RESEARCH ARTICLE

Impact of Submarine Groundwater

Impact of Submarine Groundwater Discharge on Marine Water Quality and Reef Biota of Maui

Discharge on Marine Water Quality and Reef

available N in CGW and marine surface waters of Maui. Our results are discussed in the con-
text of SGD as a significant pathway for anthropogenic nutrient loading and the potential
impacts of SGD nutrient loading on reef ecosystems.
Biota of Maui
Methods Daniel W. Amato1*, James M. Bishop2,3, Craig R. Glenn2☯, Henrietta Dulai2☯, Celia
Study locations M. Smith1☯
Six locations were chosen for this study to represent various land use and potential sources of Impact of Submarine Groundwater Discharge on Marine Water Quality and Reef Biota of Maui
1 Department of Botany, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, United States of America,
nutrients on Maui (Fig 1). All locations showed precursory evidence of SGD as indicated by
lowered nearshore salinity unassociated with surface runoff. Honomanū Bay (NE Maui,
2 Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, United States
of America, 3 US Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, United States of America
a11111
☯ These authors contributed equally to this work.
* dwamato@hawaii.edu

Abstract
OPEN ACCESS
Citation: Amato DW, Bishop JM, Glenn CR, Dulai
H, Smith CM (2016) Impact of Submarine
Groundwater Discharge on Marine Water Quality
and Reef Biota of Maui. PLoS ONE 11(11):
e0165825. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165825
Editor: James P. Meador, Northwest Fisheries
Science Center, UNITED STATES
Received: July 22, 2016
Accepted: October 18, 2016
Published: November 3, 2016
Copyright: This is an open access article, free of all
copyright, and may be freely reproduced,
distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or
otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose.
The work is made available under the Creative
Commons CC0 public domain dedication.
Fig 1. Study locations on Maui. Study locations Kahului (KW), Kūʻau (KB), Māʻalaea (MB), Honomanū (HM), Honolua (HB), and Waiehu (WB) Bays are
shown as stars. The red, dotted line indicates the boundary of current sugarcaneData
fields.Availability Statement: This data is from
available among
Satellite imagery was used with permission
(DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus DS, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS
User Community; All rights reserved).
to the public through the NOAA National Centers
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165825.g001 for Environmental Information (NCEI). The NCEI
Accession Number 0156294 is now publicly
«These results indicate that SGD* can be a significant transport pathway for land-based nutrients with
accessible online via the NCEI Ocean Archive
PLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0165825 November 3, 2016 System at http://accession.nodc.noaa.gov/
Generally unseen and infrequently measured, submarine groundwater discharge (SGD)
can transport potentially large loads of nutrients and other land-based contaminants to
coastal ecosystems. To examine this linkage we employed algal bioassays, benthic com-
munity analysis, and geochemical methods to examine water quality and community
parameters of nearshore reefs adjacent to a variety of potential, land-based nutrient
sources on Maui. Three common reef algae, Acanthophora spicifera, Hypnea musciformis,
and Ulva spp. were collected and/or deployed at six locations with SGD. Algal tissue nitro-
gen (N) parameters (δ15N, N %, and C:N) were compared with nutrient and δ15N-nitrate val-
ues of coastal groundwater and nearshore surface water at all locations. Benthic
community composition was estimated for ten 10-m transects per location. Reefs adjacent
to sugarcane farms had the greatest abundance of macroalgae, low species diversity, and
the highest concentrations of N in algal tissues, coastal groundwater, and marine surface
waters compared to locations with low anthropogenic impact. Based on δ15N values of
algal tissues, we estimate ca. 0.31 km2 of Kahului Bay is impacted by effluent injected
underground at the Kahului Wastewater Reclamation Facility (WRF); this region is barren
of corals and
Fig 6.almost
Benthicentirely
analyses dominated byBenthic
by location. colonial zoanthids.
cover Significant
is shown as correlations
the proportion of a benthic type (y-axis) for each location (x-axis). CCA refers to
crustose coralline algae. Values for Shannon’s diversity, Simpson’s dominance, and richness are shown for each location. Study locations Kūʻau (KB),
parameters of algal tissue N with adjacent surface and coastal groundwater N indi-
Esri Māʻalaea (MB), Waiehu (WB), Honomanū (HM), Honolua (HB), and Kahului (KW) Bays are shown in order of decreasing proportion of macroalgae
cate that these
(red). bioassays provided a useful measure of nutrient source and loading. A con-
ceptual model that uses Ulva spp. tissue δ15N and N % to identify potential N source(s) and
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165825.g006
relative N loading is proposed for Hawaiʻi. These results indicate that SGD can be a signifi-
Benthic diversity measures (Shannon’s Diversity, Simpson’s Dominance, and richness) had
3cant
/ 28 transport pathway for land-based nutrients with important biogeochemical and ecologi-

important biogeochemical and ecological implications in tropical, oceanic islands»

0156294. These data are discoverable via the NCEI
Geoportal (http://data.nodc.noaa.gov/geoportal).
Funding: This paper is funded in part by a grant/
cooperative agreement from the National Oceanic
* SGD = submarine groundwater discharge and Atmospheric Administration, Project R/HE-17,
R/SB-12, R/WR-2, which is sponsored by the
University of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program,
cal implications in tropical, oceanic islands.
similar values at Honolua, Honomanū, Waiehu, and Māʻalaea Bays (Fig 6). Kahului and Kūʻau
Bays had the highest values for dominance and the lowest values for diversity and richness (Fig
6). The low diversity observed at these locations is driven by the high proportion of zoanthids
at Kahului Bay and the siphonous chlorophyte Derbesia tenuissima; this species accounted for
roughly 60% of benthic surface at Kuʻau Bay. Although D. tenuissima represented about 35%
of the benthic surface at Māʻalaea Bay, at least seven other species of macroalgae were present.
One species of non-native macroalgae, Acanthophora spicifera, was identified at three of six
locations, accounting for about 4% of the benthic surface in Waiehu Bay transects, but less
than 0.25% at Kahului and Māʻalaea Bays.

PLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0165825 November 3, 2016 1 / 28


recei e : 2
accepte : 21 anuar 2016
u is e : 1
«This study demonstrates the importance of tides in
regulating the dynamics of dissimilatory nitrate-reducing
pathways and thus provides new insights into the
biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and other elements in
intertidal marshes»
Scientific RepoRts | 6:21338 | DOI: 10.1038/srep21338
DNR = denitrification
ANA = anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox)
DNRA = dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium
OPEN Tidal pumping facilitates
dissimilatory nitrate reduction
in intertidal marshes
www.nature.com/scientificreports/
o em er 201 Yanling Zheng1,2,*, Lijun Hou1,*, Min Liu2,*, Zhanfei Liu3, Xiaofei Li2, Xianbiao Lin2,
Guoyu Yin1,2, Juan Gao1, Chendi Yu1, Rong Wang1 & Xiaofen Jiang1
e ruar 2016
Intertidal marshes are alternately exposed and submerged due to periodic ebb and flood tides. The
I the biogeochemical processes of these ecosystems. Intertidal
tidal cycle is important in controlling
sediments are important hotspots of dissimilatory nitrate reduction and interacting nitrogen cycling
a onLow
microorganisms, but the effect of tides tide nitrate reduction, including denitrification,
dissimilatory b High tide
anaerobic ammonium oxidation and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium, remains unexplored
in these habitats. Here, we use isotope-tracing and molecular approaches simultaneously to show that
both nitrate-reduction activities and associated functional bacterial abundances are enhanced at the
sediment-tidal water interface and at the tide-induced groundwater fluctuating layer. This pattern
Phragmites
suggests that tidal pumping may sustain dissimilatorycommunis
nitrate reduction in intertidal zones. The tidal
effect is supported further by nutrient profiles, fluctuations in nitrogen components over flood-ebb tidal
cycles, and tidal simulation experiments. This study demonstrates the importance of tides in regulating
the dynamics of dissimilatory nitrate-reducing pathways and thus provides new insights into the
biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and other elements in intertidal marshes.
Scirpus triqueter
The global nitrogen (N) cycle is affected by the production and widespread application of artificial N fertilizers1,
0cm
of which approximately 60% is washed out of the soil into rivers or groundwater, primarily as nitrate (NO3−)2,3.
Sea
20cm SCL
The anthropogenic perturbation of the N cycle continues to cause serious environmental problems, ranging
from eutrophication to hypoxia and stratospheric ozone loss1,4. Intertidal marshes are important conduits for
Groundwater
the transfer of NO3− from agricultural level
and other terrestrial sources into marine ecosystems because they are the TL
70cm intertidal sediments by microbial processes,
transitional zones between land and sea5. NO3− is dissimilated within
including denitrification, anaerobic ammonium (NH4+) oxidation (anammox) and dissimilatory NO3− reduction GCL Sediment core
100cm
to NH4+ (DNRA). All are important NO3− transformation pathways. Heterotrophic denitrification, which uses
NO3− to respire organic matter, produces N2 and, to a lesser extent, the greenhouse gas N2O3, whereas anammox, Groundwater
the anaerobic autotrophic oxidation of NH4+, uses nitrite (NO2−) or NO3− as an electron acceptor to yield N26,7.
Denitrification and anammox remove NO3− as gaseous products, thereby reducing the risk of eutrophication. In
contrast, DNRA retains N within the ecosystem by recycling NO3− into NH4+8. Thus, the balance of these dissim-
ilatory NO3−-reduction processes, relating to geochemical and physical factors, has great biogeochemical conse-
IIand the climate9. However, the relative dominance of these NO3−-reduction
quences for N retention, plant growth
pathways and the underlying sustaining mechanisms are not yet defined in intertidal marshes.
Intertidal marshes constitute major portions of meso- and macrotidal estuaries and cover approximately 40
million hectares worldwide10. These marshes provide many important ecosystem services11, including storm pro-
tection, carbon sequestration, nurseries, breeding grounds for wildlife, and most importantly the removal and
transformation of land-derived nutrients. These effects on nutrient dynamics account for 66% of their service
values12,13. Intertidal marshes are exposed and submerged alternately during tidal cycles, giving rise to rhyth-
mic material fluxes between the sediment surface and tidal water. These physical forces regulate the transport
and transformation of nutrients near the sediment-tidal water interface (SWI)14. Additionally, tidal dynam-
ics induce periodic fluctuations of the groundwater table15, which in turn contributes to the pulsed input of
1
tate e a orator of stuarine an oasta esearc ast ina orma ni ersit an ai 200062 ina.
2
o e e of eo rap ica ciences ast ina orma ni ersit an ai 2002 1 ina. 3The University of
e as at ustin arine cience Institute 0 anne iew Dri e ort ransas e as 83 3 . *These authors
contri ute e ua to t is wor . orrespon ence an re uests for materia s s ou ea resse to . . . emai :
ou s ec.ecnu.e u.cn or . . emai : m iu eo.ecnu.e u.cn
1
Figure 1. Vertical profiles of dissimilatory nitrate-reduction activities in intertidal marshes. (I) Schematic
of the sampling cores at low tide (a) and high tide (b) in intertidal marshes. (II) The vertical distribution
patterns of potential denitrification (DNF) rates (a), anammox (ANA) rates (b), DNRA rates (c), and their
relative contributions to total nitrate reduction in April (d) and October (e), respectively. SWI: Sediment-water
interface; SCL: SWI controlled layer in which sediment is primarily affected by overlying tidal water over tidal
cycles; TL: Transition layer; GCL: Groundwater controlled layer in which sediment is primarily affected by
groundwater fluctuation over tidal cycles. Sediment-layer identification (SCL, TL, and GCL) is based on the
depth distributions of sediment water content (Supplementary Fig. 2). Error bars indicates s.d. (n = 3).
 Limnology (2005) 6:149–160 © The Japanese Society of Limnology 2005
DOI 10.1007/s10201-005-0153-x

RESEARCH PAPER

Shinji Ueda · Kunio Kondo · Yuki Chikuchi

Effects of the halocline on water quality and phytoplankton composition in a

shallow brackish lake (Lake Obuchi, Japan)
156

Fig. 5. Monthly variations in

phytoplankton taxa composition
of the upper and lower layers of
150 Lake Obuchi from April 2001 to
March 2004

Received: December 2, 2004 / Accepted: June 8, 2005

Abstract The relationships of the halocline to both water McLusky 1989). In brackish water areas, major fluctuations
quality and phytoplankton composition in Lake Obuchi, a in salinity occur with the tides and freshwater discharge,
shallow brackish lake in northern Japan, were investigated which play a key role in establishing the distribution and
from April 2001 to December 2004. The halocline in this dynamics of the physicochemical quality of the water. Fluc-
lake became stronger in summer (July–September, mean tuations in salinity, in turn, strongly influence both the dis-
maximum density gradient 4.3–5.8 rtm-1) but weaker in tribution of biological species and changes in biota (Clark
spring, fall, and winter (1.9–3.3 rtm-1). Although the differ- 1977). When a halocline forms in brackish waters, vertical
ence in water quality between the upper and lower layers mixing across the halocline is limited; thus, remarkably little
separated by the halocline was high in summer, nutrients transfer of substances occurs between the water layers
Fig. 1. Map of Lake Obuchi, Japan, showing locations of sampling stations and water depth contour lines
+
(PO3- 4 -P and NH4 -N) were eluted from the bottom sediment above and below the halocline (Lougee et al. 2002; Kondo
as levels of
It is known that Bacillariophyceae (Skeletonema dissolved oxygen decreased in the bottom
Water samples for an analysis of nutrients andlayer et phy-
al. 1994; Vazquez and Young 1996). Therefore, with the
costatum, Cyclotella sp., and because
others) and of Dinophyceae
the strong stratification
toplankton taxa caused
composition bywerethe collected
halocline monthly halocline
from as a barrier, completely different water qualities
(Prorocentrum minimum and others) formed are over
dominant thespecies the center
long term. of the lake phytoplankton
Moreover, at different depths (Fig. taxa1) using
and a 5-lecosystems develop in the upper and lower layers.
among the phytoplankton in brackish lakes, and that their Van Dorn water sampler at 1-m intervals from April 2001 to
abundance is largely controlledcomposition
by salinity (Ohtanialso1997).
differed
Marchbetween
2004. Waterthe upper salinity,
temperature, and lower
and dissolvedVertically
oxy- heterogeneous distributions of phytoplankton
layers ininsummer,
The dominant species of phytoplankton surface water but gen
was similar(%)
saturation inwere
other seasons.
measured on site using ausually
The water occur when mixing of the entire water column is
from Lake Obuchi were also S. costatum, Cyclotella
dominant spp., quality
phytoplankton taxamonitor
in the(YSI,
upper model
layer 6000inUPG,
summer Yellow Springs,
prevented by a density gradient or when little turbulent
and Chaetoceros sp., in addition to P. minimum (Ueda et al. OH, USA) at 0.5-m intervals from the surface to the bottom. Fig. 6. Percentage differences of

«This
2004). suggests
Several that the
were
studies have examined halocline
Skeletonema
the relationships was was
costatum
be- Salinity andrelated
measured to
Cyclotella usingdifferentiations
spp., whereas in in
tweenboth
kinetic
the practical salinity scale. The energy
the phytoplankton
water
the upper and lower layers quality and ecosystem components
exists
taxa cells be-in the system (Cloern 1984; Lindholm

tween phytoplankton composition theandlower layer, salin-

the horizontal density (rt) ofspp.
Gymnodinium (Dinophyceae)
the lake water was calculated andfrom1992;
water Reynolds
in Lake 1992;
Obuchi from April 2001 Frette et al. 2001). Moreover, the

between
ity the little
gradient. However, upperresearch and
has been
Chlorophyceae, lower
done on layers in eutrophic
the temperature
which prefer theand brackish
salinityand
data low lake
using the state
dissolvedwater.»
equations
to March 2004. Percentage dif-
for
gradients in
ferences were light
obtained and
by sub-nutrients accompanied by poor mixing
relationships between the halocline and phytoplankton, al- seawater (Japan Meteorological Agency 1990). The density tracting the percentage of each
though Kondo et al. (1994) touched oxygen conditions,
briefly on the role dominated.
of was expressed Thisas ssuggests that the halo- of the
t and calculated using the following for-
water
taxa in the uppercolumn
in the lower layer
may also play important roles (Cushing
layer from that

the halocline in primary productioncline was relatedLake

in brackish to differentiations in both
mula: st = (rt - 1) ¥ 1000. watergradient
The density quality 1989; Davey and Heaney 1989; Erga et al. 2003).
was expressed
Nakaumi. and ecosystem components as the degree
betweenof increase
the per (st m-1lower
meter and
upper ). Moreover, mea-Brackish Lake Obuchi (40°57¢N, 141°21¢E), located in
In this study, we attempted to clarify the role of the surements (Alec-Electronics, Compact-CT, Kobe, Japan) of
layers in the brackish lake water.
halocline in fluctuations of both the water quality and eco- salinity and water temperature at the center of the lake were Aomori Prefecture in northern Japan, has an area of
system structure in shallow brackish Lake Obuchi. This taken every hour at depths of 1 m and 3 m. 3.7 km2, a mean depth of 2.5 m, and a maximum depth of
study presents seasonal changes Keyin the water Halocline
words quality and · Gradient intensity · Water quality · 4.5 m (Fig. 1). The Obuchi River connects the lake to the
composition of phytoplankton in the layers above and be-
Phytoplankton
low the halocline and demonstrates the effects of the halo-composition ·
Nutrients,Brackish lake
chlorophyll-a, and irradiance analyses Pacific Ocean. The lake’s natural shoreline has remained
Morfologie piezometriche
in acquiferi alluvionali costieri (Italia)
 Rapporti di interazione tra falda ed acqua di mare in acquiferi porosi

Il movimento della falda e quello dell’acqua di mare in acquiferi costieri sono governati dalla
differenza di densità tra i due corpi idrici

In un acquifero l’acqua di mare penetra all’interno del mezzo, dando vita ad un cuneo salino

La posizione del cuneo salino è funzione del carico idraulico della falda

In un approccio semplificato, l’equilibrio tra i due corpi idrici può essere descritto dalla formula
di Ghyben-Herzberg:

ρm × g × z = ρf × g × (z + hf)

dove: ρm è la densità dell’acqua di mare

g è l’accelerazione di gravità (9.81 m s-2)
z è la profondità a cui si trova l’interfaccia tra i due corpi idrici
ρf è la densità della falda
hf è il carico idraulico della falda
 Livello del mare
hf

La profondità dell’interfaccia al di sotto del livello del mare può essere quindi dedotta dal
carico idraulico:

z = (ρf × hf) / (ρm - ρf)

Tenendo conto del fatto che ρm è generalmente pari a 1022 kg m-3 ÷ 1028 kg m-3, e
considerando che l’acqua di falda ha ρf pari a circa 1000 kg m-3:

z ≅ 40 hf
 CE (microS/cm)

Profondità (m da p.c.)

Bassa CE costante in falda

Interfaccia

Altissima CE costante in acqua di mare

Profilo verticale di alcuni ioni disciolti
nelle acque all’interno di un
piezometro perforato in area costiera
(Salento, Puglia)
 White & Falkland, 2010, Hydrogeol J

L’interfaccia ha uno sviluppo all’incirca simmetrico in un acquifero insulare omogeneo

White & Falkland, 2010, Hydrogeol J

L’interfaccia ha una configurazione asimmetrica in un acquifero insulare eterogeneo

Infatti, secondo Volker et al (1985, J Hydraul Eng):

Hu = (W / 2) × [(1 + α) × (R / 2K)]1/2

dove: Hu è lo spessore della falda

W è l’ampiezza dell’isola
α è (ρm– ρf) / ρf
R è la ricarica media annua
K è la conducibilità idraulica dell’acquifero

Di conseguenza, l’interfaccia si approfondisce:

(a) all’aumentare dell’ampiezza dell’isola

(b) all’aumentare dell’entità della ricarica
(c) al diminuire della conducibilità idraulica del mezzo
 White & Falkland, 2010, Hydrogeol J

La suddetta asimmetria si può tradurre in una significativa diversificazione areale della salinità
media dei primi metri di acque sotterranee al di sotto del livello freatico
White & Falkland, 2010, Hydrogeol J

Il tutto, osservato nel tempo in acquiferi

insulari soggetti al susseguirsi ciclico di
fasi aride ed umide, si traduce in una
ciclica contrazione ed espansione della
falda (componente a minore salinità)

Nel caso in esame, le fasi umide

coincidono con il fenomeno climatico che
prende il nome di El Niño

Il Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) è un Indice

standard che quantifica le fluttuazioni di pressione
atmosferica tra il Pafico tropicale occidentale ed il
Pacifico tropicale
Jeju Island, South Korea
Jeju Island, South Korea
Manjanggul Cave, Jeju Island, South Korea
Jeju Island, Centro di controllo Rete Acquedottistica, South Korea
Jeju Island, Centro di controllo Rete Acquedottistica, South Korea
Jeju Island, Centro di controllo Rete Acquedottistica, South Korea
Jeju Island, Centro di controllo Rete Acquedottistica, South Korea
Jeju Island, Centro di controllo Rete Acquedottistica, South Korea
 Kim et al, 2008, Hydrol Process

Nel caso di Jeju Island (Korea), i profili verticali di conducibilità elettrica (EC) e di temperatura
dell’acqua all’interno del piezometro mostrano un’evidente transizione tra corpi idrici con caratteri
differenti, ma anche un’evoluzione temporale di tale transizione
Kim et al, 2008, Hydrol Process

La variazione temporale
della EC nel piezometro,
così come i livelli di falda, è
strettamente correlata alle
oscillazioni di marea
 Kim et al, 2008, Hydrol Process

Dettaglio temporale delle

fluttuazioni di EC e T
 Kim et al, 2008, Hydrol Process

Il tutto è testimonianza di una migrazione ciclica dell’interfaccia tra falda ed acqua di mare,
all’interno dell’acquifero, al fluttuare della marea

Si individuano 4 zone sovrapposte caratterizzate, dall’alto verso il basso, da: (1) sempre
acqua di falda, (2) acqua di falda in bassa marea o entrambe le acque in alta marea, (3)
sempre entrambe le componenti, (4) sempre acqua di mare
https://siviaggia.it/notizie/video/mont-saint-michel-arriva-marea-del-secolo-
uno-spettacolo/211459/

Mont Saint Michel, Normandie, France

Airlie Beach, Queensland, Australia
Airlie Beach, Queensland, Australia
Fronte sorgivo vs. cirripedi

Penisola di Snaefelsnes, Islanda

Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna
Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna
Jameos del Agua (César Manrique), Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna
Jameos del Agua (César Manrique), Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna
 Jameos del Agua (César Manrique), Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna

ameos del Agua (César Manrique), Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna

Jameos del Agua (César Manrique), Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna
Jameos del Agua (César Manrique), Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna
Jameos del Agua, Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna
Lanzarote, Canarie, Spagna
Penisola di Snaefelsnes, Islanda
Penisola di Snaefelsnes, Islanda
K’gari Island, Qeensland, Australia
K’gari Island, Qeensland, Australia
K’gari Island, Lake Boomanjin, Qeensland, Australia
K’gari Island, Lake Boomanjin, Qeensland, Australia
K’gari Island, Lake Boomanjin, Qeensland, Australia
K’gari Island to Noosa Heads, Qeensland, Australia
K’gari Island to Noosa Heads, Qeensland, Australia
Gli equilibri possono essere influenzati dall’intervento antropico?

Opconing
Jorgensen et al, 2008, J Hydrol Intrusione marina

Evoluzione temporale di alcuni caratteri chimici ed isotopici delle acque sotterranee all’interno di
un acquifero costiero, prima, durante e dopo emungimento prolungato
Jorgensen et al, 2008, J Hydrol

Rapporti tra corpi idrici prima dell’emungimento

Intrusione marina indotta dall’emungimento

Tendenza al ripristino degli equilibri ante operam

 Martinez et al, 2009, Eng Geol
2005

1997
1996 11995 1993

La conducibilità elettrica della falda tende progressivamente a diminuire lungo la verticale, a

partire dal 1996

Martinez et al, 2009, Eng Geol

EC
Livello falda

Il suddetto fenomeno regressivo è chiaramente correlato con l’innalzamento del livello

piezometrico e, quindi, con un incremento del rapporto tra ricarica ed emungimento
 Puglia

Fig. 11: Mappa della concentrazione dei sali disciolti (Cotecchia, 2014).

 Piana di Sibari (Calabria)
(Sito Archeologico di età Romana)
 Piana di Sibari (Calabria)
(Sito Archeologico di età Romana)
 Piana di Sibari (Calabria)
(Sito Archeologico di età Romana)

Depressione piezometrica indotta dal pompaggio nell’area archeologica

 Piana di Sibari (Calabria)
(Sito Archeologico di età Romana)

La CE mostra un progressivo incremento dalla costa verso l’artea archeologica,

a testimonianza di una progressiva intrusione marina indotta dal pompaggio
Piana di Ravenna
(Influenza dei Canali)
Piana di Ravenna
(Influenza dei Canali)
Piana di Ravenna
(Influenza dei Canali)