Development of equations for estimating energy requirements

in palm-kernel oil processing operations

a,* b
S.O. Jekayinfa , A.I. Bamgboye
a
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
b
Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

Received 4 July 2005; accepted 24 January 2006

Available online 3 April 2006

Abstract

A study was conducted to determine the energy consumption in palm-kernel oil (PKO) processing operations as carried out in nine
PKO mills in Nigeria. The mills were equally stratified into three categories to represent different mechanization levels and production
capacities. Mathematical expressions were developed to evaluate the energy requirement for each of the seven readily defined unit oper-
ations, namely: palm-nut drying, palm-nut cracking, palm-kernel crushing, palm-kernel roasting, PKO expression, PKO sifting and PKO
bottling/pumping. The equations were exploited to compute energy expenditure by the mills using measured input data. Empirical equa-
tion was developed for each unit operation to relate energy requirement to palm-nut/kernel input. The application test of the equations
indicated that about 352 MJ, 232 MJ and 177 MJ was averagely needed to process 1000 kg of palm-nut in the small, medium and large-
scale mill, respectively, while energy requirement for each unit operation in each mill category was also estimated.

Keywords: Palm-kernel oil; Energy requirement; Unit operations; Empirical equations; Nigeria

1. Introduction Industrialised agriculture relies on energy to carry out the

Energy is an indispensable commodity for the economic
growth and development of any nation. Nigeria has abun-
dant energy resources, which play a dual role in the coun-
try. The energy resources generate foreign exchange
reserves, which the government uses for the various devel-
opment programmes. Energy is also an essential input to
the growth and development of the various sectors of the
economy. The role of energy consumption in the country
may appear enormous but the overall energy consumption
is still very low when the energy consumption per capita
(13.4 GJ) is compared to that of developed countries such
as UK and Germany whose energy consumption per capita
in 1988 were 144.7, 164.1 and a developing country like
South Africa with a value of 182.6 GJ (Adenikinju, 1995;
Akinbami, Ilori, Adeniyi, & Sanni, 2001) (see Fig. 1).
desired operations and obtain high processing efficiencies in
mechanization of crop handling and conveyance and ther-
mal processing, to assure safe storage of agricultural prod-
ucts, and conversion processes that create new forms of
food. Energy is primarily used for agricultural operations
such as land preparation, planting and weeding, irrigation,
harvesting, threshing and transportation (Jekayinfa, 2001;
Ozkan, Akcaz, & Fert, 2004).
Historically, oil palm has played an important part in the
Nigerian economy. In 1900, when the total agricultural com-
modities amounted to 95.6% of total exports, the contribu-
tion made by palm oil and palm-kernel alone was 81.6% or
$2,242,000. This continued to be the pattern of export trade
until the mid—1920s when increasing contributions were
made by cocoa and groundnuts (Anyaegbu, 1978; Meshack
– Hart, 1990). During the period 1959–1965, commercial
exports of palm oil and palm-kernels averaged 163,000 and
414,000 ton per annum, respectively. Export of palm pro-
duce from Nigeria, therefore, constituted nearly 30% (palm
 Nomenclature
Ed energy requirement for palm-nut drying (J)
Ec energy requirement for palm-nut cracking (J)
Er energy requirement for palm-kernel roasting (J)
Ec energy requirement for palm-nut crushing (J)
Ee energy requirement for palm-kernel oil expres-
sion (J)
Es energy requirement for palm-kernel oil sifting (J)
Ebp energy requirement for palm-kernel oil bottling/
pumping (J)
ET total energy requirement
t time taken for a particular operation (i.e., td, tc,
tr, tcr, te, ts, tbp) (h)
C heating value of fuel used for a particular opera-
tion (i.e., Cd, Cc, Cr, Ccr, Ce, Cs, Cbp) (J/kg or J/l)
W quantity of fuel used for a particular operation
(i.e., Wd, Wc, Wr, Wcr, We, Ws, Wbp) (l)
oil) and 50% (palm-kernel) of the world trade in these com-
modities. The production of palm oil in Nigeria reached its
lowest ebb during the Nigerian civil war (1966–1970). It
was estimated in 1978 that Nigeria became a net importer
of palm oil with 3000 ton worth $16 million. (Anyaegbu,
1978; Ejemba, 1989; Udom, 2002). Table 1 shows the past
performance of Nigeria in world production of palm-kernel
and palm oil, respectively, for 1995–1998 (USDA, 1998).
1.1. Oil palm composition and processing
Both the pulp and the kernel yield oil and each has a dif-
ferent fatty acid composition. The pulp makes up 60–90%
of the fruit’s weight. On a dry weight basis, more than 70%
of the pulp and 40% of the kernel consists oil. A fruit
bunch will yield about 20% palm oil and 2% palm-kernel
oil (Ejemba, 1989; Encyclopedia of Food Science & Tech-
nology, 1991).
For edible fat manufacture, palm oil is bleached. Palm
oil contains saturated palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic
acid, giving it a higher unsaturated acid content than palm-
kernel or coconut oils. Palm oil is used for manufacture of
soaps and candles and more recently, in manufacture of
margarine and cooking fats. Palm oil is used extensively
in tin plate industry, protecting cleaned iron surfaces
before the tin is applied. Oil is also used as lubricant, in tex-
tile and rubber industries (Ejemba, 1989; Encyclopedia of
Food Science & Technology, 1991).
The resulting bye-product, the palm-nut, is further bro-
ken by the use of palm-nut cracker for the recovery of
palm-kernel encased in it without damaging the kernel.
The mechanical form of cracking involves the use of crack-
ing machine being driven by hand or motor at a very high
speed and causing an impact to be made on the palm-nut
P electrical power consumed for a particular oper-
ation (i.e., Pd, Pc, Pr, Pcr, Pe, Ps, Pbp) (kW)
N number of persons involved in a particular oper-
ation (i.e., Nd, Nc, Nr, Ncr, Ne, Ns, Nbp)
K efficiency of the electric motor used for a partic-
ular operation (i.e., Kd, Kc, Kr, Kcr, Ke, Ks, Kbp)
Subscripts
d drying
c cracking
r roasting
cr crushing
e oil expression
s sifting
bp bottling/pumping
either through the use of hammer mills or by the collision
that occurs on the hard surface wall of the inner casing of
the machine. Depending on the types of expeller, the palm-
kernels may need to be roasted, for example, in an oil drum
roaster, which is hand-rotated over a fire. Expellers use a
horizontally rotating metal ‘screw’ which feeds oil-bearing
raw material into a barrel-shaped outer casing with perfo-
rated walls. Raw materials are continuously fed to the
expeller, which grinds, crushes and presses the oil out as
it passes through the machine. The pressure ruptures the
oil cells in the raw material, and oil flows through the per-
forations in the casing and is collected in a trough under-
neath. Most small expellers are power-driven, typically
requiring about 3 hp and are able to process between 8
and 45 kg per hour of raw material depending upon the
type of expeller used. Bigger units processing greater quan-
tities are available for use in larger mills.
A limited number of studies have been reported in the
literature on the development of energy use models. These
include models for vegetable canneries (Vergara, Rao, &
Jordan, 1978), tobacco curing system (Cundiff & Dodd,
1981), rice processing (Chang, Chang, & Kim, 1996;
Ezeike, 1981; Verma, 2002), cashew nut processing (Jekay-
infa & Bamgboye, in press), spinach processing (Chhinnan
et al., 1980) and sunflower oil expression (Farsaie & Singh,
1985). The present study used similar procedure for the
breakdown of the unit operations in PKO production
and determination of energy consumed in each.
In 1987, the Federal Government of Nigeria introduced
the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) which led to
the prohibition of importation of some essential products
(including soap, cooking oil and body/hair cream) as policy
measures to revive the economy, minimize the dependence
on importation and to build a non-oil export based
 economy (Aina, 2002). These policy measures rekindled an
interest in agriculture on the part of many Nigerians and
Palm-nut Nigerian organisations. The government through different
agencies like Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs),
Directorate of Foods, Road and Rural Infrastructure
(DFFRI) and Federal Institute of Industrial Research Osh-
Palm-nut odi (FIIRO) made efforts to increase local production of
drying these essential commodities through incentives given to
farmers and organisations. This has led to the establish-
ment of some cottage industries like those for soap making,
Palm-nu t Palm-kernel production of cooking oil and body/hair cream (Aina,
cracking shell 2002, Chapter 13: 1–15; Jekayinfa, 2004; Olajide & Oye-
lade, 2002). These industries make use of palm-kernel oil
as the basic raw material. As a result, demands for palm-
Palm-kernel
roasting kernel oil have been on the increase without any apprecia-
ble profit margin to the producers due to high input energy.
Hence, the dwindling production of palm-kernel oil in
Palm-kernel recent time. To be able to maintain economically sustain-
crushing able level of production of palm-kernel oil, the industry will
need to substantially reduce the cost of production. In view
of this, attempts should be made for higher efficiency of uti-
Palm-kernel Palm-kernel lization of fuel, electricity and labour, these being three
oil expression cake major components of manufacturing cost.
It would appear that there has not been any study done
to determine the energy consumption in the processing
Palm-kernel
oil sifting Debris
operations of palm-kernel. Such information is vital to
enable the management of palm-kernel processing mills
to develop strategies for better control of their production
Pumping/bottling operations. It will enable them to modify areas of waste
of PKO and to properly appraise their energy consumption in plan-
ning their production activities.
The objective of this study is to develop an energy
spreadsheet model, which can assess energy requirements
PKO of all processing operations in palm-kernel processing as
practiced in Nigeria.

Fig. 1. Flow diagram of PKO expression processes from palm-nut. 2. Study area

The areas of study covered Osun and Oyo States of

Nigeria. Osun and Oyo States cover an area of 17,600 square
Table 1 kilometres and have a total population of about five million
Nigeria’s share in world production of palm-kernel (PK) and palm oil people (1991 census), with a population density of about 284
(PO) for 1995/1996, 1996/1997 and 1997/1998 people per square kilometer. Like many other states in Nige-
Producing Share of world total (million metric ton) ria, Osun and Oyo States are essentially agrarian, with over
region/country 70% of the working population engaged in agriculture. As at
1995/1996 1996/1997 1997/1998
PK PO PK PO PK PO present, agriculture contributes more than 50% of the states’
output. A recent survey (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1997a)
World 4.978 16.173 5.306 17.473 5.379 17.591
Malaysia 2.483 8.264 2.629 9.005 2.570 8.800 indicates that Osun and Oyo States have a substantial num-
Indonesia 1.410 4.850 1.590 5.300 1.700 5.500 ber of industries engaging in the production of palm-kernel
Nigeria 0.270 0.590 0.260 0.600 0.250 0.590 oil. Specifically, about 19.19% of industries situated in Osun
Cote d’ivoire 0.064 0.304 0.059 0.285 0.063 0.300 and Oyo States engage in manufacturing activity with palm-
Colombia 0.074 0.387 0.075 0.410 0.076 0.440
kernel industry taking 15% of this total average (Federal
Thailand 0.086 0.370 0.092 0.400 0.105 0.450
Zaire 0.030 0.112 0.030 0.115 0.030 0.115 Republic of Nigeria, 1997b). Nine PKO mills were selected
Ecuador 0.036 0.220 0.040 0.250 0.040 0.250 from the study area with the mills stratified equally (i.e.,
Others 0.525 1.076 0.531 1.108 0.545 1.146 three mills per category) into small, medium and large scale
Source: Production Estimates and Crop Assessment Division FAS, USDA categories based on their mechanization levels and produc-
(1998). tion capacities.
3. Development of energy equations
At each stage of the unit operations, some level of
energy input is required in the form of electrical energy,
thermal energy and manual energy. The type and magni-
tude of the energy input is a function of the technology
employed and the quantity of palm-nut or palm-kernel
being processed. To access these energy demands, quantita-
tive data on operating conditions for each unit operation
were measured (Table 2). From the observed operating
conditions for all the unit operations in PKO production,
it was concluded that energy demand (E) for any unit
Table 2
Measured parameters for evaluating energy input data in PKO mills
S/N Operation Required parameters
1. Drying • Electrical power, kW
• Fuel consumed, l
• Calorific value of fuel used, J/l
• Quantity of palm-kernel dried, kg
• Time taken for drying, h
• Number of persons involved in drying
2. Cracking • Electrical power, kW
• Fuel consumed, l
• Calorific value of fuel used, J/l
• Quantity palm-kernel cracked, kg
• Time taken for cracking, h
• Number of persons involved in cracking
3 Roasting • Electrical power, kW
• Fuel consumed, l
• Calorific value of fuel used, J/l
• Quantity of kernel roasted, kg
• Time taken for roasting, h
• Number of persons involved in roasting
4. Crushing • Electrical power, kW
• Fuel consumed, l
• Calorific value of fuel used, J/l
• Quantity of kernel crushed, kg
• Time taken for crushing, h
• Number of persons involved in crushing
5. Oil expression • Electrical power, kW
• Fuel consumed, l
• Calorific value of fuel used, J/l
• Quantity of kernel expressed, kg
• Time taken for oil expression, h
• Number of persons involved in
oil expression
6. Sifting • Electrical power, kW
• Fuel consumed, l
• Calorific value of fuel used, J/l
• Quantity of palm-kernel oil sifted, l
• Time taken for sifting, h
• Number of persons involved in sifting
7. Bottling/pumping • Electrical power, kW
• Fuel consumed, l
• Calorific value of fuel used, J/l
• Quantity of palm-kernel oil
bottled/pumped, l
• Time taken for bottling/pumping, h
• Number of persons involved
in bottling/pumping
operation is a function of electrical power (P) and/or quan-
tity of fuel consumed (W), the quantity of raw material
processed (Q) and the time taken to complete the operation
(t). This implies that E = f (P,W,Q,t).
Using the method of dimensionless analysis, it was
found that for all operations utilizing energy derived from
the national grid, energy demand (E) is directly propor-
tional to the electrical power consumed (P) and the time
taken to complete the operation (t), that is,
E a Pt ) E ¼ kPt
where k is the constant of proportionality, which represents
the power factor of electric motor used. Similarly, for all
operations utilizing fuel to run internal combustion engine,
energy demand (E) is directly proportional to the quantity
of fuel used (W), that is
E a W ) E ¼ Cf W
where Cf is the constant of proportionality, which repre-
sents the calorific value of fuel used (Rajput, 2001). To per-
form any of the unit operations, thermal energy, electrical
energy or manual energy is used. It is also possible to use a
combination of both thermal and electrical energy. A brief
description of equation for energy evaluation of each unit
operation follows.
3.1. Drying of palm-nut
The energy required for drying of fresh palm-nut before
cracking was obtained from the expression:
Ed ¼ 3:6½k d P d td þ 0:075N d td ;
when electricity is used ð1Þ
or
Ed ¼ W d C d þ 3:6½0:075N d td ;
when I.C. engine is used ð2Þ
or
Ed ¼ 3:6½k d P d td þ 0:075N d td  þ W d C d ;
when both electricity and I.C. engine are used ð3Þ
where
3.6 = conversion factor (1 kWh = 3.6 MJ)
0.075 = the average power of a normal human labour,
kW (Odigboh, 1997).
3.2. Cracking of palm-nut
The energy consumed per ton of palm-nut in cracking
operation was obtained from the expression
Ec ¼ 3:6½k c P c tc þ 0:075N c tc ;
when electricity is used ð4Þ
or
Ec ¼ W c C c þ 3:6½0:075N c tc ;
when I.C. engine is used ð5Þ
or 3.6. Sifting of expressed palm-kernel oil
Ec ¼ 3:6½k c P c tc þ 0:075N c tc  þ W c C c ;
The energy required for sifting the expressed palm-ker-
when both electricity and I.C. engine are used ð6Þ nel oil was obtained from the expression
Es ¼ 3:6½k s P s ts þ 0:075N s ts ;
3.3. Roasting of palm-kernel when electricity is used ð16Þ
The energy required for roasting palm-kernel just recov- or
ered from cracking operation was obtained from the Es ¼ W s C s þ 3:6½0:075N s ts ;
expression
when I.C. engine is used ð17Þ
Er ¼ 3:6½k r P r tr þ 0:075N r tr ;
or
when electricity is used ð7Þ
Es ¼ 3:6½k s P s ts þ 0:075N s ts  þ W s C s ;
or when both electricity and IC engine are used ð18Þ
Er ¼ W r C r þ 3:6½0:075N r tr ; or
when I.C. engine is used ð8Þ
Es ¼ 3:6½0:075N s ts ;
or when sifting is totally carried out manually ð19Þ
Er ¼ 3:6½k r P r tr þ 0:075N r tr  þ W r C r ;
when both electricity and I.C. engine are used ð9Þ 3.7. Bottling/pumping of sifted palm-kernel oil

The energy required for bottling/pumping the sifted

3.4. Crushing of roasted palm-kernel
palm-kernel oil was obtained from the expression
The energy required for crushing roasted palm-kernel Ebp ¼ 3:6bk bp P bp tbp þ 0:075N bp tbp c;
was obtained from the expression when electricity is used ð20Þ
Ecr ¼ 3:6½k cr P cr tcr þ 0:075N cr tcr ; or
when electricity is used ð10Þ
Ebp ¼ W bp C bp þ 3:6b0:075N bp tbp c;
or when I.C. engine is used ð21Þ

Ecr ¼ W cr C cr þ 3:6½0:075N cr tcr ; or

when I.C. engine is used ð11Þ Ebp ¼ 3:6bk bp P bp tbp þ 0:075N bp tbp c þ W bp C bp ;
when both electricity and IC engine are used ð22Þ
or
Ebp ¼ 3:6b0:075N bp tbp c;
Ecr ¼ 3:6½k cr P cr tcr þ 0:075N cr tcr  þ W cr C cr ; when bottling/pumping is totally carried out manually
when both electricity and I.C. engine are used ð12Þ ð23Þ

3.5. Palm-kernel oil expression 3.8. Total energy expenditure

The energy required for palm-kernel oil expression was The total energy expenditure in producing a given quan-
obtained from the expression tity of palm-kernel oil is the sum of the energy components
Ee ¼ 3:6½k e P e te þ 0:075N e te ; involved in each process operation.
Thus the total energy, ET, becomes
when electricity is used ð13Þ
or ET ¼ Ed þ Ec þ Er þ Ecr þ Ee þ Es þ Ebp ð24Þ

Ee ¼ W e C e þ 3:6½0:075N e te ; With Eq. (24), it is possible to determine the total energy

when I.C. engine is used
or
Ee ¼ 3:6½k e P e te þ 0:075N e te  þ W e C e ;
when both electricity and I.C. engine are used
required in the mill producing palm-kernel oil at a given
ð14Þ
production rate. For the PKO mills under study, the com-
putation of energy use was done using spreadsheet pro-
gram on Microsoft Excel, eliminating the need for
employing expensive simulation software and for labouring
ð15Þ over hand calculations. Further, the procedure is easy to
follow by any mill operators desiring to compute the
energy consumption in each processing operation at any
accounting period. The data obtained from the computa-
tions were further employed to generate equations relating
energy requirement and palm-nut/kernel/PKO input for
different unit operations.
4. Results of application test of the equations
The results of application test of the developed equa-
tions using different palm-nut input data for each unit
operation are presented in Tables 3a, 3b and 3c for small,
medium and large PKO mills, respectively. The results
show that for all the seven unit operations, energy require-
ment decreases with the level of mechanization (from small
PKO mills down to large PKO mills). The energy require-
ment per 1000 kg of processed palm-nut/kernel in the
small, medium and large PKO mills is, respectively,
352 MJ, 232 MJ and 177 MJ. Also for all the five palm-
nut input levels, PKO expression represents the most
energy—intensive operation followed by cracking, roast-
ing, crushing, drying, PKO sifting and PKO pumping/bot-
tling in that order.
The data presented in Tables 3a, 3b and 3c for the
three mill categories show large variation in the energy
consumption per 1000 kg of palm-nut processed. The spe-
cific energy results in these mills allow comparison to be
made between energy consumption in various PKO mills
in different locations within the study area. Variation in
the specific energy across and within PKO mills are not
unconnected with operational factors such as age of the
equipment installed, current cost of energy, type of fuel
available and extent to which available plant capacity is
used. Jekayinfa and Bamgboye (2004), Megbowon and
Adewunmi (2002) and, Miller (1986) have made similar
observations in studies involving milk processing, two
agro-allied industries and cashew nut processing, respec-
tively. Table 4 presents the regression equations relating
energy consumption to palm-kernel/nut input for each
unit operation in the three mill categories. The R2 for

Table 3a
Average energy consumed (MJ) for various PKO processing operations in small PKO mills
Palm-nut input (kg) Energy (MJ)
Drying Cracking Roasting Crushing PKO expression PKO sifting PKO pumping/bottling Total
1000 11.25 118.96 48.79 31.50 135.14 3.75 1.50 350.89
2000 22.58 237.05 98.10 60.58 270.30 7.61 3.05 699.27
3000 34.60 358.67 146.86 93.25 410.35 11.29 4.61 1059.63
4000 46.10 478.15 196.50 125.00 548.62 15.16 6.10 1415.63
5000 57.05 595.15 243.95 156.72 681.25 18.95 7.51 1760.58

Average (MJ/ton) 352.40

Table 3b
Average energy consumed (MJ) for various PKO processing operations in medium PKO mills
Palm-nut input (kg) Energy (MJ)
Drying Cracking Roasting Crushing PKO expression PKO sifting PKO pumping/bottling Total
1000 12.66 76.00 37.53 15.55 83.50 5.23 0.23 230.70
2000 25.36 152.10 75.06 30.75 166.75 10.40 0.46 460.88
3000 38.67 229.51 112.69 46.25 250.15 16.05 0.69 694.01
4000 50.29 310.20 150.12 61.25 340.05 21.05 0.93 933.89
5000 61.23 382.15 187.85 78.35 423.15 25.70 1.19 1159.62

Average (MJ/ton) 231.94

Table 3c
Average energy consumed (MJ) for various PKO processing operations in large PKO mills
Palm-nut input (kg) Energy (MJ)
Drying Cracking Roasting Crushing PKO expression PKO sifting PKO pumping/bottling Total
1000 – 69.13 5.65 14.11 81.38 5.73 1.12 177.12
2000 – 139.15 11.50 29.23 159.15 11.51 2.25 352.79
3000 – 207.51 16.95 43.05 244.15 17.21 3.40 532.27
4000 – 281.15 23.15 57.17 320.10 22.85 4.50 708.92
5000 – 346.23 27.55 71.05 407.81 29.01 5.70 887.35
Average (MJ/ton) 177.23
Table 4
Summary of relationships between energy requirement and palm-nut/kernel/PKO input for different unit operations
S/N Operation Mill category Equationa R2 t-ratios
1. Palm-nut drying Small Y = 11.512 · 0.22 0.9998 0.225
Medium Y = 12.207 · 0.021 0.9985 0.672
2. Palm-nut cracking Small Y = 119.35 · 0.448 1.0000 1.300
Medium Y = 77.04 · 1.128 0.9997 1.711
Large Y = 69.618 · 0.224 0.9997 1.571
3. Palm-kernel roasting Small Y = 48.872 · + 0.224 1.0000 0.480
Medium Y = 37.57 · 0.06 1.0000 0.560
Large Y = 5.545 · + 0.325 0.9977 0.380
4. Palm-kernel crushing Small Y = 31.486 · 1.048 0.9997 0.784
Medium Y = 15.61 · 0.4 0.9995 0.503
Large Y = 14.182 · +0.376 0.9997 0.323
5. Palm-kernel oil expression Small Y = 137.05 · 2.03 0.9999 1.710
Medium Y = 85.26 · 3.06 0.9998 1.620
Large Y = 81.381 · 1.625 0.9995 2.450
6. PKO sifting Small Y = 3.795 · 0.033 1.0000 0.036
Medium Y = 5.159 · +0.209 0.9989 0.243
Large Y = 5.79 · 0.108 0.9998 0.123
7. PKO bottling/pumping Small Y = 1.507 · +0.03 0.9996 0.046
Medium Y = 0.239 · +0.017 0.9993 0.009
Large Y = 1.141 · 0.029 0.9999 0.021
a
Y = energy requirement for each operation (MJ); X = palm-nut/kernel input (kg).

the estimated regression in all cases considered are greater
than 0.99 showing that palm-kernel/nut mostly influenced
the quantity of energy consumption with the assumption
that all other factors remain constant. The results so far
discussed emphasize the usefulness of the developed equa-
tions for the development of energy use profiles in all the
selected PKO mills.
5. Conclusions
1. A study was conducted in nine PKO mills in Nigeria to
develop and validate a set of spreadsheet equations that
were capable of predicting energy requirements in each
of the processing operations involved in processing
palm-kernel oil.
2. The results of application test of the developed energy
equations show an average energy consumption of
352 MJ/ton, 232 MJ/ton and 177 MJ/ton in small, med-
ium and large-scale mills, respectively.
3. The study has provided the basis upon which reduction
in production cost of palm-kernel oil in the study area
can be carried out through optimization of energy con-
sumption. The equations developed have provided base-
line information needed for carrying out budgeting,
forecasting energy requirements and planning expansion
in palm-kernel oil mills.
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