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Design and Analysis of Energy-Efficient Integrated Crude Palm Oil and Palm
Kernel Oil Processes

Article  in  Journal of the Japan Institute of Energy · December 2014

DOI: 10.3775/jie.94.143

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 Journal of the Japan Institute of Energy , 94, 143-150（2015） 143

Design and Analysis of Energy-Efficient Integrated Crude Palm Oil

and Palm Kernel Oil Processes

Muhammad Aziz, Takuya ODA, and Takao KASHIWAGI

(Received May 28, 2014)

This study deals with an innovative design of integrated crude palm oil (CPO) and palm kernel oil processes
based on process integration technology. Two types of cogeneration systems were introduced in this integrated
process to further improve energy efficiency: a conventional boiler based cogeneration system and an internal
combustion engine based cogeneration system. The solid wastes, including empty fruit bunches, fibers and
nut shells, are used as fuel for boiler based cogeneration. Moreover, in the internal combustion engine based
cogeneration, biogas is produced from the palm oil mill effluent exhausted from the CPO milling process. Energy
analysis of the proposed integrated system was performed in terms of energy demand and patterns in both milling
processes. The results show clearly the significant energy surplus in both milling processes. Furthermore, the huge
potential of CPO and palm kernel oil mills in terms of both oil and energy production has the ability to increase
national energy security in Indonesia.

Key Words
Crude palm oil, Palm kernel oil, Process integration, Energy efficiency, Cogeneration

1.　Introduction compositions. The pulp and kernel consist of about 70 %

Indonesia is the largest producer and exporter of
palm oil and palm oil products in the world. Production
of crude palm oil (CPO) and palm kernel oil (PKO) in
Indonesia increased annually by about 10.03 % and 10.07 %,
respectively, between 2002 and 2009. This is the result
of the large expansion in palm plantations especially
in Sumatra and Kalimantan 1). Furthermore, the total
production of CPO and PKO are predicted to reach 31 and
3.65 Tg (3.6 million tons) in 2013/2014, respectively 2). The
palm oil industry has been the biggest source of income
in Indonesia for many years. Moreover, CPO and PKO
emerged as two of the most important oils in the world and
in markets of fats. It is estimated that there are several
hundred CPO mills of all sizes in Indonesia.
Palm fruit yields CPO and PKO. The demand
for CPO and PKO has increased significantly, especially
because of the increasing high standard of living following
the economic growth in developing countries such as China
and India.
CPO and PKO have quite different fatty acid
Solutions Research Laboratory, Tokyo Institute of Technology
2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
and 40 % oil, respectively. In total, a fruit bunch usually
produces about 20 % CPO and 2 % PKO 3). CPO has a higher
unsaturated acid content than PKO, and contains saturated
palmitic acid (42-47 %), oleic acid (37-41 %) and linoleic acid 4).
About 90 % of CPO is used as raw material for food
related products, such as margarine and cooking oils, while
the remaining 10 % is used as a basic material in soap 5).
Additionally, CPO is becoming an important material for
energy production, i.e. biodiesel fuel. Unlike CPO, PKO is
rich in lauric acid (44-51 %), which resembles coconut oil 6).
The characteristics of PKO include a high content of
saturated acid (lauric and myristic), a low melting point (solid
in ambient temperature) and high oxidative stability because
of a low level of unsaturation. Hence, there are many uses
for PKO including material for hard butter and vegetable
fat in ice creams 7).
The milling of both CPO and PKO are considered
energy intensive processes because of the huge energy
consumption, including heat and electricity. To process 1 t of
fresh fruit bunches (FFB) into CPO, the required electricity
and steam (including hot water) are 20 kWh and 600 kg 5) 8) 9),
respectively. Additionally, to process 1 t of palm nuts into
144 J. Jpn. Inst. Energy, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2015
PKO, the required electricity and thermal energy are
17.1 MJ and 156.38 MJ, respectively 10)
. At present, both
electrical and thermal energy for either CPO or PKO mills
are generally supplied by stand-alone power and steam
generators, which are not well integrated. Fiber and shell
are the main fuels used for power and steam generation
in a CPO mill. Furthermore, in PKO mills, stand-alone
power and steam generators are installed to cover their
energy needs; these use diesel oil, biogas from palm oil mill
effluent (POME), grid electricity, among other sources. This
inefficiency in the energy systems causes a huge amount of
energy being consumed, leading to high production costs.
To the best of the authors’knowledge, no study dealing
with the integration of PKO and CPO mills has been made,
especially in terms of energy analysis.
This study focuses on the idea of integrating both
CPO and PKO mills with power and steam generation
systems to improve the total energy efficiency, particularly
in Indonesia. Two cogeneration systems are adopted to use
the waste materials from both mills and convert them to
useful energy. The study does not cover the downstream
processes of refining for both CPO and PKO.
2.　Integrated CPO and PKO Processes
The weight of palm nuts separated in a CPO mill
ranges from 11 % to 14 % of the amount of inputted FFB.
Therefore, palm kernels from several CPO mills (usually
5 to 10 mills) are collected and processed in one PKO mill,
which is usually installed near one of the CPO mills. Fig. 1
shows the main concepts of energy and material circulation
in the proposed integrated CPO and PKO processes.
Basically, all the materials including solid and liquid wastes
Fig. 1　Basic energy and material circulation in the proposed integrated CPO and PKO processes
are used in various ways leaving no unused materials. In
terms of material and energy use, this material circulation
is carbon neutral, leading to the use of no fossil fuel in any
of the processes.
Fig. 2 shows a schematic of the material and energy
flows of the proposed integrated CPO and PKO processes.
The integrated processes mainly consist of the CPO mill
process, PKO mill process and power and steam processes.
The power and steam processes are composed of boiler
based cogeneration and internal combustion engine (ICE)
based cogeneration, producing both electricity and steam.
Boiler based cogeneration uses solid wastes as fuel. It
basically consists of combustor, steam boiler, turbine,
generator and back-pressure receiver. Furthermore, the
generated steam is in a high pressure condition (about 1.7-
2.0 MPa), which is used to rotate the steam turbine
generating the electricity. The steam exhausted from
the turbine, with a pressure of 0.3 MPa, then flows to
a back-pressure receiver before it is used in the CPO
and PKO mills. Conversely, ICE based cogeneration uses
biogas from a biogas plant to achieve mechanical energy,
which is further used to rotate the generator to generate
electricity. As the flue gas exhausted from the ICE engine
has quite high temperatures (about 300-600 °C), this heat is
recuperated to generate hot water, which is used for both
the CPO and PKO mills, together with the steam produced
in the boiler based cogeneration system.
Starting from the palm plantation, raw FFB
is harvested and brought to the CPO mill for CPO
clarification. In this stage, palm kernels, which will go to
PKO mill, are also separated. As subsidiary products, solid
and liquid wastes are also exhausted from the CPO mill
 J. Jpn. Inst. Energy, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2015
Fig. 2　Schematic material and energy flows of the proposed integrated CPO and PKO processes
and are used as fuel for the cogeneration system. The solid
wastes from the CPO mill include EFB and palm pressed
fiber (PPF). EFB is used as fuel for the cogeneration system
or as mulch, which is returned to the palm plantation. PPF
is used as fuel in the boiler based cogeneration.
CPO mills also produce a large amount of liquid
residual waste, which is usually called as POME. POME
is usually hot (70-90 °C) when discharged and becomes
the most problematic waste in a CPO mill in terms of
environmental issues. POME is acidic - with pH ranges
from 4 to 5 - and has a high biological oxygen demand (BOD)
and chemical oxygen demand (COD) and if discharged
without effective treatment, will result in high pollution of
the land and waterways with a significant negative impact
on aquatic life downstream 11) 12)
. It is a brown colloidal
suspension containing about 95% water and 0.6-0.7 % oil and
grease. As an extraction residue, it is rich in organic matter
including proteins, carbohydrates and lipids along with
nitrogenous materials 13) 14)
. POME is nontoxic waste because
there is no chemical addition in any of the extraction
processes.
In this study, POME is further treated through an
anaerobic process, which degrades it mainly into methane,
carbon dioxide and water in the biogas plant. The sequences
of reactions in an anaerobic process include hydrolysis,
acidogenesis and methanogenesis and are explained in
detail by Ahmad et al. . As the major pollutant in POME,
15)
lipids are degraded to glycerol, which is further degraded
and converted to methane . To activate this anaerobic
16) ～ 18)
145
reaction, several groups of microorganisms are required to
maintain the process operation. The biogas produced is used
as fuel for ICE cogeneration.
In the PKO mill, palm nuts are processed starting
with nut drying. The cracking process in PKO milling
produces a solid waste of palm nut shells. Generally, palm
nuts are about 60 % shell and 40 % kernel. The separated
palm nut shells are used as fuel for boiler based cogeneration
together with the EFB and PPF from CPO mills. The
PKO mill also produces the additional solid waste of palm
kernel cake (PKC). Basically, the amount of PKO produced
from the kernels is about 47-50 % of the weight 19) 20)
.
The extraction process for PKO can be performed through
mechanical extraction, solvent extraction or a combination
of the two. In this study, mechanical extraction was selected
because its energy consumption is lower than solvent
extraction 19). Additionally, PKC can be used as material for
animal feed such as for ruminants, poultry, rabbits and fish.
3.　System Calculations and Analysis
The calculations for the proposed integrated CPO
and PKO mills were performed based on Fig. 2. Table 1
shows the composition of the FFB, which enters the mill
for CPO clarification. The flow rate of FFBs entering the
CPO mill is fixed at 1 t h－ 1. The ambient temperature
and atmospheric pressure are assumed to be 25 °C and
101.33 kPa, respectively. Furthermore, the PKO mill in
this study processes the palm nuts collected from 5 CPO
mills including the integrated CPO mill. Hence, the total
146 J. Jpn. Inst. Energy, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2015

Table 1　Basic composition of FFB consumes the largest volumes of steam in all the milling
Weight percentage Heat capacity processes. The objectives of sterilization include preventing
Material
(wt.%) (kJ kg-1 K-1) the formation of emulsions during CPO clarification,
Water 15 4.18 deactivating the fruit enzyme to stop the build-up of free
Nut shell 6.8 1.88 fatty acid, softening the mesocarp and conditioning the nut
Kernel 5.2 1.59
to minimize kernel breakage. The cooking pressure and
Palm oil 23.5 1.46
temperature in sterilization are set to 300 kPa and 140 °C,
Fiber 14.0 1.80
EFB 22.0 1.67 respectively. The cooked FFB enters the stripping process,
Mud, etc. 12 2.22 which is a rotating drum stripper to detach the fruit from
the EFB. The fruit flow to the digester where they are
weight of palm nuts entering the PKO mill is 600 kg h－1, treated mechanically and converted into a homogeneous oily
including 480 kg from the other 4 CPO mills. Fig. 3 shows mash. Hot water is added to facilitate this homogenization.
the mass balance of the proposed integrated CPO and Subsequently, the fruit is fed into a screw press where
PKO mills. This mass balance is established based on the the press cake is separated from the mixture of oil, water,
literature 1) 3) 7) 8) 21) ～ 23) and direct observation of some mills in debris, and any other material, which is discharged as dirty
Sumatra, Indonesia, including PTPN IV, PTPN V and some crude oil. The hot water is added to reduce the viscosity of
private milling companies. the discharged crude oil. The solid press cake including PPF
The FFB enters the sterilization process, which and palm nuts is separated and fed to the depericarper.

Fig. 3　Mass balance of the proposed integrated CPO and PKO processes
 J. Jpn. Inst. Energy, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2015 147

The crude oil is further clarified through solid floating kernels in the hydrocyclone are then collected and
screening (mechanical vibration) and oil sifting based on the enter into an air drying process until a moisture content
density differences in the clarification tank. Oil from the top of about 7 wt.% on wet basis is reached. The dried kernels
is then skimmed off and flows to the next process, vacuum are moved to a screw press for oil extraction. Before screw
drying. The final CPO is then cooled and stored. The lower pressing, pretreatment of the kernels is usually performed
layer of sludge is moved to the desander for removing solid including size reduction and flaking. The extracted oil then
waste such as sand and mud. Subsequently, the remaining goes to the separation process for PKO clarification.
oil in the sludge is separated using a centrifugal separator. Both solid and liquid wastes flow to the cogeneration
Finally, the liquid waste (POME) flows to the cooling pond systems for power and steam generation. Fig. 4 shows the
of the biogas plant for biogas production. schematic diagram of biogas plant and cogeneration systems.
In contrast, the press cake from the pressing process Table 2 shows the specifications of the cogeneration systems
is moved to a vertical column of the depericarper to
separate the fiber (PPF) from the palm nuts using blown Table 2　Specifications of cogeneration systems
air. The palm nuts descend and are collected and sent to
Boiler based cogeneration
the PKO mill. The collected palm nuts from several CPO
Boiler efficiency (%) 70
mills are fed to a drying silo for conditioning and drying. Turbine inlet pressure (MPa) 2.0
Generally, a drying silo uses hot air as the drying medium, Turbine outlet pressure (MPa) 0.3
hence, the heat source can be extracted from sources Turbine adiabatic efficiency (%) 80
such as the generated steam and flue gas exhausted from Back-pressure receiver pressure (MPa) 0.3
ICE based cogeneration
cogeneration systems. Subsequently the palm nuts are
Electricity generation efficiency (%) 30
cracked mechanically resulting in a mixture of nut shells Total efficiency (%) 80
and kernels. Nut shells are separated from the kernels Exhausted gas temperature (°C) 450
through winnowing and a hydrocyclone. The hydrocyclone Min. temp. approach in HX (°C) 30
uses water and centrifugal forces for separation. The Hot water outlet temperature 90

Fig. 4　Schematic diagram of biogas plant and cogeneration systems

148 J. Jpn. Inst. Energy, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2015

used in this study. For assistance in system design and
energy calculation, a steady-state process simulator ProII
(Invensys Corp.) was used, particularly for calculations on
boiler based cogeneration. The solid wastes, including EFB,
PPF and nut shells, are fed to the boiler in the cogeneration
system for combustion. The calorific values of EFB, PPF
and shells are assumed to be 18.80, 19.05 and 18.88 MJ kg－1,
respectively 24). Additionally, dried EFB needs to be shredded
before being fed into the boiler. The generated steam flows
and expands in the steam turbine, causing the rotational
energy to spin the generator, which generates the electricity.
The exhausted steam from the turbine passes to the back-
pressure receiver before it is distributed to processes that
require steam. Because the volume of steam generated in
the boiler is larger than that required for milling processes,
the remaining steam is cooled down in the condenser and
recycled back to the boiler.
The liquid waste (POME) from both the CPO and
PKO mills are collected and exhausted to the cooling pond.
Table 3 shows the specifications for the POME used in
this study. Basically the biogas plants consist of treatment
ponds including cooling, anaerobic, aerobic and maturation
ponds. The fresh, hot POME is cooled to a temperature of
approximately 35 °C and its pH is adjusted in the cooling
and acidification ponds. The retention time in these ponds is
1-2 days.
Subsequently, the POME enters the anaerobic pond,
which is covered with a flexible membrane and biogas is
produced. The retention time in the anaerobic pond is the
longest, about 60 days. The amount of biogas fed to the gas
engine is set at 80 % of the rated biogas production capacity.
A flaring system is installed to burn the rest of the unused
biogas. Before entering the gas engine, biogas is treated for
H2 S scrubbing and moisture removal. Biogas mainly consists
of methane and carbon dioxide. The gas engine rotates the
generator to produce electricity. Furthermore, the heat of
the flue gas from the engine is recovered to produce hot
water using a heat exchanger.
The rest of the liquid waste goes to the aerobic
and maturation ponds, including the facultative pond, for
Table 3　POME treatment and biogas specifications
aeration, with a retention time of about 14 days. The ponds
are necessary to further reduce the organic content in the
wastewater before it is discharged. The final discharged
liquid waste is expected to have a BOD of less than 100 ppm,
making it permissible for use as liquid fertilizer for the
plantation or to be discarded into the river. The treated
liquid waste can be dispersed through a trench that is
distributed throughout the plantation area or it is separated
as a sludge and liquid waste. The sludge is then transported
to the plantation as a fertilizer, while the liquid waste enters
the aerobic and maturation ponds before it is discarded into
the river.
4.　Results and Discussion
An analysis of the energy consumption and its
patterns for the integrated CPO and PKO processes was
performed. Initially, an energy analysis of the boiler based
cogeneration was conducted. Table 4 shows the calculated
results for boiler based cogeneration. In this study, it is
assumed that all solid wastes are burnt completely inside
the combustor. Based on the calculations, the required
steam flow rate was 2.65 t h－1 and the generated electricity
from boiler based cogeneration was about 235 kW. The
steam exhausted from the turbine enters the back-pressure
receiver. As the total steam required for both milling
processes was 395 kg h－1, about 2.2 t h－1 of steam could be
recycled back to the boiler after being cooled down in the
condenser.
Table 5 shows the calculation results of the ICE
based cogeneration system. From a total milling of 1 t-FFB
h－1 and 600 kg-nut shells h－1, the generated electricity that
Table 4　Calculation results of boiler based cogeneration
Specifications Value
Specific steam consumption (kg kW h-1) 11.2
Steam flow rate (t h-1) 2.65
Turbine inlet temperature (°C) 321.2
Turbine outlet temperature (°C) 146.5
Turbine inlet pressure (MPa) 2.0
Turbine outlet pressure (MPa) 0.3
Inlet steam specific enthalpy (MJ kg-1) 3.07
Outlet steam specific enthalpy (MJ kg-1) 2.74
Generated electricity (kW) 235.6

Specifications Value Table 5　Calculation results of gas engine based cogeneration

POME density (×103 kg m-3) 0.98
Specifications Value
Produced biogas per 1 t-POME (m3 t-1) 23
Produced biogas (m3 h-1) 24.9
POME temperature (°C) 80
Total calorific value (MJ h-1) 684.4
Methane percentage (vol.%) 55 Generated electricity (kW) 57.0
Methane net calorific value (MJ m-3) 50 Recovered heat amount (MJ h-1) 342.2
Methane density (kg m-3) 0.66 Hot water temperature (°C) 90
Ratio of biogas used as fuel to total rated capacity (%) 80 Hot water amount flow rate (kg h-1) 1253.4
 J. Jpn. Inst. Energy, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2015 149

could be produced from biogas was about 57 kW. Moreover,
the total hot water generated was about 1.2 t h－1.
From all the cogeneration systems, the total
generated electricity was about 292 kW. According to
the literature 5) 8) ～ 10)
, the electricity consumed in each
of the CPO and PKO mills for a feed amount of 1 t h
of raw materials (each FFB and palm nut) was 20 and
11 kW, respectively. Considering the electricity required
for the utilities (compressor, pump, shredder, etc.) in the
cogeneration systems is about 20 % of the generated power,
there is still a surplus electricity capacity of about 200 kW.
Hence, compared with the existing conventional CPO and
PKO mills, this integration has clear advantages leading to
highly energy-efficient milling.
In Indonesia, according to the Minister of Energy
and Mineral Resources Regulation No. 04/2012, the basic
feed in tariff (FIT) for electricity generated from biomass
and biogas was 975 Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) (1 USD =
approx. 11,800 IDR on 16 June 2014) if connected to the
medium voltage grid. Hence, the additional revenue that
could be earned was about 195,000 IDR for the production
in each mill of 1 t-FFB and 600 kg-palm nuts. Considering
the average production of CPO mills in Indonesia is about
45 t-FFB h－1, the total revenue from electricity sales to the
grid reaches about 8 million IDR h－1.
It is clear that the existence of CPO and PKO mills
can be justified because of their potential for producing both
oils and energy. Energy production, especially electricity
generation, from palm oil mills is considered to be carbon
neutral because of its biomass use. According to the data
from Statistics Indonesia, the total production of CPO oil in
Indonesia in 2012 was about 15 Tg . Assuming that 1) the
25)
ratio of produced CPO to FFB is one to five, 2) the average
CPO mill capacity is 45 t-FFB h－1, 3) the daily operating
time is 20 h, and 4) the palm nuts from five different CPO
mills are collected and processed in one of the PKO mills,
then the total surplus electricity from the CPO and PKO
mills is about 1.5 GW. This capacity will increase following
－1
the increase in oil production from palm oil. Hence, the
effective use of energy in CPO and PKO mills is very
important for supporting national energy security.
Furthermore, as CPO and PKO mills are generally
located near plantations that are located in remote areas,
electricity generation in CPO and PKO mills is expected
to improve the national electrification rate, which will
ultimately raise the national standard of living.
From this study, it was also observed that the
energy use in current CPO and PKO mills is still
inefficient. Therefore, improvements in energy use must
be pursued, especially when related to minimizing energy
loss throughout the processes. Table 6 summarizes some
examples of improvements that could be made for further
efficient energy use. The points mainly concern effective
energy recovery through circulation and cascaded use in
each milling process and cogeneration systems.
5.　Conclusions
The proposed process integration of CPO and
PKO mills and cogeneration systems can improve the
energy efficiency in the mills, improving their economic
performance. The total generated power and heat are
significantly more than required by both mills, and hence
could be sold to a power utility as additional income via FIT
program. Use of waste material is environmentally friendly
and could simplify waste management. Additionally, if the
mills are located in remote areas where connection to a grid

Table 6　Improvements that could be made for further efficient energy use
No Improvement points Description
1 Steam recovery in sterilization The conventional autoclave that is used in sterilization causes a huge steam
loss when it is opened. Use of a suction blower before opening the autoclave can
recover the steam. Furthermore, continuous sterilization is preferable because of
the possibility for continuous steam recovery.
2 Heat recovery of POME Fresh POME has quite a high temperature, hence, its heat can be used for
preheating of solids (EFB, palm nuts) or water before the boiler and heat
exchanger (ICE cogeneration).
3 Heat use of hot water and steam for drying As the volumes of steam and hot water are a surplus in the whole process, and
their heat can be used to preheat the air, which is used as a drying medium
such as in silo drying and kernel drying.
4 Heat recovery of recycled water before a condenser The volume of exhaust steam from a turbine is significantly larger than that
required in milling processes. This rest of the steam can be used for biogas
drying, water pre-heating, etc.
5 Power generator with higher energy efficiency Application of a power generation system with higher efficiency such as
gasification, fuel cell technology, etc. for both solid wastes and biogas
 150 J. Jpn. Inst. Energy, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2015

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Earth, UK, (2005)
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