Water conflict 1

Water conflict
Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over an access to water
resources.[][][1] The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of water users,
public or private.[2]
A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though rarely are traditional wars waged over water
alone.[3] Instead, water has historically been a source of tension and a factor in conflicts that start for other reasons.
However, water conflicts arise for several reasons, including territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic
advantage.[4]
These conflicts occur over both freshwater and saltwater, and between international boundaries. However, conflicts
occur mostly over freshwater; because freshwater resources are necessary, yet limited, they are the center of water
disputes arising out of need for potable water.[5] As freshwater is a vital, yet unevenly distributed natural resource, its
availability often impacts the living and economic conditions of a country or region. The lack of cost-effective water
desalination techniques in areas like the Middle East,[6] among other elements of water crises can put severe
pressures on all water users, whether corporate, government, or individual, leading to tension, and possibly
aggression.[7] Recent humanitarian catastrophes, such as the Rwandan Genocide or the war in Sudanese Darfur, have
been linked back to water conflicts.[]

Causes
According to the 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment,[8] Water is a vital element for
human life, and any human activity relates somehow to water. Unfortunately, it is not a renewable resource and in
the future there will be a lot of water problems.[citation needed] Moreover, some people like Allen Hammond, World
Resources Institute [citation needed],stated that future wars will be fought for water especially in the middle east.
Water conflicts occur because the demand for water resources and potable water extend far beyond the amount of
water actually available. Elements of a water crisis may put pressures on affected parties to obtain more of a shared
water resource, causing diplomatic tension or outright conflict.
1.1 billion people are without adequate drinking water;[citation needed] the potential for water disputes is
correspondingly large. Besides life, water is necessary for proper sanitation, commercial services, and the production
of commercial goods. Thus numerous types of parties can become implicated in a water dispute. For example,
corporate entities may pollute water resources shared by a community, or governments may argue over who gets
access to a river used as an international or inter-state boundary.
The broad spectrum of water disputes makes them difficult to address. Locale, local and international law,
commercial interests, environmental concerns, and human rights questions make water disputes complicated to solve
– combined with the sheer number of potential parties, a single dispute can leave a large list of demands to be met by
courts and lawmakers.

Economic and trade issues

Water’s viability as a commercial resource, which includes fishing, agriculture, manufacturing, recreation and
tourism, among other possibilities, can create dispute even when access to potable water is not necessarily an issue.
As a resource, some consider water to be as valuable as oil, needed by nearly every industry, and needed nearly
every day.[9] Water shortages can completely cripple an industry just as it can cripple a population, and affect
developed countries just as they affect countries with less-developed water infrastructure. Water-based industries are
more visible in water disputes, but commerce at all levels can be damaged by a lack of water.
Water conflict 2

International commercial disputes between nations can be addressed through the World Trade Organization, which
has water-specific groups like a Fisheries Center that provide a unified judicial protocol for commercial conflict
resolution. Still, water conflict occurring domestically, as well as conflict that may not be entirely commercial in
nature may not be suitable for arbitration by the WTO.

Fishing
Historically, fisheries have been the main sources of question, as nations expanded and claimed portions of oceans
and seas as territory for ‘domestic’ commercial fishing. Certain lucrative areas, such as the Bering Sea, have a history
of dispute; in 1886 Great Britain and the United States clashed over sealing fisheries,[10] and today Russia surrounds
a pocket of international water known as the Bering Sea Donut Hole. Conflict over fishing routes and access to the
hole was resolved in 1995 by a convention referred to colloquially as the Donut Hole Agreement.[11]

Pollution
Corporate interest often crosses opposing commercial interest, as well as environmental concerns, leading to another
form of dispute. In the 1960s, Lake Erie, and to a lesser extent, the other Great Lakes were polluted to the point of
massive fish death. Local communities suffered greatly from dismal water quality until the United States Congress
passed the Clean Water Act in 1972.[12]
Water pollution poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like
China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised
Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law.[13] The possibility of polluted water making it way across international
boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights,
allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes
local to a nation.

Classifications
According to Aaron Wolf, et all.[14] there were 1831 water conflicts over transboundary basins from 1950–2000.
They categorized these events as following:
• No water-related events on the extremes
• Most interactions are cooperative
• Most interactions are mild
• Water acts as irritant
• Water acts as unifier
• Nations cooperate over a wide variety of issues
• Nations conflict over quantity and infrastructure
Water conflict 3

Response
International organizations play the largest role in mediating water disputes and improving water management. From
scientific efforts to quantify water pollution, to the World Trade Organization’s efforts to resolve trade disputes
between nations, the varying types of water disputes can be addressed through current framework. Yet water
conflicts that go unresolved become more dangerous as water becomes more scarce and global population
increases.[15]

United Nations
The UN International Hydrological Program aims to help improve understanding of water resources and foster
effective water management.[16] But by far the most active UN program in water dispute resolution is its Potential
Conflict to Co-operation Potential mission, which is in its third phase, training water professionals in the Middle East
and organizing educational efforts elsewhere.[17] Its target groups include diplomats, lawmakers, civil society, and
students of water studies; by expanding knowledge of water disputes, it hopes to encourage co-operation between
nations in dealing with conflicts.
UNESCO only just recently published a complete map of transboundary aquifers.[18] Academic work focusing on
water disputes has yet to yield a consistent method for mediating international disputes, let alone local ones. But
UNESCO faces optimistic prospects for the future as water conflicts become more public, and as increasing severity
sobers obstinate interests.

World Trade Organization

The World Trade Organization can arbitrate water disputes presented by its member states when the disputes are
commercial in nature. The WTO has certain groups, such as its Fisheries Center, that work to monitor and rule on
relevant cases, although it is by no means the authority on conflict over water resources.
Because water is so central to agricultural trade, water disputes may be subtly implicated in WTO cases in the form
of virtual water,[19] water used in the production of goods and services but not directly traded between countries.
Countries with greater access to water supplies may fare better from an economic standpoint than those facing crisis,
which creates the potential for conflict. Outraged by agriculture subsidies that displace domestic produce, countries
facing water shortages bring their case to the WTO.
The WTO plays more of a role in agriculturally based disputes that are relevant to conflict over specific sources of
water. Still, it provides an important framework that shapes the way water will play into future economic disputes.
One school of thought entertains the notion of war over water, the ultimate progression of an unresolved water
dispute—scarce water resources combined with the pressure of exponentially increasing population may outstrip the
ability of the WTO to maintain civility in trade issues[20]

Notable conflicts
Water conflicts can occur on the intrastate and interstate levels. Interstate conflicts occur between two or more
neighboring countries that share a transboundary water source, such as a river, sea, or groundwater basin. For
example, the Middle East has only 1% of the world's freshwater shared among 5% of the world's population.[]
Intrastate conflicts take place between two of more parties in the same country. An example would be the conflicts
between farmers and industry (agricultural vs industrial use of water).
According to UNESCO, the current interstate conflicts occur mainly in the Middle East (disputes stemming from the
Euphrates and Tigris Rivers among Turkey, Syria, and Iraq; and the Jordan River conflict among Israel, Lebanon,
Jordan and the Palestine territories), in Africa (Nile River-related conflicts among Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan),[] as
well as in Central Asia (the Aral Sea conflict among Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and
Kyrgyzstan). At a local level, a remarkable example is the 2000 Cochabamba protests, depicted in the 2010 Spanish
Water conflict 4

film Even the Rain by Icíar Bollaín.

Some analysts estimate that due to an increase in human consumption of water resources, water conflicts will
become increasingly common in the near future.[21][22]
During World War One, the Battle of Beersheba (1917) was fought with the expressed intention of securing water
resources in Palestine.

Recent research into water conflicts

Scientists at International Water Management Institute and Oregon State University have recently found that water
conflicts are in the minority of issues concerning water use with hundreds of treaties in place guiding benevolent use
of water resources between nations. Water conflicts tend to arise as an outcome of other social issues.[23]

Further reading
• Dombrowsky Ines. Conflict, Cooperation and Institutions in International Water Management: an economic
analysis. Edward Elgar editions, Great Britain, 2007, ISBN 978-1-84720-341-0
• UNESCO. Urban water conflicts: An analysis of the origins and nature of water-related unrest and conflicts in
the urban context. Published by the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2006
• Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research (Department of Political Science, University of
Heidelberg). Conflict Barometer 2007: Crises – Wars – Coups d’Etat – Negotiations – Mediations – Peace
Settlements, 16th annual conflict analysis, 2007
• Murakami Masahiro. Managing Water for Peace in the Middle East: alternative strategies. United Nations
University Press, 1995, ISBN 92-808-0858-3
• Nickum E.James and Easter K.William (editors). Metropolitan Water Use Conflicts in Asia and the Pacific.
Westview Press, USA, 1994, ISBN 0-8133-8779-5
• Rahaman, M. M. (Editor) Special Issue: Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins:
Speculation or Reality? [24], International Journal of Sustainable Society, Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages. 2012
• Share: managing Water across Boundaries. Edited by Sadoff et al, 2008, IUCN. [25]

References
[1] Wolf A., et al.
[2] United Nations Potential Conflict to Cooperation Potential, accessed November 21, 2008 (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ water/ wwap/ pccp/ )
[3] Peter Gleick, 1993. "Water and conflict." International Security Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 79-112 (Summer 1993).
[4] Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research (Department of Political Science, University of Heidelberg); Conflict Barometer
2007:Crises – Wars – Coups d’Etat – Nagotiations – Mediations – Peace Settlements, 16th annual conflict analysis, 2007
[5] (http:/ / www. peopleandplanet. net/ doc. php?id=671& section=14) Freshwater: lifeblood of the planet, accessed November 21, 2008
[6] Murakami, Masahiro. 1995. (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ 80858e/ 80858e09. htm) Managing Water for Peace in the Middle
East: Alternative Strategies, New York: United Nations University Press. Accessed online November 16, 2008]
[7] (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ water/ wwap/ pccp/ ) United Nations Potential Conflict to Cooperation Potential, accessed November 21, 2008
[8] ICWE (1992). International Conference on Water and the Environment--Development Issues for the 21st Century, 26–31 January 1992,
Dublin, Ireland : the Dublin statement and report of the conference, Geneva, Switzerland, ICWE Secretariat, World Meteorological
Organization
[9] (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ 2008/ 05/ 13/ water-electricity-industry-biz-energy-cx_bp_0514water_print. html) Pentland, William. “The
Water-Industrial Complex,” Forbes, May 14, 2008. Accessed November 21, 2008.
[10] The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press.
[11] Dunlap, William W. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, Volume 10, Number 1, 1995 , pp. 114-135(22)
[12] et seq.
[13] (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2008-02/ 29/ content_6494712. htm) China Daily, Updated February 29, 2008. Accessed
November 21, 2008.
Water conflict 5

[14] Wolf A., Yoffe S., Giordano M., International Waters: Indicators for Identifying basins at risk, PCCP project, UNESCO, 2003
[15] (http:/ / www. arlingtoninstitute. org/ wbp/ global-water-crisis/ 457) Brooks, Nina. “Impending Water Crisis in China,” Arlington Institute.
Accessed November 28, 2008.
[16] (http:/ / typo38. unesco. org/ index. php?id=240) UNESCO: International Hydrological Programme, accessed November 21, 2008.
[17] (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ water/ wwap/ pccp/ ) United Nations Potential Conflict to Cooperation Potential accessed November 21, 2008
[18] (http:/ / portal. unesco. org/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=43767& URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& URL_SECTION=201. html) UNESCO publishes first
world map of underground transboundary aquifers, accessed November 21, 2008.
[19] Morrisette, Jason J. and Douglas A. Borer. "Where Oil and Water Do Mix: Environmental Scarcity and Future Conflict in the Middle East
and North Africa." Parameters, Vol. 34, Winter 2004 pp 94-96.
[20] Morrisette, p. 99
[22] http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 7959814. stm|publisher=BBC |date=2008-08-19

|accessdate=2009-03-26
[23] Promoting cooperation through management of trans-boundary water resources (http:/ / www. iwmi. cgiar. org/ Publications/
Success_Stories/ index. aspx), Success Stories, Issue 8, 2010, IWMI
[24] http:/ / www. inderscience. com/ browse/ index. php?journalID=297& year=2012& vol=4& issue=1/ 2
[25] http:/ / data. iucn. org/ dbtw-wpd/ edocs/ 2008-016. pdf

External links
• BBC News: Water shortages 'foster terrorism' (http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/science/nature/
2859937.stm)
• Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law. Peace Palace Library (http://www.ppl.nl/index.
php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82)
• Water Conflict Chronology, Pacific Institute (http://www.worldwater.org/conflict/)
• Lack of safe, accessible drinking water in Ethiopia (http://www.clpmag.org/article.
php?article=A-Treacherous-Trek-to-the-Craters-Edge_031)
• Water and Conflict: Incorporating Peacebuilding into Water Development (http://crsprogramquality.org/
storage/pubs/peacebuilding/waterconflict.pdf)
• Research on Local Water Conflict and Cooperation in developing countries (http://www.diis.dk/water)
• International Water Management Institute (IWMI) (http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org)
Article Sources and Contributors 6

Article Sources and Contributors

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