorbikes (important in India and China).
Sources: International Energy Agency (2000); Metschies (1999).
Table 3.5.3 Greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles and transport modes in
developing countries
t"'" "'" " "'" "'•" "'" "'" " '" "•" "'•" "'"'-" "'"•"'t~ ~ ~ ~ :~ ~ ~ :~ ~ ~ ~ : : :;: ~;- - - ·- -~~~~;;;~~~~~;;~~~~;~~~~~~~~
Car (gasoline) 2.5 130-170
Car (diesel) 2.5 85-120
Car (natural gas) 2.5 100-135
Car (electric)* 2.0 30-100
Scooter (two-stroke) 1.5 60-90
Scooter (four-stroke) 1.5 40.{50
Minibus (gasoline) 12.0 50-70
Minibus (diesel) 12.0 40.{50
Bus (diesel) 40.0 20-30
Bus (natural gas)
Bus (hydrogen fuel cell)**
40.0
40.0
l 25-35
3.{5
Rail Transit*** 75%full I 20-50
Notes:
All numbers in this table are estimates and approximations, and are best treated as illustrative. See case study reports in this
series from the Pew Center on Global Climate Change for details and differences across cities and countries.
• Ranges are due largely to varying mixes of carbon and non-<:arbon energy soun:es (ranging from about 20-80% coal), and
also the assumption that the battery electric vehicle will tend to be somewhat smaller than conventional cars.
•• Hydrogen is assumed to be made from natural gas.
••• Assumes heavy urban rail technology ("Metro") powered by electricity made from a mix of coal, natural gas, and
hydropower, with high passenger use (75% of seats filled on average).
Other factors introduce even more variation. Although most vehicle technologies are
international, there are major differences in how they are used, their occupancy characteristics,
and in some cases how they are designed. In South Africa, minivans are used as minibuses for
public transport, even though they were not necessarily designed with this purpose in mind,
and are typically overloaded. Cars in South Africa also tend to be considerably larger (and less
fuel efficient) than those in China and India. In India, the average occupancy of a two-wheeler
is much greater than one person. Buses in India and China are designed with smaller engines
and consume less energy. In summary, the figures in Table 3.5.3 are subject to many
qualifications and can vary considerably.
In exploring technology-based strategies and options to reduce GHG emissions, three
phases of technological innovations are sweeping through the international automotive industry.
While these innovations generally take hold later in developing countries than in more affluent
industrialised countries, they will eventually be adopted, sometimes quickly.
The first phase is aimed at reducing air pollutant emissions from conventional internal
combustion engines. These changes are already taking place in most developing countries, as a
result of adopting more stringent emission standards and greater foreign investment in local
automotive industries. They include improvements in combustion processes, treatment of
exhaust gases (i.e., with catalytic converters), and the use of cleaner burning fuels. Improved
engine combustion and exhaust gas treatment will have virtually no effect on energy efficiency
or GHG emissions, however. The use of natural gas, alcohol fuels, and propane will reduce
GHG emissions in petrol engines, by about 20 to 30 percent, but will do nothing to reduce
emissions from diesel engines and may even increase them slightly.
The second phase of innovation is aimed at increasing the energy efficiency of
conventional engines. Vehicles manufactured in India, China, and other developing countries
do not generally incorporate the most fuel efficient technologies. If the Indian and Chinese auto
industries were to adopt technology already available in the international market, fuel economy
would be substantially improved. The average fuel economy for new, small cars sold today in
India is over 30 miles per gallon (mpg) (81itres/l00 kilometres). Small two-stroke motorcycles
achieve over 80 mpg (3 litres/100 km) and buses over 7 mpg (34 litres/100 km). These
impressive fuel economy figures are not the result of state-of-the-art technology, but less
power and a reduction in size. With more advanced technology, considerable improvements
are possible. Car manufacturers are continuing to increase vehicle efficiency in response to
tightening fuel economy standards in Japan, voluntary C02 standards in Europe, and high fuel
prices in most countries. In the U.S., vehicle energy efficiency is also being improved, but the
improvements are being used to facilitate increased power and vehicle size, and additional
energy-consuming accessories such as four-wheel drive.
The third phase of innovations is more radical. It involves a transition away from internal
combustion engines to electric drive propulsion technology, which has the potential for the
greatest reductions in GHG emissions. The use of electric-drive systems - fuel cells, batteries,
and hybrid electric systems - would improve energy efficiency by 50 percent or more and lead
to far less pollution. These technologies are novel and are expensive, but costs are dropping
quickly and they could be cost-competitive with conventional technologies within one to two
decades. Small numbers of battery-powered scooters and cars are being sold in India, Taiwan,
and elsewhere. Competitively priced hybrid electric vehicles became available internationally
from Honda and Toyota in 2000, and several other manufacturers have announced plans for the
mass production of hybrid vehicles by 2004. Fuel cell buses made by several companies will
be available in Shanghai, Delhi, and number of other cities in Europe and developing countries
in 2002-03, though at high prices and with large subsidies.
All of these technologies can be used in developing country settings, and most already
are. Their success however, depends on their appropriate application. Technologies that work
in developed countries may not work in less developed countries due to their expense,
maintenance needs, fuel availability, or the need for high levels of institutional support.
Leapfrog technologies9
Why not expedite the use of fuel cells, smart transit services, and other cutting-edge
technologies? Why not skip over the relatively dirty and inefficient internal combustion engine,
the large fuel production and distribution infrastructure associated with petroleum, and the
chaos of "unintelligent" roads and transit systems? In the telecommunications industry, cellular
phones are replacing wires as the physical equipment needed for communication all over the
world. In developing countries, this technology is making it easier than ever for people to
connect to each other and to the rest of the world, "leapfrogging" the need for telephone lines.
Indeed, there is considerable merit to this leapfrog concept.
However, in transport these technologies tend to be far more costly than their petroleum
equivalents, and, in the case of ITS technologies, require huge financial and institutional
investments. Even in Shanghai, one of the best-managed cities in the world, there were
substantial problems and large expenses associated with the deployment of ITS technologies to
manage the roadways. Advanced transport technologies are clearly an attractive option in less
developed countries, but great care must be taken to adapting them to the setting, anticipating
unexpected costs, and providing the expertise and institutional investments to implement these
technologies successfully.
The only leapfrog technology that has the potential for large and relatively rapid
improvements, may be fuel cells. They are more energy efficient and less polluting than
today's vehicles, and could be cost competitive. But the fuel cell case highlights the leapfrog
challenge. First, they are far from cost competitive at present. Any country seriously
contemplating a leap to fuel cells would need to invest very heavily in its domestic automotive
industry, or patiently await investments from foreign companies. Fuel cells are not implausible
as a means of partially leapfrogging petroleum and internal combustion engines, but fuel cell
vehicles are not expected to be mass marketed before 2010 in affluent industrialised countries,
and thus such a leap could not begin in developing countries for at least 15 years.
Consider the case of China, the most likely candidate for this fuel cell strategy. Shell
International, well known for its prescient scenario planning group, developed two energy
scenarios. In the more ambitious scenario, Shell posited that by 2025 China, with one-fifth of
the world's population, limited petroleum reserves, growing vehicle use, and a rapidly
expanding economy, would be facing an unacceptable dependence on oil imports. The
following scenario description from the Shell report suggests the complex set of circumstances
and tortuous route, by which China might pursue fuel cell vehicles.
"China would push towards the use of indigenous coal. But doing so would become
logistically and environmentally problematic.... Meanwhile, growing global demand for
gas and hydrogen would be supported by - and spur - advances in low cost and
unobtrusive in-situ extraction of methane and hydrogen from coal. Carbon dioxide
sequestration would become feasible and enhance productivity in this scenario... China
is able to make use of these, as well as indigenous technologies, to extract methane and
hydrogen directly from its coal resources, allowing it to move energy by pipeline rather
than thousands of trains. Once fuel cells take off in OECD countries, China starts to
develop a transport and power system around cost effective fuel cells fuelled by
indigenous methane and hydrogen" (Shell International, 2001, pp.50-52).
3.5.3 Policy Options
In 1997, it was estimated that globally, the transport sector was responsible for 22.7 percent of
worldwide carbon dioxide emissions, and that emissions from this sector are growing faster
than any other (lEA, 2000). The issue of climate change however, is a global problem with
long term effects, which make it a difficult target for local policymakers facing more
immediate problems.
The list of policies and investments that meet local transport needs and also result in
lower GHG emissions, is extensive. These options are examined and sorted below. However,
there is no perfect solution for any one region, and certainly no general solution that can be
broadly applied.
One way to understand the complexity of choices is to conceptualise the problem of
GHG emissions as a "tragedy of the commons" - a conflict between private and public
interests -and to examine responses by different societies. The U.S. response tends toward
accommodation of private desires. It reflects the country's plentiful open space and financial
resources, and a national philosophy of independence and individualism. One manifestation of
this response is the high number of vans and sport utility vehicles, which exist for personal
use 10•
Most countries in the Americas have philosophies of independence and individualism
similar to that of the United States, but do not have the financial resources to reach the same
level of personal vehicle ownership and use. In contrast are societies characterised by high
population densities, limited financial resources, less individualistic cultures, and strong
governance. In these societies, policies and investments that directly limit personal choices
may be more acceptable. To be successful and effective, policies must be developed that
respect these differences.
A policy framework
There are five fundamental strategies to reduce GHG emissions from the transport sector: 11
1. Increase vehicle efficiency
2. Switch to less greenhouse gas-intensive fuels

3. Switch to less greenhouse gas-intensive transport modes
4. Decrease travel distance
5. Increase occupancy of vehicles
Each strategy can be pursued, using a variety of policies and investments (Table 3.5.4),
which fall into three general categories:
Direct mandates through regulation
Market-based policy instruments, such as taxes, subsidies, or roadway tolls
Direct investment
Table 3.5.4 Policy and investment choices to reduce vehicle use and greenhouse
gas emissions
Feebate system•, fuel tax,

accelerated vehicle scmppagc
program, "gas-guzzler" tax
Mandate such as the decision

requiring all Delhi buses to
Nmpl'l.>sse<i natural gas
Mode Choice Bans on private vehicle use in city Investments to increase and
centres improve the quality of transit
service, such as car sharing and
other private car alternatives
Travel Mixed-use zoning, no-drive days .Mmkd incentives for high density Investments in optimising logistics
Activity development for goods delivery
..........................·--······-···j
Vehicle Only allow vehicles with a Incentives for carpooling such as Investment in intennodal freight
Occupancy prescribed number of passengers HOV lanes transport centres; investment in
into the city centre more comfortable public transit
vehicles.
········--······-----.l....---------L-------.......1
Note:
• A feebatc system is a tax-subsidy regulation. First, a level of vehicle greenhouse gas emissions per kilometre is chosen.
Consumers who porchase a vehicle that exceed this level pay an extra fee, and consumers who purchase vehicles that have
lower emissions than this level receive a rebate. For a more detailed discussion of interaction effects between potential
actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector, see Schipper eta! (2000).
Synergistic policies and investments

Sometimes, if more than one strategy is implemented, the resulting effect on GHG emissions is
greater than the sum of the effects due to the strategies being implemented separately. However,
on other occasions, two or more strategies overlap and therefore lead to a smaller overall effect
when implemented together, than the two strategies would have led to separately 12 .
Take a city, for example, which aims to slow the increase in GHG emissions, by
encouraging a shift from private cars to public transport. The region considers the policy of
raising the cost of driving by increasing tolls on heavily travelled routes and investing in an
enhanced public transport service. If the region implements only the policy or only makes the
investment, the resulting mode shift is likely to be relatively small. If however, the region
coordinates the two strategies, the resulting behavioural change may be substantial.
Consider the following three real-world success stories. The cases of Singapore and
Curitiba are described in detail in Chapter 5.
Singapore. Singapore is a small, relatively affluent country with low car ownership and
extensive, high quality transport service. The low motorisation rate did not evolve naturally. In
the 1950s, Singapore had a high motorisation rate relative to its income. Its leaders explicitly
set out to reverse that relationship - and with success (Willoughby, 2001). Singapore
controlled vehicle ownership and use, invested substantially in public transport, and controlled
land use development.

Investment in bus and rail transport has been considerable. The rail transit network was
carefully designed and coordinated with land use development plans. Stations are located near
40 percent of all businesses and within walking distance of 30 percent of the population
(Willoughby, 2001). The government also strongly discouraged car ownership and use. A very
high "additional registration fee" (ARF) was imposed on vehicle purchases until 1990, which
was then replaced by an auction system. At its peak, the ARF reached 150 percent of the
vehicle's market value and today the bid price for the right to purchase a vehicle under the
current auction system, is similarly high. In parallel, vehicle usage has been controlled with
high road taxes and parking fees. Until 1998, drivers entering certain areas of the city were
required to purchase an expensive licence, a system which was then replaced by electronic road
pricing. Some argue that the total cost of driving in Singapore, is greater than the full private
and social cost of owning and operating vehicles, and that the government strategy has been
too aggressive. That may be true, but the net effect is that Singapore has been transformed
from a country of poverty, to one of the most affluent in the world (on a per capita basis), with
one of the highest quality of life ratings (Willoughby, 2001) -- and with very low transport
energy use and GHG emissions, for a country of its income.
Shanghai, China. Shanghai most closely reflects Singapore, but at an earlier stage of
development and on a much larger scale (16 million people in Shanghai compared to 4 million
people in Singapore). Shanghai has a sophisticated planning organisation that coordinates
transportation decisions with other land use and city planning policies. The municipal
government has considerable control over land use and can coordinate housing and transport
investments in a way that is impossible in many other parts of the world. Shanghai is executing
an ambitious plan to decentralise the crowded city and build satellite cities, with coordinated
investments in rail transit and major highways. It has also adopted strong disincentives for car
ownership. The result to date is impressive.
Curitiba, Brazil. The city of Curitiba, Brazil, is a superb example of policy coordination, in
this case between land use planning and public transport investments. Curitiba is among the
few cities in the world that has implemented a linear pattern of development together with an
efficient transportation system. Buses efficiently serve the entire city with a hierarchy of
routes: a limited number of dedicated double-articulated trunk and high speed routes,
integrated with conventional and feeder routes 13 • Development was strongly encouraged along
the dedicated routes. At the same time, much of the city centre was converted to pedestrian-
only streets that are most easily accessed by public transport (Rabinovitch, 1996).
The importance of local circumstances

Because local circumstances - political, economic, geographic, environmental, social, and
institutional - vary so much, policies and strategies are not easily replicated. Consider two of
the examples above. Singapore does not have the geography or topography to develop as a
linear city, but it does have a population willing to limit its personal desires for the greater
public interest, and a strong and resource-rich central government with the ability to develop
effective policies. Curitiba, on the other hand, did not have the local institutions and the culture
that readily lent itself to strict control of vehicle ownership, but developed other strategies,
which worked well in that setting.
In different parts of the world, successful strategies to slow the increase of GHG
emissions in the transport sector, will be different, due to the variety of existing transport
systems and political environments. There are, however, some identifiable factors that are
likely to influence the outcome for most societies. Factors that affect which strategies are likely
to be successful include the following:
Centralisation of authority
Policy and investment precedents
Existing land use patterns, and topographical and geographical constraints
Group-oriented cultural norms in the society
Strong policy enforcement capabilities of local institutions
Local commitment to related policy goals, such as air quality improvement
Economic and political influence of local interest groups, such as automotive and oil
suppliers
Strength of local public interest non-governmental organisations
The interplay of these factors in each city and country, leads to very different outcomes.
For instance, in many countries and cities, a business tradition has evolved of company cars -
vehicles financed, owned, or subsidised by employers and provided to employees for personal
and business use. In Shenzhen, China, in the mid-1990s, 70 percent of vehicles reported! y were
company cars (Chen and Feng, 1998). Even in countries like the United Kingdom, this ratio
can be very high, reportedly approaching 50 percent of sales in the early 1990s, although this
has decreased since laws and loopholes have been tightened. The presence of company cars,
aided by local tax structures, undermines fiscal strategies supporting public transport and
reducing car ownership and use. This practice inflates vehicle sales and the size of vehicles,
since users are not absorbing the cost of the vehicle.
In Chile, truckers initially opposed paying tolls on the privatised intercity highways,
claiming they would be too costly. The conflict was resolved in April 2000, when they were
offered a 50-percent reduction in diesel fuel taxes (O'Ryan et al., 2002). In South Africa,
decades of Apartheid policies transformed much of the land use, transport, and energy systems
of the country. Black neighbourhoods were moved far from city centres, requiring expanded
transport services with large subsidies to serve this work force. Black-owned jitney services
were allowed to flourish to ease the subsidy burden. High-carbon synthetic fuels were
subsidised to counter international sanctions.
There are also many examples highlighting energy and transportation options that might
be mutually beneficial. In Jakarta in 1991, fuel consumption was estimated as being 30 percent
higher than expected, (given the vehicle technologies used), due to traffic congestion (Sathaye
and Walsh, 1992). With improved traffic management, traffic would flow more smoothly and
energy consumption would drop. Likewise, in Bogota, Colombia it was found that fuel
consumption was 25 percent higher for a vehicle moving on a gravel or earth surface, than on
an asphalt pavement (Sathaye and Walsh, 1992). By improving road maintenance and
upgrading road surfaces, traffic congestion and fuel consumption would again both be reduced,
providing mutually reinforcing benefits.
Institutional capabilities
The policies and investment strategies discussed in this section are not novel. All have been
implemented in various combinations in cities all over the world. What is less common, is their
implementation based on a coordinated transportation and land use plan for an urban region
with strong institutional support. Cities in today's developing countries are able to learn from
the policy successes and failures of others, allowing them to choose the policies that make the
most sense for their situation.
The economies and populations of many of these cities however, are growing at much
faster rates, than was the case for cities in the now-developed world. This makes it crucial that
transport and land use planning institutions in developing cities, coordinate their efforts to
reach common goals. Perhaps the most important strategy and highest priority in responding to
transport and environmental challenges is to strengthen local institutions, particularly in urban
areas. The speed with which these developing country cities are moving toward development is
unprecedented; strong, coordinated planning institutions are all the more necessary to guide
them.
The challenge is huge. In Delhi for example, the "local government" responsible for
transport planning, consists of as many as a dozen separate agencies that historically have not
coordinated well. The Supreme Court of India intervened in response to a lawsuit by a
nongovernmental organisation on the premise of protecting the health of the people of Delhi.
The result was a variety of controversial initiatives, including a requirement that all buses and
taxis convert to natural gas. The directives were not the result of a careful assessment of
options, and focused on technical fixes rather than more fundamental shifts in behaviour and
land use. These policies reflected a mood of desperation about air pollution and exasperation
with the existing metropolitan institutions.
A U.S. National Academy of Science report highlights the problem of insufficient
institutional capacity:
" ... developing countries face a number of institutional problems that are less
prevalent in the industrialised nations, including the absence of reliable bases for
funding of public-sector activities, fragmentation and overlap of institutions in the
metropolitan areas, inadequate or poorly trained technical staff for planning and
implementation functions, and the inability to enforce complex regulations and laws"
(National Research Council, 1996, p.4).
Finding solutions to transport problems is particularly difficult, because transport

systems are so complex. These systems serve a large number of different constituencies, each
with its own interests, including strong industrial groups such as car manufacturers and
construction companies. At the same time, it must fulfil important public service roles, such as
providing access for marginalised groups of the population. It must also coordinate closely
with land use, environmental, and energy policies and respond continually, to the tension
between the public good and private desires. Doing all this in a period of rapid growth with
limited resources, is indeed a challenge. International efforts need to focus on strengthening the
decision-making, analysis, planning, and enforcement capabilities of local institutions in
developing countries, to help make such efforts successful.
3.5.4 Towards Policy Solutions
Specific policy options aimed at slowing the increase in transport-related GHG emissions from
the developing countries, vary widely. Some of the principles, developing countries might
follow in pursuing a more economically, socially, and environmentally beneficial path include
the following:
Integrate residential and economic activities
Pursue enhanced technologies
Use market-based policy instruments and private sector suppliers and operators
Preserve the attractiveness of non-motorised options
Discourage the use of full-sized cars in cities
Pursue all alternatives to current car usage and ownership patterns
There are clearly many policy and investment options (c.f. section 4.4) that are likely to
slow the increase in GHG emissions from the transport sector, many of which might be
attractive for other reasons as well. Vital to the success of any policy, however, is its feasibility
within the existing local institutional and cultural context.
It is also important to appreciate that some sets of policies interact in ways that are likely
to make the effect of a policy package on GHG emissions greater than the sum of its parts;
other sets of policies can have the opposite interaction effect (see also section 4.8). To the
extent possible, synergistic policy and investment packages should be sought and implemented.
In the end, climate change is a global problem that requires a global solution, and
reducing GHG emissions from the transport sector anywhere in the world, poses one of the
biggest challenges. The management of transport systems in developing countries, represent
one of the greatest opportunities for making a significant change in the trajectory of transport
sector GHG emissions worldwide. Local decision makers in these countries have more
immediate problems to deal with however, as well as limited financial and institutional
resources. It is appropriate therefore, for industrialised nations to provide both financial and
institutional support and to invest in the development of sustainable transport systems in these
countries. The issues of finance, institution and pathways in developing countries are described
in section 6.4.
3.6 NOISE
3.6.1 Impact and Perception of Noise
In our environment, noise comes from a number of sources e.g. construction machinery, music
from a neighbour's hi-fi system, lawn-mowers, tennis courts and transport. Whether a sound is
perceived as noise or not, is often subjective and depends on the perspective of the recipient of
the sound. Somebody listening to the music of their own hi-fi system does so believing that it
is good music, while their neighbour might complain about the noise stopping them sleep.
Medical, psychological and epidemiological research reveal that noise in the
environment has a number of effects:
disturbance of communication,
disturbance of concentration at work,
impairment of sleep,
psychological and somatic reactions
ischemic heart disease, increasing the risk of heart attacks.(ICNR, 1982a; ICNR,
1982b; ICNR, 1985; ICNR, 1990; Babisch eta!., 1994)
Whether a noise is seen as an annoyance depends on certain characteristics of the sound.

The first is the time of day when the noise occurs. Disturbance from noise is most significant
during the evening or at night. The second is the dynamics of the sound ie. the change from
loud noise to silence and vice versa. The third is the frequency of the sound, because loud,
high tones cause more disturbance than loud, low tones. The fourth is social evaluation. For
religious people, the sound of church bells or the muezzin on the minarets have positive
meanings, whereas other people hearing them early in the morning, experience them as an
annoyance.
Describing noise objectively is difficult, because it is not visible and is often only
temporary. In 2002, the German Association for Noise Abatement (DAL, Deutscher
Arbeitsring fiir Uirmbekiimpfung e.V.) requested that German children draw pictures to
illustrate noise and make it visible. Figure 3.6.1 shows the prize winners' pictures.
The pictures illustrate that for children, transport is one of the most important sources of
noise, since almost all of them give it a prominent position. Epidemiological and medical
research confirm this, revealing that in the last two decades, transport noise has become a
major cause of severe annoyance, which can have adverse effects on health. The most recent
findings indicate that chronic noise stress may even lead to fatalities. Studies in Germany and
the United Kingdom report that people exposed to average transport noise levels above 65
dB(A) 14 at their place of residence have a 20% increased risk of myocardial infarctions (heart
attacks). At noise levels above 70 dB(A), the increase in risk is estimated to be 30% (Ising et
al., 1997).
The mechanisms leading to this increased risk of potentially fatal heart attacks have also
been investigated. Undisturbed sleep is required for humans to perform intellectual activities,
and to maintain psychological well being and a healthy immune system. Sleep is divided into
two types: REM-sleep phases (Rapid-Eye-Movement sleep indicating that the person is
dreaming) and Non-REM sleep phases (deep sleep). The former are necessary for the
psychological health and the latter for the physical health. REM-sleep and Non-REM sleep
phases alternate during a normal night's sleep. Noise can disturb both phases. Disturbance of
these phases does not necessarily mean that people wake up, since noise which is below the
wake up level, still leads to alarm reactions in the unconscious physiological systems, which
affect the cardiovascular and metabolic systems. Adverse effects on health of long-term noise
exposure generally occur after about 5 to 10 years. However, without any REM-sleep phases,
illness such as neuroses can occur after a matter of days (10 to 12 days) (Maschke et al., 1997a;
Maschke et al., 1997b). Based on these findings, it was estimated that in West Germany in
1995, approximately 1480 fatalities a year were caused by transport noise above levels of 65
dB(A) (Neus et al, 1995). By the year 2000, the German EPA estimated that this figure had
risen to approximately 1800 fatalities a year (UBA, 2000).
If noise is compared with other causes of transport fatalities in Europe, it causes fewer
deaths than general air pollution and accidents, but more than carcinogenic air pollutants.
There is still disagreement among medical scientists about the impact of transport noise on
health, although there is evidence that it was already identified as a problem from the time that
motorisation began. One example can be found in the Swiss canton, Graubunden. While mass
motorisation in some parts of the industrialised world started in 1913 with the production of
Henry Ford's T-Model in the U.S., in Graubunden, cars were banned until1925, when the lOth
in a series of plebiscites to lift the ban of cars was finally successful. One of the arguments put
forward in favour of the ban was the noise and dust emitted by cars (Manheim and Monheim-
Dandorfer, 1990).
Jakob Pressler, First prize, below 11 years old
Magdalena Gotze, Second prize, 11-15 years Simon Pelster, First prize, 11-15 years old
old
Source: DAL (No date).
Figure 3.6.1 Children's prize winning pictures to illustrate noise
Apart from the fatalities directly caused by noise, secondary effects are mentioned in the
literature e.g. the loss in productivity because people have not slept properly during the night
and an increase in traffic accidents or accidents at work because of a lack of concentration
(U.S.-Citizens Aviation Watch Association, 2000). A recent Swiss study argues that it is not
the fatal impacts of transport noise that matter most for welfare, but the sum of millions of
small disturbances affecting large shares of the population in its sleep, communication and
work (BUWAL, 2002b).
Transport noise from motorised modes also adversely affects the most environmentally
friendly modes of walking and cycling. Although these modes are perfectly suited to the urban
environment, consuming as they do little space, producing no air or noise pollution and being
highly flexible in reaching urban destinations, noise and air pollution nearby busy roads deter
people from walking or cycling in urban areas (Whitelegg, 1993).
3.6.2 Sources of Transport Noise
Each mode emits noise in different ways and the most important source of noise may change
depending on the situation e.g. speed and acceleration. Additionally, the frequency spectrum
emitted by each mode differs, which is important as human noise perception varies for the
different frequencies.
For road modes, there are three main sources of noise: (i) the engine, with its combustion
processes; (ii) the mechanics, at the interface between the tyre and the road which generates
the rolling noise; and (iii) the wind noise, depending on the aerodynamic characteristics of the
vehicle. Which of the these is the most significant source of noise, depends very much on the
driving speed. At low speeds, up to about 30 km/h, the engine noise is most significant. As
speed increases, the tyre-road rolling noise becomes the most significant source and finally at
speeds of 60 to 80 km/h, depending on the vehicle aerodynamics, wind noise is the most
significant source. These distinctions are true for driving at more or less continuous speeds.
If the vehicle is accelerating, engine noise can also be a significant source at much
higher speeds than 30 km/h. For larger vehicles too, engine noise is a significant source, even
when travelling at higher speeds. In addition to being louder, trucks and buses also emit more
noise in low frequency bands than passenger cars. In buildings, low frequency bands are more
difficult to insulate against, so that the share of trucks and buses has to be carefully considered
in noise assessments. The impact of acceleration on noise emissions also needs to be
considered. Traffic situations that require acceleration such as traffic lights, pedestrian
crossings and steep uphill roads, usually generate more transport noise.
The dominant sources of noise from the rail mode differ from those of the road mode. At
low speeds, engine noise is again the most significant and the noise caused by wind resistance is
significant at higher speeds, which is especially important for high-speed railways. If tracks are
maintained properly however, noise emissions from the wheel-track interface are insignificant,
compared with the road-tyre interface. Train brakes, however, can be a major source of noise
from trains. The noise of brakes depends mainly on the driving situation (e.g. arriving at a station
or a red signal) and the system of the braking. Block brakes, which are used in nearly all freight
trains and older passenger trains, produce the most noise. Modem passenger trains are equipped
with disc brakes, which are quieter and additional noise absorbers are being developed that
insulate their noise emissions further. An important difference between road and railway noise is
the frequency of noise events. While road noise at busy roads is pretty much constant, railways
provide quiet periods between two consecutive trains.
Air transport shows a different noise pattern again. Though in principle engine noise and
wind noise are dominant at lower speeds and higher speeds respectively, the most relevant
noise event is the take-off or landing of a plane. Hence, air transport noise plays a role only at
airports and along the air routes for planes using the airport. During take-off and landing,
engine noise is dominant, leading engine manufacturers to put a lot of effort into developing
insulation and noise reduction techniques for jet engines.
Normally, transport noise is not the only source of noise. There is usually a mix of noise
from different transport modes (though in urban areas the road mode is dominant), and from
other sources like radios, children, lawn mowers and bars.
3.6.3 Noise Propagation
Noise emissions are transmitted via sound waves from the source to the reception point. The
sound waves expand spherically from the source in all directions. However, with increasing
distance from the source, the noise is dampened as the sound waves lose energy. Objects
between the source and reception points also have a dampening effect on noise. Massive
objects reduce noise considerably, as is the case when noise protection walls and noise
protection windows are used to combat noise pollution. Wind can increase noise, if it is
blowing from the source to the reception point, or if it is blowing in the opposite direction, the
noise is reduced.
There need not always be a straight line between the source and reception point, to
transmit noise. Noise can be reflected from massive objects and so can also reach locations
"around the comer" from the source. These reflections also increase the noise levels in street
canyons, where both sides of the street are built up with houses, or in valleys with busy traffic.
Factors such as these which increase noise levels, have to be taken into account during noise
assessments.
3.6.4 Measurement of Noise
There are two main approaches to measuring transport noise immisions (a technical term for
the noise level imposed on a given location by a given source). In the first, noise is measured
directly at the reception point by measuring the noise immissions e.g. with a microphone or
similar technical equipment. In the second, noise is calculated by computer models that use
transport characteristics and local parameters as inputs, to derive noise emissions from the
source and the resulting noise immissions at the reception point. To get comparable and
meaningful results, direct measurement of noise requires standardised equipment and
procedure, like those set out in the Swiss guidelines, which accompanied the noise protection
directive (LSV) (BUWAL, 1995). The problem with taking direct measurements is that it is
only possible at certain times - sometimes only for a few hours a day- which makes it difficult
to come to a sound conclusion about the long-term noise impact.
This has led several countries to develop calculation schemes to determine the
continuous noise level resulting from transport activities. Implemented in commercial software
tools, these schemes provide fast and convenient methods to calculate the impact of noise, for
specific locations, as well as for a whole area. This allows the noise maps to be prepared. The
Swiss and the German noise calculation schemes both consist of a core equation to calculate
the basic noise emissions of a road based on speed, average daily traffic during one hour
(ADT) and share of heavy duty vehicles (sHDV):
Germany: L.~"•' = 37.3+10*1g[ADT* (1+0.082* sHDV)]

Switzerland: L ... = 43+10*Ig[(l+(SP/50)')*(1+ 20* sHDV*(1-SP/150))]+10*Ig[ADT]
with: SP = speed, sHDV =share heavy duty vehicles,
ADT =average daily traffic during one representative hour (e.g. at day or night).
The German guideline is valid for a speed of 100 km/h and considers variations in speed
via a separate additive correction term not included in the equation above, such that the basic
influencing parameters of the Swiss and German equations are the same. For both schemes
additional correction factors are taken into account like distance between source and reception
point, type of road pavement, slope, influence of traffic lights, reflections and dampening
influences (for Germany: BMV-Ministry of Transport, 1990; for Switzerland: BUWAL-
Federal Agency for Environment, Forests and Landscape, 1987).
Apart from the measurement methodology, the applied measuring scale also plays an
important role. In general, the decibel-scale is used in the form of dB(A), which means that the
scale is adapted to the way humans experience noise. DB(A) has a logarithmic scale, in which
0 dB(A) is equivalent to the hearing threshold level. The characteristics of a logarithmic scale
imply that a tenfold increase in emissions lead to an increase of immissions of 10 dB(A).
Halving the volume of traffic on a road, decreases noise emissions by only 3 dB(A). The
indicator used for noise measurement is normally the equivalent continuous sound pressure
level measured over a period T (LAeq,T). Most up-to-date legislation, like the new European
noise directive (2002/49/EC), considers three relevant periods for setting noise standards: a 12-
hour day-period, a 4-hour evening period and an 8-hour night-period.
Two problems with the German modelling scheme can be identified, that probably also
exist for schemes in other countries. First, the scheme does not reflect noise peaks, caused by a
single motorbike or an aeroplane at night, for example, which lead to sleep disturbance. Such
peaks are cancelled out by averaging the noise level. Second, no differentiation for sound
frequencies is considered, even though some frequencies are more disturbing than others.
3.6.5 An International Comparison of Noise Pollution
The following sections describe the situation of actual noise pollution from transport for a
range of countries. Two different approaches to describing noise pollution are applied
depending on data availability: the subjective approach uses surveys to measure how many
people are annoyed by transport noise, while the objective approach measures, usually by
means of large scale modelling, how many people are affected in their dwellings by noise
levels that have been scientifically identified as causing severe adverse impacts, e.g. 65 dB(A)
during daytime.
Germany
Between 1984 and 1994, the German Environmental Protection Agency (EPA,
Umweltbundesarnt, UBA) surveyed the German population about their exposure to and
annoyance caused by transport noise. The results revealed that two thirds of the West German
population felt themselves to be annoyed by road transport noise. Half of the population were
annoyed by air transport noise and about one fifth were annoyed by rail transport noise (see
Figure 3.6.2) (UBA, 1995a; IPRAS, 1994). This indicates that some people feel annoyed by
several transport modes.
The current situation in Germany differs significantly from the noise targets suggested
by the German Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). About 13 million persons or 15.6%
of the German population are affected by day-time road transport noise levels above 65dB(A).
This means that their risk of being victim to a heart attack is increased by 20%. More than 30%
of the population is exposed to noise levels above the immission limits of the 16th BimSchV.
Table 3.6.1 presents results of estimates of transport noise exposure in Germany (UBA, 2002).
Since 1986, the share of persons affected by noise levels from road transport above 65 dB(A)
has roughly doubled from 8% (SRU, 1987) to 15.6%.
Wr--------------------------------,
~70
~
~60
[so
]40
~ 30
=
1) 20
e
~10
0~--~--~--~--------~--~--~---4
1984 1986 1987 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994
Year
-M- Total annoyed by road transport ...... Total annoyed by rail transport
--- Total annoyed by air transport
Source: UBA (1995a); IPRAS (1994).

Figure 3. 6.2 Survey on experienced transport noise pollution
in West Germany
Table 3. 6.1 Exposure to transport noise in Germany as share of

affected population
R!lad 1'nlll'fl(>n ·····""""'"""""~"""""""""""""'R-;;irr;~;;:"""""""""""""""'"

.le\'<ll .!999 1997
}J d~y '';;T!l1T""""""
!> 45-50 16.4 17.6 12.4 15.5
[>50-55 15.8 14.3 14.9 10.8
!>55- 60 18.0 9.3 10.4 6.2
1> 60- 65 15.3 4.2 6.2 2.7
I >65 -70 9.0 2.9 2.3 0.9
1>70-75 5.1 0.7 0.4
0.2
L::~~-~~--~~-~~-- -·--·-·-·--'L
0 0.1 0.1
·············-----····"""""""""'"
500000r----------------------------------------------------,
§ 400000
~
1300000
~ 200000
100000
Source: BUWAL (2002a).

Figure 3. 6. 3 Distribution of outdoor noise levels from roads during the day
affecting the Swiss
Switzerland
In 1998, a survey in Switzerland identified noise pollution as a widespread problem. Sixty four
percent of people claimed to feel annoyed by noise, without differentiating sources (Lorenz,
2000). A detailed analysis of the noise levels from road transport affecting the Swiss
population, revealed that about 525,000 persons were affected by daytime noise above 65
dB(A) (see Figure 3.6.3).
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the "Environmental Balance Sheet 1998" states that the noise abatement
targets fixed in the National Environmental Policy Plan 3 (NEPP3), are likely to be achieved in
the near future. Nevertheless, about 40% of the population indicated that they suffer from
transport and industrial noise (RIVM, 1998). The long-term development of noise annoyance in
the Netherlands revealed by surveys, shows a peak at the beginning of the 1990s, a decrease until
1996, followed by a stabilisation at the 40%-level (RIVM, 2001). This is shown in Figure 3.6.4.
Surprisingly the Netherlands, with the highest population density, report for 1998 about two
thirds of the level of noise annoyance found in Germany or Switzerland. This is shown in Table 3.6.2.
This could be due in part to differences in the surveys. However, it also seems that the
noise abatement policy of the Netherlands has been more successful. In 1979, the Noise
Abatement Act introduced a general nation-wide noise immission target of 50 dB(A), at a time
when in Germany and Switzerland were discussing much higher targets and a decade before
either of these two countries implemented their first effective guidelines.
Italy
The Environmental Ministry provides estimates on the exposure of Italians to transport noise. In
1997, about 17% or 10 million people were affected by road transport noise at levels above 65
dB(A). The percentage of the exposed population to various noise levels are given in Table 3.6.3.
United Kingdom
An interesting analysis of noise pollution has been made in the United Kingdom. The Council
for the Protection of Rural England (CPRE) has defined a set of ambient conditions for tranquil
areas, like 3 km from a busy motorway and 2 km from a normal motorway. The result of the
analysis was that between 1960 and 1990, the area of tranquil zones in the UK was reduced by
19,000 square km, equivalent to about 10% of the UK's total area.
Source: RIVM(200!).
Figure 3.6.4 De~•elopment of noise annoyance in the Netherlands (1980-2000)
Table 3.6.2 Comparison ofpercentages ofpeople reporting

annoyance because of transport noise in surveys
Table 3. 6.3 Estimates of shares of Italian population affected by

different noise levels in 1997
... •:· !
Mod<: 5S4l 60-65 6)•70 70-75 >75
Road 32.3 21.2 12.3 3.7 1.0
Rail 6.1 4.4 2.3 0.7 0.2
I Air 25 u OJ:\ 03 l.U
Source: Ministero dell'Ambiente ( 1997).
Table 3. 6.4 Measurement of noise levels at 1000 dwellings in the UK in 1990

------------------------ ----- --m,;;re-of~~~k,;~ i%1- -----1
I'~ SO· 60dB(A) 60 • 70dB(A) >71J4B(A) I
Day ll!ld evening period 63.3 24.2 1.8
~._x
Night period 27.2 4.6
24 hours 60.8 In ----- ______ j
Source: DEFRA (2001).
Outdoor noise measurement at a random sample of 1000 dwellings in 1990, revealed that
about 20% of dwellings are affected by noise greater than 60 dB(A) (see Table 3.6.4).
Assuming a linear distribution of cases between 60 and 70 dB(A), about 10% would be
affected by noise above the critical threshold of 65 dB(A). The sources of the noise were also
reported. The two largest proportions belonged to road traffic with 91% and aircraft with 62%.
Japan
After the Supreme Court in a Japanese lawsuit acknowledged the severe adverse noise impacts
alongside two Japanese highways, demands for improvements prompted the Ministry of
Construction, in 1998, to conduct a study to analyse the noise levels alongside about 13.000
km of Japanese main roads. The 3,700 measuring points were chosen on roads, as they pass
through designated areas, which were subject to the noise control law. Such areas are mainly
residential areas or areas where hospitals or schools are located. The measurement results show
a very significant violation of Japanese environmental standards for noise. In daytime, the
noise level at 62% of the measuring points exceeded 70 dB(A) and at night 70% exceeded 65
dB(A), measured as equivalent continuous sound pressure level (LAeq) and of these, 20%
even exceeded a noise level of 73 dB(A) (Kimura et al. 1999). Considering that 65dB(A) is the
critical noise level above which serious health impacts may occur, these measured noise
immissions are rather high. Consequently, the study concluded that making improvements at
the 20% of locations which exceeded the 73 dB(A) at night must be a priority Additional
analysis revealed that implementing low noise road surfaces at these locations would reduce
their number to 7% or 900 km of the highway network.
United States
It seems that the U.S. population is exposed to lower noise levels than European and Japanese
citizens. In the U.S., over 40% of the population are affected by transport noise levels above 55
dB(A) (Schomer, 2001). Finegold et al. (2002) report that in 1990, 25.4 million inhabitants
were subject to noise levels over 65 dB(A) and 16.2 million people could be exposed to
daytime community noise levels as high as 85 dB(A). One of the major reasons for this
difference in exposure is the difference in population density, which differs by about one order
of magnitude between the U.S. and Japan and most European countries.
A comprehensive assessment of noise exposure in the U.S. was carried out in 1981 by
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. It revealed that road transport was the dominant
source of noise pollution (see Table 3.6.5), though the large increase in air transport since then,
might have altered the distribution of relevant noise sources
Table 3. 6. 5 Number of U.S. citizens exposed to

transport noise from different nwdes
>75 1.1 0.3

>70 5.7 1.3 0.8
>65 19.3 4.7 2.5
>60 46.6 11.5 3.5
>55 96.X 24 5 f>.O
Note: DNL =day-night 111ii&\ level.
Source: U.S. EPA (1981).
Table 3.6. 6 Examples of noise levels in developing countries from the WHO
report {1999)
Street noise
"""'"'""""""'""" +"""""""'""'WW"'WW"'""""'""'""""" •
Pakistan I Eastem Mediterranean Street and shopping noise in
reet noise at peak ho
India I South East Asia 0-92 dB(A)
Developing world
The World Health Organisation (WHO) published a document on "Guidelines for Community
Noise" (WHO, 1999). Its annex provides an overview of the noise situation all over the world.
Though, as shown above, the noise exposure in the developed world violates acceptable levels
for a large numbers of citizens, the noise situation in the developing world and especially
within its cities seems to be much worse (see Table 3.6.6). Estimates of the overall country-
wide exposure to noise or more specifically to transport noise are not available. However, a
South-African case study provides a distinction into three social groups, of which two are not
or are only minimally affected by noise -the better-off in urban areas and people in rural areas,
and one, the poor in urban areas who are severely affected by adverse noise impacts.
Surveys in these countries reveal that people suffer significant effects on their health
from noise pollution. Sensory neural hearing loss, for example, affects 21.4% of citizens in
Bangkok and 35% of citizens in Delhi, Calcutta and Bombay.
Some might argue that these very high noise levels in the developing world are
acceptable to their populations, because they prefer economic development to environmental
quality. Surveys of people's preferences indicate however, that instead of favouring either the
economy or the environment, people in the developing world would prefer a more balanced
approach, considering both the economy and the environment. In Cairo for example, Huzayyin
and Osman (1999) report survey results on the preferences of inhabitants towards
improvements of two transport related factors (speed and comfort) and two environment
related factors (air pollution and noise). The overall ranking of preferences for all socio-
economic groups was comfort (1), speed (2), air pollution (3) and noise (4), with noise still
being given considerable importance. If specific socio-economic groups are looked at, several
groups who place environmental factors as their first or second most important preference, can
be identified. Females for example, rank air pollution as the most important. likewise, people
in the 40-60 year and over 60 year age bands rank air pollution first, as do people in the highest
socio-economic group, with noise pollution second, as most needing improvement.
3.6.6 An International Comparison of Noise Regulation
Noise pollution legislation in many countries follows one principle for existing infrastructure
and another for planned new infrastructure. For existing infrastructure, rather high noise levels
are accepted e.g. 65-75 dB(A), without requiring measures to improve the situation. The
argument in support of accepting these levels, is that transport infrastructure and settlements
have developed over a long time, without considering noise as a problem and that it is too
costly to start to address this now. For planned new infrastructure, immission standards for
transport noise are much lower (50-55 dB(A)) to take account of the adverse impacts.
Germany
In Germany, the national regulation of transport noise levels has been an issue since 1973,
when the first report of the German Council of Environmental Advisors (SRU) at the German
Ministry for Environment was published (SRU, 1973). In this report, the Environmental
Advisors state that for industrial noise, the guidelines (TA Liirm) limit noise levels affecting
residential areas to 50 dB(A) at daytime and 35 dB(A) at night. For transport noise, however,
no standards existed, despite the fact that the noise emissions of cars on average urban roads
exceed the limits for industrial noise by about 20 dB(A). In 1979, during the preparation of the
first transport noise protection law for Germany, the SRU suggested an immission standard of
45-50 dB(A), during the night in residential areas. Experts pointed out that this immission level
was a compromise to avoid the financial burden of implementing noise abatement measures,
sufficient to guarantee the absence of any adverse noise impacts. For comprehensive noise
protection, the SRU recommended even lower standards of 38 dB(A) (SRU, 1979).
In 1980, the German parliament decided on a transport noise protection law. However,
the Federal Council of Germany (Bundesrat) did not agree. Since no compromise was found,
the law was not put into force, so that today in Germany, noise protection is only regulated
with by-laws and guidelines, rather than with specific legislation (SRU, 1987). The outcome
of the dispute between Parliament and the Council was the noise protection guidelines from
1981 (Urmschutz-Richtlinien StY, LRStV81), which specify noise immission standards for
residential zones of 70 dB(A) during the day and 60 dB(A) during the night. These exceed the
SRU's suggested levels by at least 10 dB(A). Where these standards are violated, the
guidelines require noise rehabilitation measures. These measures need not be taken however, if
"security and free flow of traffic" ("Sicherheit und Leichtigkeit des Verkehrs") would be
adversely affected. With the existence of this major loophole, the actual noise protection
effects of the LRStV81 are minor or even negligible. The most they do is to encourage the
installation of noise protection windows in houses alongside roads, which is then subsidised by
the local community or the state. Nevertheless, this directive from 1981 is still the only
German directive applicable and binding to existing road transport infrastructure.
In Germany today, a further set of guidelines and recommendations for noise immission
levels coexist e.g. for transport noise, the 16th Federal Directive on Immission Protection from
1990 (16th Bundesimmissionschutzverordnung, 16th BlmSchV) and, for noise protection in
city planning, the standard DIN 18005. The most ambitious for transport noise is the 16th
BimSchV, because it requires rather low immission levels, and is binding for new and
significantly upgraded transport infrastructure, but not for already existing infrastructure.
Table 3.6. 7 Noi.~e immission standards of the German 16th BlmSchV
i:hly Night
{;C21o'cl<*k 21>6o"dnek
57 47
Pure residential zones 59 49
City centres, mixed zones, villages 64 54
L.:l::.:nd:.:m:::M::.:fia:::l.::::m:::.n:::es::.__ _ _ _ _ ___._ _ _:;;_;69::.__ __.__~~--------
The immission standards in the 16th BlmSchV are differentiated according to the
categories of residential zones that the planned infrastructure is affecting. Table 3.6.7 shows
the noise immission standards of the 16th BimSchV. These are complemented by the
Guidelines for Noise Protection along Roads (Richtlinien fiir den Urmschutz an StraBen,
RLS90), which provide a detailed method to calculate the outdoor noise immission levels
affecting houses alongside roads.
Comparing the level of the standards of the 16th BlmSchV and the LRStV81, the latter
allows for 11 dB(A) higher noise levels. Considering the specific levels of noise emissions (e.g.
that two sound sources of 65 dB(A) result in a total sound level of 68 dB(A), not 130 dB(A))
and noise perception (e.g. that the minimum difference between two sound levels noticeable
for humans is 3 dB(A)), the difference of 11 dB(A) is very significant. In terms of noise
emissions, this means that the LRStV81 allows emissions which are about eight times higher.
As road transport emissions depend directly on traffic flows, a reduction of transport noise
emissions from 70 dB(A) to 59 dB(A) would require a reduction in traffic flow to one eighth
of current levels.
The German EPA considers even the lower values of the 16th BlmSchV as only
sufficient to avoid severe annoyance by transport noise. In the EPA long term strategic plan on
"Environment and Transport," these values should not be exceeded anywhere in Germany by
2010. The long term goals for transport noise in 2030 are a maximum day noise level of 50
dB(A) and night noise level of 40 dB(A) in exclusively residential zones (UBA, 1995b).
The German Ministry of the Environment is aware of the high levels of environmental
pollution from noise, and the virtually non-existent noise immission standards for transport
noise, for existing infrastructure. It had planned to put into force new immission legislation
prior to the 2002 elections, but this did not happen.
Switzerland
In Switzerland, the problem of noise pollution has been recognised since the 1960s, when the
first Commission was constituted by the Swiss parliament (the Bundesrat), to develop
environmental standards for noise pollution. In fact, this Commission developed a framework
that still forms the basis for today's noise legislation in Switzerland. However, it took 25 years
for the first legal directive on noise protection and environmental standards for noise to be put
into force, with the Noise Protection Directive in 1987 (LSV87, Liirmschutzverordnung
814.41) 15 , which was part of the Environmental Protection Law (USG, Umweltschutzgesetz)
from 1985.
The noise protection directive (LSV87) introduced a zoning system, with four different
zone types, each protected by a specific environmental standard for noise. The four zone types
are shown in Table 3.6.8.
The LSV87 set up a system of three noise immission standards. The most stringent
standard, the plan immission limits (Planwert), are applied for all newly constructed noise
emitting facilities or residential areas. The second most stringent level, the noise immission
thresholds (Immissionsgrenzwert), provides the standards for all existing facilities including
roads, railways and airports. As these standards were not fulfilled by all facilities when the
LSV87 was enforced in 1987, a transition period of 15 years was introduced in the LSV87
directive. Within this transition period all facilities or the affected areas have to be rehabilitated,
such that the noise immission thresholds are no longer violated. Since there might be facilities
for which rehabilitation to reach the noise immission threshold would be too costly or which
are of high public interest, a third standard is introduced, the alarm immission threshold
(Alarmwert), to which these have to comply. The noise standards are different for different
facilities and for the different modes of transport. Table 3.6.9 shows the noise standards for
road transport.
The 15 year transition period to comply with the noise immission thresholds ended in
2002. The Ministry for Environment, Forest and Landscape (BUWAL, Bundesamt fiir Umwelt,
Wald und Landschaft) subsequently published a status report on the noise rehabilitation
measures in accordance with the 1987 noise protection directive (BAUWAL, 2002a). The
report describes considerable progress for all types of facility, as well as the rehabilitation of
existing industrial and commercial facilities. However, transport is identified as the field with
the slowest progress in noise rehabilitation. BUWAL estimates that three quarters of all noise
annoyance in Switzerland is due to transport, of which road transport is responsible for about
80%. Only one third of all roads that did not comply with the noise immission threshold have
been rehabilitated in the last 15 years. About 1600 km of roads still have to be rehabilitated,
severely affecting about 550,000 people. Two billion Swiss Francs will be needed to complete
the rehabilitation of these roads. Rail transport is estimated still to affect about 265,000 people.
This is to be tackled by rehabilitating the rolling stock (0.9 billion SFr) and construction
measures, like noise protection walls (1 billion SFr). For road and rail, the transition period to
comply with LSV87 has been extended as follows: rehabilitation of rolling stock until 2009,
construction measures for rail tracks until 2015, rehabilitation of roads probably until 2015.
This means that the rehabilitation process to achieve the noise immission thresholds will have
taken about 30 years. BUWAL expresses doubts about whether the noise immission thresholds
will be achieved even after the extended transition periods.
Table 3.6.8 Zoning system for noise protection in Switzerland
Resi<ka!i>ll areas and public buildings without any disturban

' . !L'l:ilitv
Table 3. 6. 9 Environmental standards for road transport noise in Switzerland

according to LSV87
Plan immisskm nnilT··p~z;l!;};;m;;;;;;;·!1~1!\0ii(f"r..;;r;;;;;;·;;;;;;i;~;;;;~·a;;;ili~1~1th.;;;"J;;;ve;··mu;· . .l

lbr !leW <X>Itmr\!Cthm
()ff~iUtk~
so 40
55 45 60 70
60 50 65 55 70 65
65 55 70 60 75 70
Table 3.6.10 Dutch noise immission standards according to Noise Abatement Act 1979
LN~ T~r~111 N\>i•'it lnmli~~ioo 1hl\%hcld [dtt:AI]

L<!vd {appli<:abk if "1'¢"itk ~<md\tfun$111\l \hU'ill<:d)
[dB(A)]
N¢w
Residential
! new n,'l\idootial
Exhlilll! m,>u>w
um! ~"Xi~ting
Nn-i:s.emlH.rt¢
11M l $NO llf~
Road traftic (local) ! 50 65 l 65 60 70

Road traftic (motorway) 50 55 l 60 55 70
Industrial areas 50 55 l 55 55 05
Impulse noise
Raihwy noise
50
57
50
70 I 50
70
55
70
65
C"-hting level
Source: http://www.xs4all.nV-rigoletVENGELS/norrneng.htrn.
The Netherlands
Noise legislation was part of a series of sectoral laws on waste, air pollution, water and noise
passed in the 1970s. The Noise Abatement Act in 1979 introduced a general nation-wide noise
immission target of 50 dB(A), about a decade earlier than in either Germany or Switzerland.
Dutch noise immission limits are divided into different areas: noise sources, existing
facilities and planned facilities. These limits are presented in Table 3.6.10. It was obvious that
an integrated environmental planning process would be better than a sectoral approach and as a
result in 1993, the Environmental Management Act was put into force. This integrates the
previously sectoral legislation, including the Noise Abatement Act.
As in other countries, the Dutch guidelines provide a calculation formula for noise
immissions. But instead of differentiating two time periods, one for day and one for night, they
consider different target levels for three time periods:
07:00 to 19:00 h (12 hours day period),
19:00 to 23:00 h (4 hours evening period) and
23:00 to 07:00 h (8 hours night period).
For all periods, the same basic calculation formula and the same target levels are used,
but for the evening period, a mark-up of 5 dB(A) is added to the result of the calculations and
for the night period, a mark-up of 10 dB(A) is added. The maximum level of the three periods
is then used to check that immission levels are not violated.
Since the noise targets for the 3rd National Environmental Policy Plan have not been
achieved completely, the 4th National Environmental Policy Plan imposes an adapted target,
requiring that by 2010, the immission level of 70 dB(A) at dwellings should not be exceeded.
Italy
Italian legislation setting immission limits for transport noise commenced in 1995 with the law
Legge 447/95. This is a framework law that has to be implemented by mode-specific secondary
laws. Seven years after putting the Legge 447/95 into force however, only the laws for airports
and railways are enforced. The secondary law for road transport is pending and preparatory
work necessary for enforcing laws like the development of guidelines for the territory
classifications and the subsequent introduction of the zoning system by the municipalities, is
lacking or is only fragmentary.
Looking at the secondary law for railway lines from 18.11.1998, one discovers a similar
structure to that of other European countries. New railway lines have to comply with lower
noise immission levels than existing lines. Existing lines should not generate noise levels
above 70 dB(A) (day) and 60 dB(A) (night), in a corridor of lOOm wide on both sides of the
railway line. For schools, hospitals and nursing homes, lower levels apply. The noise limits for
new lines are set at 65 dB(A) (day) and 55 dB(A) (night).
The fight against noise pollution in the countries of Southern Europe, as exemplified by
Italy, started about ten years after it did in the three Western European countries discussed
earlier. Since even now, legislation for road transport noise immissions is still missing, the
delay is likely to be even longer.
Japan
Japanese legislation on noise protection also follows the two-sided approach, distinguishing
between noise from existing roads and noise from planned or new constructed roads. The basic
environmental law no 91 (1993), which provides the framework for the setting of
environmental standards for noise has been enforced since 1999. Standards refer to the
equivalent continuous sound pressure level (LAeq) over a longer period and distinguish
between different settlement areas and two time periods, daytime and night-time. The Japanese
approach is to set general noise standards that should be reached to protect human health and
the living environment, but which are not binding, and also to set specific standards for
roadside locations and transport noise. The road noise standards differ according to road type,
so that for trunk roads higher noise levels are accepted than for other roads with two
carriageways. A further distinction is made in the speed with which measures to reach a noise
standard must be taken e.g. in the case of noise levels higher than 73 dB(A) immediate
measures should be taken, while the values of 65 dB(A) at night should be achieved within 10
years. The details of the Japanese standards are shown in Table 3.6.11
United States
In the United States, the foundations for noise control were established in the 1970s, with the
Noise Control Act of 1972 and the "Levels Document" in 1974, published by the U.S. EPA
(WHO, 1999). The legislation was not binding, but recommended rather low noise levels with
a day-night noise level (DNL) of 55 dB(A) that corresponds to the recommendations of the
WHO, established more than 20 years later in 1999. Since these targets were only
recommendations, each agency in the U.S. has developed its own noise criteria and
recommendations, some of which some allow for significantly higher noise levels e.g. the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the Department of Defence which uses a DNL of
65 dB(A). Compared with the rest of the world, the U.S. guidelines appeared to be much more
advanced. In practice however, violation of the recommended noise levels has become
acceptable. Nevertheless, the share of people annoyed by noise today, seems to be much lower
than in, for example, the analysed European countries (Schomer, 2001).
Table 3.6.11 Japanese noise immission standards according to Environment Agency

Notification No 64
Night noise hvcl

{dU{Ajj
as like hospitals, schools
40
areas: 45
\\·ith minor residential use 50
residential areas 55
Roadside standards for roads
with at least two caniageways 1------------+-----+------l
Mcinly residential areas 65 60
Trunk roads Residential areas 70 65
Rn"& llllit require imm~<tliate 73
action
EU noise policy
The previous sections on noise standards in selected European countries, deal with the country-
specific noise legislation. However, the standardisation of regulations in the EU is moving
towards a common noise policy.
In 1996, the European Commission (CEC) published a Green Paper on the "Future Noise
Policy" of the EU (CEC, 1996). This paper reviewed the noise legislation of the member states
and proposed Europe wide legislation. The paper estimates that about 80 million Europeans
(roughly 20%) are exposed to unacceptable continuous day-time outdoor noise levels of more
than 65 dB(A).
In 2002, the directive 2002/49/EC relating to the assessment and management of
environmental noise, was adopted by the European parliament and the EU council. It requires
that the EU member states bring into force the necessary national legislation related to the
directive, by the middle of 2004 and in doing so prepares for the setting of EU-wide noise
immission standards. It requires that member states prepare noise maps for specific areas, like
urban centres with more than 250,000 inhabitants, by 2007 (more than 100,000 inhabitants by
2012), and for major airports and roads. The noise maps should indicate noise immissions for
three different time periods, similar to the Dutch system explained above:
day period (12 hours),
evening period (4 hours),
night period (8 hours).
The member states define the exact starting times of the periods, depending on their
culture and habits and some might for example, reduce the duration of the evening period by
two hours. The noise maps should provide information on the areas and the number of people
affected by certain bands of noise levels (e.g. for day time 55-59, 60-64, 65-69, 70-74, > 75),
differentiated into the sources of noise e.g. road, industry, airport. Until common noise
standards are adopted by the EU, member states are requested to assess the noise immissions
by their own national noise immission standards. Based on these noise maps, action plans will
be developed for areas where noise induces risks for human health and where noise levels are
expected to rise in the future.
Given the target years of this legislation it might still take about 10 years until EU-wide
noise immission standards are developed, which would be the prerequisite for an effective fight
against noise. Considering the less than successful experience of Germany, regarding the effect
of noise maps and related action plans (§ 47 Federal Law on Immission Protection), the
directive 2002/49/EC is important, but is only a starting point.
OECD project on Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST)

The EST project was a multi-national six-year project, initiated by the OECD to develop a
vision, measurement criteria and policy strategies that would lead to an environmentally
sustainable transport system by 2030 (see chapter 6.1 and OECD, Austrian Federal Ministry
for Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management, 2000). The policy strategies
were designed such that economic and social implications of the EST are either positive or at
worst slightly negative.
As an initial step, the EST project developed a list of indicators and related targets that
characterise a sustainable transport system. The list was condensed to six major criteria to
make it practical. These were considered the minimum number of indicators necessary, to
address the range of environmental impacts of transport. The noise immission level is one of
the six basic criteria. The EST project set this level at 55 dB(A) during the day and 45 dB(A)
during the night. These levels are necessary to avoid adverse health impacts or serious nuisance.
Guidelines for community noise ofthe World Health Organisation (WHO)

The guidelines for community noise were finalised by a WHO Expert Task Force in 1999
(WHO, 1999) and are applicable worldwide. The WHO defines noise immission standards on
the basis of the equivalent continuous sound pressure level (LAeq) over a given time period (T
measured in hours), leading to LAeq,T which is measured in dB(A). The WHO also uses a 12
hour day period, a 4 hour evening period and an 8 hour night period and recommends the
following noise immission thresholds for different environments:
Outdoors, accepting serious annoyance (LAeq,16): 55 dB(A),
Outdoors, accepting moderate annoyance (LAeq,16): 50 dB(A),
Indoors, daytime (LAeq, 16): 35 dB(A),
Indoors, inside bedrooms, night-time (LAeq, 8): 30 dB(A),
Outside bedrooms, night-time (LAeq, 8): 45 dB(A).
In addition to these average values, the WHO recommends maximum noise immission
levels for noise peaks during the night to avoid sleep disturbance. Inside bedrooms, the peaks
should be less than 45 dB(A) and outside bedrooms, less than 60 dB(A).
International comparison of noise immission standards

The previous sections described a number of different developments in the fight against noise
from transport. In general, noise standards are set too high and enforcement of the standards is
weak. Looking at three European countries (Switzerland, The Netherlands, Germany) that are
at the forefront in fighting noise, there is a huge gap between the admissible noise immission
levels for existing transport infrastructure and the sustainable level for health. Standards for
existing transport infrastructure in all three countries are SdB(A) above 65dB(A), which is seen
as the level above which noise becomes unacceptable (see EU Noise Green Paper) may even
have severe adverse effects on health (see German SRU). Nevertheless, even these lax
environmental standards are significantly violated in all three countries.
On the other hand, recent noise legislation in the countries has focused on the
construction of new transport infrastructure and residential areas. In these cases, stringent noise
immission limits that meet the requirements of protecting the human health and avoid
annoyance to the population within their residential areas, are brought into force. The new
legislation is consistent with the recommendations of international organisations like the
OECD or the WHO. A comparison of the standards for road transport is shown in Table 3.6.12.
Based on the WHO Guidelines for Community Noise (WHO, 1999) report, it appears
that noise control legislation in the developing world is either non existent or if it does exist is
not enforced at all.
Table 3. 6.12 Noise immission .~tandards for different countries for residential
zones and road transport
Gennan: 70 60 N 59 4Y B
Netherlands 70 GO B 2010 50 (45) 40 B
Switzerland 70 65 B 2010 55 45 B
Japan 70 65 B 2009 60 55 B
OECD EST (until 2030) 55 45 i\ 55 45 N
45 N 55d0} 45 N
l·lotes:
B =Binding and year if binding in the future, N =Not Binding.
3.6.7 Countermeasures to the Noise Problem
The EU Green Paper on the Communities Future Noise Policy from 1996, identifies three basic
approaches to reduce environmental noise exposure:
Reducing noise at source by technological changes or behavioural changes, some of

which could be introduced by regulation.
Limiting the transmission of noise, by placing noise barriers between its source and
the people.
Reducing noise at the perception location e.g. by insulation and installation of noise
protection windows (CEC, 1996).
Apart from the behavioural changes the basic approaches to noise reduction in this
policy document focus on technological improvements. A promising example of regulation
induced behavioural changes, is in land use planning, separating main roads or high-speed rail
lines from residential zones - by increasing the distances between them or by placing
commercial buildings in front of the residential area. The second approach of building
commercial buildings along the roadside and shielding residential buildings, has become
popular in Germany since the current noise protection directive (16th BimSchV) has been put
into force. It combines two positive elements: preserving the mix of different land use in an
area and protecting the residential area from transport noise. Planners must be careful however,
that a desire to achieve the separation of residential zones from the transport infrastructure does
not endanger the "city of short distances" planning philosophy, which is a key component of
reducing overall transport demand in urban areas. A further discussion of regulation and
behavioural change in included in chapter 4. The following paragraphs concentrate on using
technological improvements to solve the transport noise problem.
In section 3.6.2, the major sources of noise for the different modes were explained. In
general, these are the engine, the rolling noise at the vehicles-ground interface, wind resistance
and in case of railways, the brakes. Reducing noise at the source means improving the
technology related to these sources of noise.
There are a number of approaches to reducing noise emissions from the engines of road
vehicles. First, the mechanics and the combustion process could be altered to generate less
noise; second, the engine block could be insulated; third the silencers could be improved;
fourth, maintenance of all these parts could be controlled and enforced. To reduce rolling noise
from the tyre-road interface, both tyre technology and pavement technology provide levers for
improvements. Based on sophisticated analysis the tread pattern can be shaped to generate less
noise while rolling on the pavement. The paving can be built to absorb noise generated by the
tyre-road interface ("whisper-asphalt"). One policy to foster improvements at the tyre-road
interface, is the labelling of tyres by the German EPA with the environmental label "Blauer
Engel." The label is reserved for use on environmental friendly and resource saving products
and for tyres requires low noise emission levels.
The technology to reduce wind noise focuses on analysis of the aerodynamics of vehicles,
based on wind tunnel tests. These influence the shape of vehicles, though there might be
conflicts between optimal aerodynamics and design requirements for marketing. For road
transport noise in urban areas, technological improvements of the first two sources, engine and
tyre-road interface, are the most important as these are the dominant noise sources for vehicles
driven at lower speeds.
To encourage technological advances towards the development of "Low-Noise-Road-
Vehicles," the European Union has had a tradition of noise legislation that focuses on standard
setting for noise emissions of road vehicles since 1972. As Figure 3.6.5 shows, the noise
emission standards for different vehicle categories have been tightened three times in the last
20 years. Nevertheless, the reductions in immission levels have been minor because of the
continuous increase of transport demand.
~ 80
""~
] 60
"'"
0
..,:~
40
1.l
·a 20
z
n
(>3,5t; (> 3,5 t (> 3,5 t;
<75kW) 75<150kW) >lSOkW)
Vehicle Category
• until 1980 (EU directive 70/157/EC) • untill988 (EU directive 81!334/EC)
D until 1988 (EU directive 84i4241EC) D since 10.95 (EU directive 92197iEC)
Source: CEC (1996).
Figure 3. 6. 5 European noise emission standards for road

transport vehicles
Technological changes that would reduce noise emissions from rail transport, include
the replacement of block brakes by disc breaks or equipping wagons with aprons, forming a
cover over the wheels. The technology to reduce air transport noise, focuses on reducing
engine noise during take-off and landing. Again this is a matter either of insulating or, if they
prove successful, of new silencing technologies that aim to cancel out engine noise by
generating a second noise source that oscillates anti-cyclically to the engine noise.
However, the effect of technological measures at the noise source always takes time,
since the new technology has to be installed in the vehicle fleet, by upgrading the existing
vehicle fleet or by waiting for its natural renewal.
The other two approaches in the EU Green Paper to reduce noise are limiting
transmission and reducing perception, both of which require construction e.g. noise protection
walls, tunnels or noise protection windows, which cost considerable amounts of money. Given
the tightness of public budgets, it seems that measures like these can only be used to address
the noise immission problem in a few selected cases. Additionally, the side effects of these
measures can be rather inconvenient; noise protection windows for example are only useful
when the windows are closed. The measures described above are either only effective in the
long run or require large investments. Measures which can be implemented with minimal
investment and in the short run are behavioural changes induced by regulation. Since road
transport is the most important source of noise, we should look at the most important levers
that can be easily identified from the noise immission models (see section 3.6.4), which are the
average daily traffic (ADT), speed and the share of trucks. Effective measures in the short run
would, therefore, include restrictions of lorry traffic and speed limits of 30 km/h or less in
residential areas.
Voluntary behavioural change also requires longer periods of time, because it has to be
fostered by education and in some cases, changes in life style.
In conclusion, there is no easy-to-use solution to solve the transport noise problem. It
seems that a combination of technological measures and behavioural change is needed to
reduce noise immissions to a sustainable level. However, most solutions only take effect in the
long run and require substantial financial resources for both infrastructure and educational
measures.
3.6.8 Noise and Sustainable Mobility
There have been several attempts in the past to develop strategies that would lead to
sustainable mobility. A basic requirement that is common to those approaches, is that "a new
target-oriented approach is needed that places environment and health at the top of the policy
agenda for transport and related sectors, at international, national and local levels," as it was
formulated in the project on Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST) of the OECD 16 •
The projects OECD-EST, IWW et al. and POSSUM 29 all conclude that sustainable mobility
cannot be achieved by using technological measures alone, but must be combined with
behavioural change, to form a balanced and successful approach. This is consistent with the
conclusion outlined in the previous section.
Reasonable noise immission targets for sustainable mobility that would be consistent
with about 30 years of medical noise impact research and with the OECD-EST project and the
WHO are 50-55 dB(A) at daytime and 40-45 dB(A) at night-time, for outdoor noise in
residential areas. The OECD-EST project proposes achieving these sustainable noise targets by
2030. However, given that around one fifth of the population experiences noise levels of above
65 dB(A), that transport demand is expected to grow and that land use and infrastructure take a
long time to change, this seems rather ambitious.
However, looking at the OECD-EST and POSSUM scenarios one could identify policy
mixes and scenario developments that would provide sufficient synergies and strength to solve
the noise problem. These would include:
the emergence of long-term green values in society, replacing the short-term view
that environmental quality can always be substituted by economic goods, with the
setting of safe, minimum environmental standards that provide the framework for
developing the most viable economic strategies;
changes in life-style, that concern either a new perception of well-being, dependent
on quality aspects ( = better products) instead of quantity aspects (=more products)
and a new ownership philosophy e.g. car-sharing instead of car-owning, leading to
more efficient use of the car fleet and a faster turnover towards new technologies;
the promotion of liveable cities, that would foster the "city of short distances"
approach, reducing transport demand and reversing the trend in urban sprawl, by
increasing the attractiveness of living in the city instead of on the periphery
(reducing commuting, shopping and leisure trips into the city);
the setting up of a sophisticated land-use planning approach;
require transport to pay its true costs, by internalising the social costs of transport,
which via various mechanisms (e.g. modal-shifts, improved organisation, shorter
transport distances) would reduce transport demand.
There is a similarity between noise pollution and other long-term environmental

problems, like the greenhouse effect. In the same way that the fossil fuel based energy system
is the major cause of the greenhouse effect, the noise polluting structures comprising
motorways, airports, high-speed railway and settlement patterns have been built-up over
decades, with huge amounts of investment and creating billions of Euros of capital stock. It
will require a huge effort to reverse this development and build up noise mitigating capital, in
the form of repair infrastructure (e.g. noise barriers) or conceptually completely changed
structures for the transport system and residential areas. The big difference from the
greenhouse effect, is that noise is a local problem with mostly local solutions.
Box 11 Noise Protection Policy in Germany
To exemplify the discrepancy between prominent sustainable mobility scenarios and the
prevailing noise protection policies an example from Germany, which is a country that
follows already a rather advanced noise protection policy compared to other countries,
should be given. In 1996, in the city of Karlsruhe, residents in a residential area along a
main road, with more than 20,000 vehicles per day, causing noise of 78 dB(A) during the
day and 71 dB(A) during the night, applied to the city mayor for a reduction of the noise
immissions to levels not endangering their health. The noise protection directive (16th
BimSchV) was not applicable since an existing road was the source of the noise. But the
older directive applicable for existing infrastructure (LRStV81) with standards of 70/60
dB(A) was also seriously violated. After more than a year, the mayor responded
apologising that he could not do anything as the transport needs had to be valued more
highly than the potential health impacts. The claim went to the Administrative Court with
the same result, though the court initially requested a new assessment by the mayor.
However, as the judges used this main road every morning to drive to the court, a kind of
bias could be observed and they refused the claim in 1999. The claim has since been
under negotiation at the Superior Administrative Court of Baden-Wurttemberg in
Mannheim. So far, the mayor has succeeded in delaying the claim for as long as possible,
in the hope that the residents would finally give up. The only agreement reached so far is
on the assessment of the actual noise immission level. However, if measures were to be
requested by the court, a precedent could be established that might significantly change
German noise protection.
3.6.9 Conclusions
Since the 1970s, legislating bodies in Western countries have seen transport noise as a relevant
problem. Noise experts had already established target levels of about 50!55 dB(A) (day) and 40
dB(A) (night) that would avoid disturbance from noise. Values in this range have been confirmed
by many other studies over the years and are agreed by international projects and bodies that
promote sustainable mobility in terms of noise protection. It appears policy makers did not pay
attention to the insights of the 70s, and that the financial implications of setting standards at these
levels were seen as too much of a burden. When the first noise immission regulations came into
force in the 1980s, the noise standards were set at much higher levels, allowing for noise levels of
65-70 dB(A) in residential areas. Additionally, the standards were not binding. In the 1990s, noise
protection standards in some countries followed two paths: first, standards for existing
infrastructure were kept at the high levels, within which local areas had to comply with the
legislation. Secondly, for new transport infrastructure significantly lower standards close to the
levels established in the 1970s, have been adopted. Countries like Switzerland and the Netherlands
which adopted strategic noise protection plans for existing transport infrastructure in the 1980s, did
not meet their targets for noise protection after two decades, even though they had set standards
above the levels that cause severe annoyance and might even increase the risk of fatalities (65
dB(A)). As a result, the transition periods to comply with the standards have been extended for
another decade. The environmental authorities are not convinced that the targets will be reached
however, because of a lack of political will to introduce the necessary and sometimes challenging
measures. In the case of Switzerland, these authorities argue that the lack of political action is
consistent with society's preferences that are in favour of unlimited mobility (BUWAL, 2002b).
Despite this rather pessimistic outlook, a few research projects like the previously
mentioned OECD-EST and POSSUM projects, have developed scenarios and policy strategies
for the developed world that might lead to transport noise immission levels that are consistent
with sustainable mobility. These scenarios require significant changes in societal values, life-
style and city and land-use planning and would probably only be sufficient to achieve the noise
targets, if the whole package was implemented. This makes the fight against transport noise a
real challenge for society and policy makers.
The alternative of tackling the transport noise problem with a fragmentary policy of
repair measures, such as noise barriers or noise insulation windows, might not even be
sufficient to stabilise the number of people affected by serious noise annoyance, given the
forecast transport growth in the coming years. For the EU, the recent European directive
(2002/49/EC) already represents a shift towards an integrated strategy against transport noise.
But the long time horizon of this directive suggests that implementation will take longer than
the deadline of 2030 for sustainable noise levels advocated by OECD-EST. For cities in the
developing world the situation is probably much worse, with motorised road transport being
identified as the major contributor to noise pollution in general and the considerable growth in
road transport in these cities, copying the blueprint of development from the developed world.
ENDNOTES
1. The data source is WHO: Healthy Cities Air Management Information System and World
Resources Institute.
2. Data for the year 1995 was used, and in case of unavailability of the said data, data from
the previous or following years is used. For defining the city area, generally, the term
"commuting back area" is used but for easy collection of data, the recorded cities are
defined as "administration area." However, in some cities such as Tokyo, since the
commuting back area is used, necessary precautions should be taken while interpreting the
data.
3. Values for the year 1995 in Japan were referred to.
4. Among CO, S02, VHC, and NOx excluding 2 examples for S0 2, all other examples are of
cities in developing countries.
5. The assumption was made referring to the speed-wise running rate of a passenger car in
Japan (cf. Environment Agency, 1998). The same data is used for the E-V curve.
6. Vehicle purchase price and insurance costs remain more or less constant, while fuel costs
and road use charges vary entirely with vehicle use, and vehicle maintenance costs depend
partially on usage. Depreciation of a vehicle's value is clearly related to its level of use,
but most individuals do not fully take this cost into account in their daily transportation
decisions.
7. "Well-to-wheels" refers to all production and distribution activities related to fuels and
vehicles, from the oil or gas well or coal mine to the final vehicle user. Additional
calculations were conducted to include energy used to manufacture and maintain vehicles,
build and maintain infrastructure, and manufacture materials for vehicles and
infrastructure. These additional calculations would not significantly alter the net
calculations of GHG emissions conducted as part of the scenario analyses and thus are not
presented here. Inclusion of material and manufacturing emissions would significantly
alter the results only if massive modal shifts or massive shifts to electricity use were
considered.
8. On the other hand, consider that when coal is the source of electricity, electric-powered
vehicles tend to rank closer to diesel fuels; when gasoline is made "synthetically" from
coal, as in South Africa, it ranks far worse; and when diesel is made from natural gas, it
ranks similar to petroleum-based gasoline.
9. Leapfrog technologies are advanced technologies that allow developing countries to go
beyond what is now typically used in developed countries.
10. It is important to note, though, that even in the United States, some public concerns, such
as air quality, are highly salient, resulting in extraordinary efforts to protect the local
atmospheric "commons."
11. This breakdown closely follows Schipper et al. (2000).
12. For a more detailed discussion of interaction effects between potential actions to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector, see Schipper et a!. (2000).
13. Articulated buses are extra-long buses that bend.
14. dB(A) is the unit of measurement for measuring noise, which is adapted to the human way
of experiencing noise. It has a logarithmic scale with 0 dB(A) is equivalent to the hearing
threshold level. The indicator used for noise measurement usually is the equivalent
continuous sound pressure level measured over a period T (LAeq,T).
15. LSV - Liirmschutzverordnung 814.41 concluded by the Swiss parliament on 15.12.1986.
Download on 1.07.2002 from: http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/sr/8/814.4l.de.pdf
16. See OECD-EST (2000). The same suggestion is made in IWW/ifeu/KuP, POU, PTV
(1999) and Schade eta!. (1998). Published in Rennings, Hohmeyer, Ottinger (eds) (2000).
POSSUM (1998).

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Urban Transport and the Environment

Environmental Impacts due to Urban Transport

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS DUE TO

LEAD AUTHOR Daniel Sperling

AUTHORS Shinya Hanaoka Wolfgang Shade

According to the emission inventory analysis of developed countries, road transport

It is necessary to compare the environmental conditions between cities to stimulate policy

contribute little to the problem of localised air pollution.

All : Air Pollution j • On-Road Tmn>lX>rt ~ Non-Road Transport 0 Fuel Combustion

1111 Industrial D ~ Commercial

Sources: U.S. EPA (2003a, b).

Figure 3.1.1 Inventory of atmospheric gas in the U.S. (Year of 2000)

.-BKK .JKI • . .• o--CAI

150 200 250 300 350

•Private vehicle ''Bus Subway X Suburban rail

Source: Authors made from illTP (2000).

Figure 3.1.2 Energy intensity and population density in cities

Lyon '-'--------, Santiago

Ill Suburban Rail D Subway D Bus Cl Private Vehicle

Source: Authors made !rom illTP (2000).

3.2 SOURCE OF EMISSIONS

3.2.1 Combustion Engines

Mechanism of combustion engines

c3 ~ 1.500 800 2.000

Source: JSAE (1997).

Technological improvement of combustion engines

propulsion technologies and fuels (see Section 4.5).

2. Volatility (Related to startup, warming, acceleration, vapour lock, etc. Rated by

3.2.2 Emission Control

Table 3.2.1 Passenger vehicle emission control in Europe

Diesel-drh·en passenger ,·ebicles (unit: glkm)

Source: Created by author with reference to http:/Avww.dieselnet.com/standards/eu/ld.html

Table 3.2.2 Passenger l'ehicle emission control in tile U.S.

5Ycar/ 0.256 0.156 2.12 0.250 0.050

steps since SFTPmodc 120.000miles NMOG 2.62 0.044 OJJ06

Diesel-drh·en passenger ,·chicles (unit g/km)

Source: Created by author with reference to U.S. EPA (2000).

Table 3.2.3 Passenger l'ehicle emission control in Japan

Diesel-driven passenger vehicles (unit g/km)

Source: Central Environment Council (2002).

Box 6 Age of Freight Vehicles and Emission Control Regulations in Japan

Souce: Engineering and Safety Department,

Figure 3.2.2 Share offreight vehicles by

Figure 3.2.3 Passenger vehicle emission regulation in Asian countries

Notes: Italic~ proposed; • Four cities: **Euro 3 in 7 megacities.

3.3 LOCAL AIR ENVIRONMENT

3.3.1 Effect of Air Pollutants

What are air pollutants?

Table 3.3.1 Classification of air pollutants by EEA

Air Acidifying Tropospheric Ozone

Types of air pollutant and their impact

Carbon monoxide (CO). CO is a highly toxic substance, produced by the incomplete

Table 3.3.2 List of mobile source air toxics (MSATs)

Diesel PM + diesel organic gas (DPM +

Benzene n-hexane Polycyclic organic substances

Source: U.S. EPA (2001 ).

Kathmandu Valley, Nepal's administrative capital and a home to as many as seven

Air quality standards

Table 3.3.3 Environmental standards of WHO, Japan, U.S. and Europe

3.3.2 Mechanisms for the Localised Effects of Pollutants on Air Quality

Emissions of air pollutants