Chapter - 1

1. VECTOR SPACES
1.1. Definition
Let V be a set on which addition and scalar multiplication are defined (this means that if u and v are
elements in V and c is a scalar then we’ve defined u + v and cu in some way). If the following axioms
are true for all objects u, v, and w in V and all scalars c and k then V is called a vector space and the
elements in V are called vectors.

(a) u + v is in V. This is called closed under addition.

(b) cu is in V . This is called closed under scalar multiplication.

(c) u + v = v + u

(d) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w

(e) There is a special object in V, denoted 0 and called the zero vector, such that for all u in V we
have u + 0 = 0 + u = u,

(f) For every u in V there is another vector in V, denoted and called the negative of u, such
that u – u = u + (-u) = 0.

(g) c(u + v) = cu + cv

(h) (c + k) u = cu + ku

(i) c(ku) = (ck) u

(j) 1u = u

Example 1 If n is any positive integer then the set V = 3 with the standard addition and scalar
multiplication as defined in the Euclidean n-space section is a vector space.

Example 2 The set of all matrices of order m×n whose elements are from field F form a vector space
over F w.r.t. vector addition as addition of matrices and scalar multiplication as multiplication of matrix
by scalar.

Example 3 The set V = 3 with the standard vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as, c(u1,
u2, u3) = (0, 0, cu3) is NOT a vector space.
Since, there does not exist 1 in V such that 1.u=u for u in V.

Example 4 If S is any non-empty subset of then set of all functions from S to is vector space over
field of real numbers w.r.t. vector addition as

(f+g)(x) = f(x)+g(x) for all x in S

And scalar multiplication is defined as

(af)(x)=af(x) for all x in S

V( ) is a vector space.

Example 5 The set of polynomials with coefficients from the field F, denoted P(F), is a vector space.

1.2. Properties of Vector Spaces

1. If x, y and z are vectors in vector space V such that x+z=y+z then x=y.
2. If v ∈ V is such that v + u = u for all u ∈ V , then v = 0.
3. For any v ∈ V , the additive inverse w for which v + w = 0 is unique.
4. In any vector space V, the following statements are true
(i) The scalar product 0v = 0 for all v ∈ V
(ii) (-a)x=-(ax)=a(-x) for each a ∈ F and each x ∈ V
(iii) For any scalar c ∈ F, the scalar product with the 0 vector is 0, i.e., c0 = 0.
(iv) If c ∈ F and v ∈ V with cv = 0, then c = 0 or v = 0

1.3. Subspace of Vector Spaces

1.3.1. Definition
A subset of a vector space V is a subspace W if W is itself a vector space under the same vector addition
and scalar multiplication operations as V.

Example1. The vector space V is always a subspace of V .

Also the other extreme, we always have the trivial subspace {0} of vector space V.

1.3.2. Subspace Test

Suppose that W is a non-empty (i.e. at least one element in it) subset of the vector
space V then W will be a subspace if the following two conditions are true.

(a) If u and v are in W then u + v is also in W (i.e. W is closed under addition).

(b) If u is in W and c is any scalar then cu is also in W (i.e. W is closed under scalar multiplication).

where the definition of addition and scalar multiplication on W are the same as on V.
 Example 1 Let n be a positive integer, and let W consist of all functions expressible in the form

p(x) = a0 + a1x + · · · + anx n where a0, . . . , an belong to some field F.

Thus, W consists of the zero function together with all polynomials in F of degree n or less. The set
W is a subspace of P(F).

To see this, let p and q be the polynomials p(x) = a0 + a1x + · · · + anx n and q(x) = b0 + b1x + · · · + bnx n
Then (p + q)(x) = p(x) + q(x) = (a0 + b0) + (a1 + b1)x + · · · + (an + bn)x n and (kp)(x) = kp(x) = (ka0) + (ka1)x
+ · · · + (kan)x n These functions have the form given above, so p + q and kp lie in W. This vector space
W is denoted Pn(F).

Example 2 Determine if the given set is a subspace of the given vector space.

(a) Let W be the set of all points, (x, y), from 2

in which x  0. Is this a subspace of 2
?
3 3
(b) Let W be the set of all points from of the form (0. x2, x3). Is this a subspace of ?

3 3
(c) Let W be the set of all points from of the form (1, x2, x3). Is this a subspace of ?

Solution:

In each of these cases we need to show either that the set is closed under addition and scalar
multiplication or it is not closed for at least one of those.

(a) This set is closed under addition because, (x1, y1) + (x2, y2) = (x1 + x2, y1 + y2)

and since x1, x2  0 we also have x1 + x2  0 and so the resultant point is back in W.

However, this set is not closed under scalar multiplication. Let c be any negative scalar and further
assume that x > 0 then, c(x, y) = (cx, cy)

Then because x > 0 and c < 0 we must have cx < 0 and so the resultant point is not in W.

Therefore, W is not a subspace of V.

(b) This one is fairly simple to check a point will be in W if the first component is zero. So, let x = (0, x2,
x3) and y = (0, y2, y3) be any two points in W and let c be any scalar then,

x + y = (0, x2, x3) + (0, y2, y3) = (0, x2 + y2, x3 + y3)

cx = (0, cx2, cx3)

So, both x + y and cx are in W and so W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication and so W is a
subspace.

(c) This set is closed under neither addition nor scalar multiplication. In order for points to be in W in

this case the first component must be a 1. However, if x = (1, x2, x3) and y = (1, y2, y3) be any two points
in W and let c be any scalar other than 1 we get,
x + y = (1, x2, x3) + (1 + y2, y3) = (2, x2 + y2, x3 + y3)

cx = (c, cx2, cx3)

Neither of which is in W and so W is not a subspace.

Example 3 Determine if the given set is a subspace of the given vector space.

Let W be the set of diagonal matrices of size n × n. Is this a subspace of Mnn?

Solution

(a) Let u and v be any two n × ndiagonal matrices and c be any scalar then,

u1 0  0  v1 0  0  u1 + v1 0  0 

0 u  0   0 v2 
 0   0 u2 + v2  0 
u+v =  2
+ =
     
     
0 0 un   0 0 vn   0 0 un + vn 

cu1 0  0 
 0 cu2  0 
cu = 
 
 
 0 0 cun 

Both u + v and cu are also diagonal n x n matrices and so W is closed under addition and scalar
multiplication and so W is a subspace of Mnn.

Example 4 Define the trace of a matrix A ∈ Mn×n( ), denoted tr(A), as the sum of its diagonal entries,
that is, tr(A) = A11 + A22 + . . . + Ann.

Then the set of elements with trace 0 is a subspace. Indeed, this is clear since 0 has trace 0, and since
tr(A + B) = tr(A) + tr(B), c · tr(A) = tr(cA) for all matrices A, B and all c  .

1.3.3. Algebra of Subspaces

If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of vector space V(F), then their intersection is again a subspace of V(F).

In general, Intersection of any number of subspaces is again a subspace of V(F).

If W1 and W2 are two subspaces of vector space V(F), then their union is again a subspace of V(F) iff one
is contained in the other.

Example:- W1={(a,b,a+b)| a,b∈ }

W2={(a,b,c)| a+b+c=0 and a+b-c=0}

W1  W2={( a,b,c)| a+b-c=0}  W1

So, W1  W2 us a subspace of 3
( ).

Note:- Two subspaces of a vector space V(F) are said to be disjoint subspaces if their intersection is zero
space.

Example:- (1) Set of all symmetric matrices and set of all skew symmetric matrices are disjoint subspace
of Mn(R).

(2) Set of all even functions and set of all odd functions are disjoint subspace of set of all function.

1.3.4. Direct sum of subspaces

Suppose W1, W2 are subspaces of a vector space V over F. Then define,

W1 + W2 := {w1 + w2 : w1  W1, w2  W2}.

This is a subspace of V and it is called as the sum of W1 and W2.

The sum W1 + W2 is called direct if W1  W2 = {0}. In particular, a vector space V is said to be the direct
sum of two subspaces W1 and W2 if V = W1 + W2 and W1  W2 = {0}. When V is a direct sum of W1 and
W2 we write V = W1  W2.

Example:- Let

U1={(x,0,0)  F3|x  F}, U2={(0,y,0)  F3|y  F}.

Then, U1+U2={(x,y,0)  F3|x,y  F} and U1  U2 = {0}

then U is called the direct sum of U1 and U2.

1.3.5. Cosets of Subspace

Let V be a vector space over a field F, and let W be a subspace of V.

For each v  V, cosets of subspace denoted by v + W is the following subset of V:

v + W = {v + w | w  W}.

So, v + W is the set of all vectors in V we can get by adding v to elements of W. We call a subset of the
form v + W a coset of W in V.

Note:- Let v, v0  V . Then v + W = v0 + W if and only if v − v0  W.

 1.3.6. Quotient space
V
Let V be a vector space over a field F, and let W be a subspace of V . The set is the set defined by
W
V
= {v + W | v  V }
W
V
. i.e., is the collection of cosets of W in V .
W
With addition defined as

(v + W) + (v0 + W) := (v + v0 ) + W

And For a  F, the scalar multiplication of a on v + W is defined by

a · (v + W) := av + W.

V
With these operations, becomes a vector space over F.
W
V
This vector space is called the quotient space of V modulo W and is denoted by
W

1.4. Linear Combination

We say the vector w from the vector space V is a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2,……, vn, all
from V, if there are scalars c1, c2, ……. , cn so that w can be written

W = c1v1 + c2v2 +…..+ cnvn

Example 1 Determine if the vector is a linear combination of the two given vectors.

(a) Is w = (-12,20) a linear combination of v1 = (-1, 2) and v2 = (4, -6)?

(b) Is w = (4, 20) a linear combination of v1 = (2, 10) and v2 = (-3, -15)?

(c) Is w = (1, -4) a linear combination of v1 = (2, 10) and v2 = (-3, -15)?

Solution

(a) In each of these cases we’ll need to set up and solve the following equation,

w = c1v1 + c2v2

(-12, 20) = c1(-1, 2) + c2(4, -6)

Then set coefficients equal to arrive at the following system of equations,

-c1 + 4c2 = -12

2c1 – 6c2 = 20

If the system is consistent (i.e. has at least one solution then w is a linear combination of the two
vectors. If there is no solution then w is not a linear combination of the two vectors.

the solution to this system is c1 = 4 and c2 = -2. Therefore, w is a linear combination of v1 and v2 and we
can write w = 4v1 – 2v2.

(b) For this part we’ll need to the same kind of thing so here is the system.

2c1 – 3c2 = 4

10c1 – 15c2 = 20

The solution to this system is,

3
C1 = 3 + t c2 = t (t is any real number)
2

This means w is linear combination of v1 and v2. However, unlike the previous part there are literally an
infinite number of ways in which we can write the linear combination. So, any of the following
combinations would work for instance.

w = 2v1 + (0)v2
4
w = (0)v1 − v2
3
w = 8v1 + 4v2
w = −v1 − 2v2

There are of course many more. There are just a few of the possibilities.

(c) Here is the system we’ll need to solve for this part.

2c1 – 3c2 = 1

10c1 – 15c2 = -4

This system does not have a solution and so w is not a linear combination of v1 and v2 .
Example 2 Determine whether the vectors (2, 1, 3) is a linear combination of the vectors (1, 2, 3) and (2,
3, 1)

Solution We looking for scalars x1 and x2 so that

1   2  2
x1  2  + x2  3  =  1 
 

 3  1   3 
We can write this equation as a system of linear equations:

x1 + 2x2 = 2

2x1 + 3x2 = 1

3x1 + x2 = 3

Which we can solve using row reduction:

1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 
2 3 1  0 −1 −3 0 1 3  0 1 3 
    
 3 1 3  0 −5 −3 0 −5 −3 0 0 12 

By this Point, it has become clear that the system of linear equation has no solutions. We conclude that
(2, 1, 3) is not a linear combination of (1, 2, 3) and (2, 3, 1)