Unit Vii Function On Complex Variable

Session 1: Complex Functions
UNIT VII
FUNCTION ON COMPLEX VARIABLE
Introduction
Session 19
Complex Functions
Session 20
Limits and Continuity of a Complex Function
406
©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

Engineering Mathematics II – Unit 7
Introduction
This unit introduces to the complex functions. As we know “functions” play

a main role in many branch of mathematics as well as in Engineering. Many
applications coming out from complex numbers are enrolled with functions
and complex variables. They are called complex functions. Here we mainly
concern about the facts that effect complex functions and their behaviors.
The unit has two sessions. In the 19th chapter, the complex functions are
introduced. In the 20th chapter limits and continuity of complex functions
are discussed.
407

Session 19
Complex Functions
Contents
Introduction, p 408
19.1 Basic concepts of complex functions, p 409
19.2 Polynomial and Rational complex functions, p 411
19.3 Root functions, p 415
19.4 Geometric relations under complex functions, p 416
19.5 Exponential form of a complex number, Euler’s formation, p 423
19.6 Exponential value of a complex number, p 425
19.7 The Logarithm of a complex number, p 425
19.8 The general power 𝑧 𝑤 , p 426
Summary, p 432
Learning Outcomes, p 433
Introduction
A symbol, such as z, which can stand for any one of a set of complex
numbers is called a complex variable. Suppose, to each value that a complex
variable z can assume, there corresponds one or more values of a complex
variable w. We then say that w is a function of z and write w = f (z). In this
session we discuss two such functions, exponential function and logarithmic
function.
2
By assuming that the infinite series expansion 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2! + ⋯ of
elementary calculus hold when 𝑥 = 𝑖𝜃, we can arrive at the result
408

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
which is called Euler’s Formula. In the latter part of this session we derive
the formula using elementary calculus.
19.1 Basic concepts of complex functions
Definition
Complex function
Let A, B be nonempty two subsets of the complex number system. A rule

which, for each complex number z in A corresponds (Maps or assigns or
relates) a unique complex number w in B is defined as a complex function.
Notations
When the rule is f the function is denoted by w = f ( z ) or f : z → w
f
Z  f(z)
Rf
A
B
Figure 19.1
Domain
A is called the domain of the function f. It is denoted by Df
Co-domain
B is called the domain of the function f
Range (Image)
409

The set f ( z ) : z  Df  is called the range of the function f. It is denoted by
Rf.
Definition One to one function
Let f be a function If, for all z1 , z 2  Df f ( z1 ) = f ( z 2 ) if and only if z1 = z 2
then f is defined as a one to one function.
Notations
When A, B sub sets of complex number system, f : A → B means that

Df = A and R f  B ,
On to functions and Into functions.
Let f be a function such that f : A → B
1. If R f  B we say that f is defined on A into B.
2. If R f = B we say that f is defined on A onto B. Figure 1.1.1
Inverse of a function and inverse function
Suppose f is a function. When z  Df we have z → f ( z ) . If the relation is
reversed then the new relation is called the inverse of the function f. If the
inverse of the function is a function it is called inverse function of f and it is
denoted by
𝑓 −1
f
-1
f (w) = z
w = f(x)
D =R -1 R =D -1
f f f f
Figure 19.2
 w = f ( z ) if and only if z = f −1 ( w )
410

Note: f −1 exists if and only if f is one to one function and domain of 𝑓 −1 is

the range of
19.2 Polynomial and rational functions
1. Polynomial functions
Let a 0 , a1....a n  C be independent of complex variable z. The
function of the form f ( z ) = a 0 z n + a1z n −1 + .. + a n −1z + a n is called the
polynomial function
Examples
1. p ( z ) = 5z 2 − 2iz + 1
2. g ( z ) = z 4 + iz3
3. m ( z ) = 1 − z − z 2 − z3
4. L ( z ) = 2z3 − z 2 + 1
5. r ( z ) = iz 4 + z 2 − i
411

Engineering Mathematics II - Unit 7
2. Rational functions
Let P(z), Q(z) be polynomials. The function of the form
Q (z)
f (z) = Where P ( z )  0 is called a rational function.
P (z)
Examples
z2 + z −1
1. f (z) = for 5z 2 − 2iz + i  0
5z − 2iz + i
2
z3 + 10
2. f (z) = for z  i
z2 + 1
2z3 + 9z − i
3. f (z) = for z  0, z  2i
z3 + 4z
z 3 + 4z 2 + 1
4. h (z) = for z  1, w, w 2
z −1
3
2z + 1
5. L (z) = for z  1
z −1
Example 1
f ( z ) = 2z + 1, z  D
If
i. Show that f is one to one function.
ii. Find the inverse function of f.
Answer
Let z1 , z 2  Df
f ( z1 ) = f ( z 2 )  2z1 + 1 = 2z 2 + 1
 2z1 = 2z 2
 z1 = z 2
Since z1 , z 2 are arbitrary For all z1 , z 2  Df
f ( z1 ) = f ( z 2 )  z1 = z 2
412
 f is one to one function
f ( z ) = w  z = f −1 ( w )
w −1 w −1 z −1
2z + 1 = w  z =  f −1 ( w ) =  f −1 ( z ) =
2 2 2
Example 2
3z + 1
f (z) =
z −1
i. write down the largest domain of the function f.
ii. Show that f is one to one function.
iii. Find the inverse function of f.
Answer
i. When z = 1 , f (z) is undefined there for the domain

Df = C − 1
ii. Let, z1 , z 2  Df
3z1 + 1 3z 2 + 1
f ( z1 ) = f ( z 2 )  =
z1 − 1 z2 −1
 3z1z 2 − 3z1 + z 2 − 1 = 3z1z 2 + z1 − 3z 2 − 1
 − z1 = − z 2
 z1 = z 2
Since z1 , z 2 arbitrary For all z1 , z 2  Df
f ( z1 ) = f ( z 2 )  z1 = z 2
 f is a one to one function.
iii. f ( z ) = w  z = f −1 ( w )
3z + 1
= w  3z + 1 = wz − w
z −1
413

 ( 3 − w ) z = − ( w + 1)
w +1
 z= w 3
w −3
z +1
 f −1 ( w ) = z3
z−3
Example 3
Is g ( z ) = z
1
3
a function? Justify your answer.
Answer
g (z) = z
1
3
is not a function
g (1) = 1 3  g (1) = 1 or w, or w 2 1  w  w 2
1
g ( z ) = z
1
3
is not a function.
It is called a many-valued function.
Example 4
4 A B C
If = + + find the value of A, B, C, a and b.
( z + 1) ( z − 1) z + a z + b z − 1
2
Answer
4 4
=
( z + 1) ( z − 1) ( z + i )( z − i )( z − 1)
2
4 A B C
= + +
( z + 1) ( z − 1) z + i z − i z − 1
2
4 = A ( z − i )( z − 1) + B ( z + i )( z − 1) + C ( z + i )( z − i )
When z = 1
4 = C(1 + i)(1 – i) = C(1 – i2)  C = 2
When z = i
414
4 4
4 = B(2i)(i – 1) B= = =
2i ( i − 1) 2 ( −1 − i )
2 ( −i + 1)
−
2
B = -1 + i
When z = -I 4 = A(-2i)(i – 1)
4 4 4 (1 − i )
A= = =
−2 ( i 2 − i ) 2 (1 + i ) 2.2
A = (-1 – i)  A = -1 – I, B = -1 + i, C = 2 a = i, b = -i
4 −1 − 𝑖 −1 + 𝑖 2
= + +
(𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 − 1) 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧−𝑖 𝑧−1
19.3 Root Function
Consider the cubic roots of unity. They are 1,  ,  2
1
1
3
1 
2
Figure 19.3
Since 1,  ,  2 distinct the relation is not a function. Therefore to define a

function the range must be restricted. nth root function is defined as follows.
1
f : z → The principle value of z n .
415

19.4 Geometric relations under complex functions
Since the domain and range of a complex function both 2-dimensional

there’s no meaningful notion of a “graph” for a complex function. These
must be regarded as ”mappings”.
Definition of a complex function using complex planes
Let A, B two nonempty sub sets of the z-complex plane and w-complex
plane respectively. If for each z in A of z-plane there corresponds a uniquely
determined complex number w in B of w-plane, then we say that the
function of the complex variable z is defined into the w plane.
y 
P ( x,y )
P'
Z f  ( )
O x O 
Z - Plane W - Plane
Figure 19.4
We study these geometrically by computing the images under f of various

curves and regions in z-plane.
Example 5
If A, B, C, D represent the complex numbers 1, 2, 2 + i, 1 + i in the z-
plane find the image under f(z) = z + 2. Give a geometrical description.
Answer
f ( z ) = z + 2, z A = 1, z B = 2, z C = 2 + i, z D = 1 + i
f (1) = 3, f ( 2 ) = 4, f ( 2 + i ) = 4 + i, f (1 + i ) = 3 + i
416
y 
( 1+i ) ( 2+i ) ( 3+i ) ( 4+i )

D C D' C'
O A B x O' A' B' 

1 2 3 4
Z - Plane W - Plane
Figure 19.5
Shifted in 2 units to the right hand side.
Example 6
If A, B, C,D represent the complex numbers 0, 1, 1 + i, i in the z-plane find
image under f(z) = z – 3
Answer
f(z) = z – 3
f ( 0 ) = −3, f (1) = −2, f (1 + i ) = −2 + i, f (i ) = −3 + i
y

i (-3+ i ) ( -2+i )
D C ( 1+i ) D' C'
A' B'
A B 1 x -3 -2 O' 
O
Z - Plane W - Plane
Figure 19.6
Shifted 3 units to the left hand direction.
Example 7
If A, B, C, D represent the complex numbers 1, 2, 2 + i, 1 + i in the z-plane
find the image under f(z) = z + 4 + 2i
f ( z ) = z + 4 + 2i
z A = 1, z B = 2, z C = 2 + i, z D = 1 + i
f(1) = 5 + 2i, f(2) = 6 + 2i, f(2 + i) = 6 + 3i, f(1 + i) = 5 + 3i
417


( 5+3i ) ( 6+3i )
y D' C'
A' B'
( 1+i ) ( 2+i ) ( 5+2i ) ( 6+2i )
D C
O A B x O 
1 2
Z - Plane W - Plane
Figure 19.7
Shifted 4 units to the right and 2 units to the up.
Example 8
If A, B, C, D represent the complex numbers 0, 1, 1 + i, i in the z-
plane find the image under f(z) = 2z + 1 in the w-plane
f(z) = 2z + 1
z A = 0, z B = 1, z C = 1 + i, z D = i
f(0) = 1, f(1) = 3, f(1 + i) = 2(1 + i) + 1= 3 + 2i
y 
i ( 1+2i ) ( 3 + 2i )
D C ( 1+i )
D' C'
O A B1 x O' A' B' 

1 3
z - PLANE W - Plane
Figure 19.8
Enlarged by factor 2.
Example 9
If A, B, C, D represent the complex numbers 0, 1, 1 + i, i in the z-plane find
the image under f(z) = 3z - 2
f ( z ) = 3z − 2, z A = 0, z B = 1, z C = 1 + i, z D = i
f(0) = -2, f(1) = 1, f(1 + i) = 3(1 + i) – 2 = 3i + 1 , f(i) = 3i – 2
418
y 
( 3i - 2 ) ( 1 + 3i )
i D'
D C ( 1+i ) C'
O A B1 x A' O' B' 

-2 1
z - PLANE W - Plane
Figure 19.9
Enlarged by factor 3
Example 10
If A, B, C, D represent the complex number 1, 2, 2 + i , 1 + i in the z-plane
find image under f(z) = -4z + 2
f(z) = -4z + 2
f(1) = -2, f(2+i) = - 4(2 + i) + 2 = -4i – 6
f(2) = -6 f(1 + i) = -4(1 + i) + 2 = -4i – 2

y 
( 1+i ) ( 2+i )
D C
-6 B' -2 A'
O A B O 
x
1 2
W - Plane
z - PLANE
C' D'
( -6-4i ) ( -2-4i )
Figure 19.10
Reflected on real axis, Enlarged by factor 4.
Example 11
If f ( z ) = 4z z  D and z  1 find the image of the function.
Answer
419

f ( z ) = 4z z  1, z  D
w = f (z)
w
w =4z z =
4
w
z 1 1  w 4
4
Image = w : w  D and w  4

y IWI=4
IZI=1
O x O 
Z - Plane w - Plane
Figure 19.11
Example 12
If f ( z ) = z 2 z  2 and Im ( z )  0 find the image of the function.
Answer
f ( z ) = z 2 z  2, z  C
( )
w = f ( z ) = z 2 arg w=arg z 2 = 2 arg z
w =2z
arg w
Im ( z )  0  0  arg    0  
2
 0  arg w  2
420
   arg w   w : w  D, −  arg ( z )  


y
IZI=4
IZI=2
Im > 0
O x O 
Z - Plane
w - Plane
II=4
Figure 13.12
Example 13
1
If g ( z ) = , z = 1 0  arg ( z )   find the image of the function.
z
Answer
1
g (z) = , z = 2 0  arg ( z )  
Z
1 1 1
Suppose w = g (z) w= w = =
z z 2
1
arg w = arg   = arg 1 – arg (z)
z
arg (w) = - arg(z)
 0  − arg ( w )   −  arg ( w )  0
 1 
Image = w : w = and -  arg w  0
 2 
y
arg ( z ) = 2
O'
O x 

Z - Plane I = 12
W- Plane
Figure 19.13
421

Example 14

If f ( z ) = z 3 , z = 2 0  arg z  find the image of the function.
6
Answer

f ( z ) = z 3 z = 2 0  arg z 
6
Let w = f ( z ) w = z3
w =z
3
w = z3
w =8
arg w = arg z3 = 3arg z
arg ( w )  
0   0  arg w 
3 6 2
 
= w : w = 8, 0  argw  
 2

IzI=2 II=8


O x O' 
Z - Plane  - Plane
Figure 19.14
422
19.5 The exponential form of a complex number,

Euler’s formula
Recall that for all 𝑥 𝜖 ℝ the sine, cosine and exponential functions have
Taylor series expansions
( −1) x 2r −1
r
x3 x5
sin x = x − + ... + + ....
3! 5! ( 2r − 1)!
( −1) x 2r
r
x2 x4
cos x = 1 − + + ... + + .....
2! 4! ( 2r )!
x2 x3 xr
ex = 1 + x + + + .... + + ....
2! 3! r!
Note that x is measured in radians. Let z = r ( cos  + i sin  ) r > 0 and  is
in radians.
   2  4 6   3 5 7 
z = r 1 − + − + ...  + i   − + − + ...  
 2! 4! 6!   3! 5! 7! 
 ( i )2 ( i )4 ( i )6   ( i ) ( i )
3 5

= r  1 + + + + ...  +  i + + + ...  
 2! 4! 6!  
  3! 5! 

 ( i ) ( i ) ( i ) 
2 3 4
= r 1 + ( i ) + + + + ...
 2! 3! 4! 
z = rei  rei = r ( cos + i sin  )  ei = cos  + i sin 
This formula is called Euler’s formula named by the great mathematician

Leonhard Euler. z = rei is the exponential form of the complex number z
with the modulus r and the argument . Using Euler formula, De Moivre’s
Theorem can be written in the from
𝑛
(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 = cos (𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜃)
423

cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − − − −(1)
cos 𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 − − − (2)
ei + e−i
(1) + (2), 2 cos  = ei + e − i cos  =
2
e i  − e − i
(1) – (2), 2i sin  = ei − e − i sin  =
2i
The product of two complex numbers of the form z = rei
Let z1 = r1ei1 , z2 = r2ei2
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2
z1z 2 = r1r2ei( 1 +2 )
z1z 2 = r1r2 = r1 r2 arg ( z1z 2 ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z 2 )
The division of two complex numbers of the form z = rei
Let z1 = r1ei1 , z2 = r2ei2
z1 r1ei1 r1 i( 1 −2 )
= = e
z 2 r2ei2 r2
z1 z
 = 1
z2 z2
arg ( z ) = arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z 2 )
The rotation about the origin
Let z be any complex number. If z represents the point P and OP rotates an

angle  anti-clock wisely about the origin O, the resultant complex number
is given by
zP = zei
424
19.6 The exponential value of a complex number
Let z  C , the exponential of z is defined by

z 2 z3 zr
ez = 1 + z + + + ..... e z = 
2! 3! r = 0 r!
This infinite series absolutely convergent for all z  C
19.7 The Logarithm of a complex number
If z = e w , then w is defined to be the natural logarithm of z, and we write
𝑤 = Log 𝑧. To find all possible logarithms of z, write w = u + iv and

z = r ( cos  + i sin  ) , where −    , ie.  is the arg z. Then
r ( cos  + i sin  ) = eu +iv = eu ( cos v + i sin v )
Thus, r = eu and v =  + 2k , k = 0 ,  1 ,  2 ... that is
L og z = u + iv = ln r + i (  + 2k ) , k = 0,  1,  2...
Where ln r is the unique Napierian logarithm of the real positive number

r = z . Thus, Log z is a many-valued function. The principal value of Log
z, denoted by log z , is defined as log z = ln r + i
Where  is the arg z. Hence,
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑧 = ln|𝑧| + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋), 𝑘𝜖ℤ
Note that Log z is not defined at z = 0. Further, with
z = x + iy, x < 0, we have that
lim log z = ln x + i and lim log z = ln x − i

y→0+ y→0-
Thus, log z is discontinuous across the negative real axis y = 0 , x < 0.
Let z1 = r1ei1 , z2 = r2ei2 , where 1 , 2 are the arg z1, arg z2. Then with m,
n integers,
425

𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑧1 + 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑧2 = ln 𝑟1 + 𝑖(𝜃1 + 2𝑛𝜋) + ln 𝑟2 + 𝑖(𝜃2 + 2𝑚𝜋)
= ln r1r2 + i ( 1 + 2 + 2p ) , where p = n + m.
But z1z2 = r1r2ei( 1 +2 ) , whence log z1z 2 = ln r1r2 + i ( 1 + 2 + 2q )
Where q is an integer Thus, L og z1 + L og z 2 = L og z1z 2
This is the additive law of logarithms. As a corollary, every value of n log

z, n a positive integer, is a value of log zn . Similarly,
z 
log z1 − log z 2 = log  1  with the same interpretation.
 z2 
19.8 The general power zw
Let z and w be two arbitrary complex numbers; then we define z w = e w log z
Thus zw is many-valued and its principal value is defined to be e w log z.
L og z = ln z + i ( 2k +  ) ,  is the principle argument of z
zw = e (
w ln z +i( 2k+) )
where k  Z
Example 15
1  
L og (1 + i ) = ln 2 + i  2k + 
Prove that 2  4
Where 𝒌 𝝐 ℤ.
Answer
  
(1 + i ) = 2  cos + i sin 
 4 4
     
= 2 cos  2k +  + isin  2k +   where k  Z
  4  4 
 
 2k+ i
(1 + i ) = 2e 4
426
 
 2k+ i
L og (1 + i ) = L og 2e  4
=
 
ln 2 +  2k +  i where k  Z
 4
1  
L og (1 + i ) = ln 2 +  2k +  i
2  4
1 
log (1 + i ) = ln 2 + i
2 4
Example 16
Find √3 − 𝑖.
Answer
 3 1       
3 − i = 2  − i  = 2 cos  −  + sin  −  i 
 2 2    6  6 
     
= 2 cos  2k −  + isin  2k −   where k  Z
  6  6 
 
 2k−  i
3 − i = 2e 6
  2k− 6  i 
L og ( )
3 − i = L og  2e




 
 
 2k− i
= ln 2 + log e  6

L og ( ) 
3 − i = ln 2 +  2k −  i
 6

log ( )
3 − i = ln 2 − i
6
Example 17
L og ( −3) = ln 3 + i ( 2k + 1) 
Prove that,
Where𝒌 𝝐 ℤ.
427

Answer
−3 = 3 ( cos  + i sin  )
= 3 cos ( 2k +  ) + i sin ( 2k +  ) where k  Z
−3 = 3e(
+ 2k)i
L og ( −3) = log 3e ( 2k +1)i
= ln 3 +  ( 2k + 1) i
log ( −3) = ln 3 +  i
Example 18
Find the values of Log (-ei)
Answer
  −    
−ei = e cos   + isin  −  
  2   2 
     
= e cos  2k −  + i sin  2k −   where 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ
  2  2 
 1
i  2k −  
 2
= ee
 i ( 4k −1) 2 
L og ( −ei ) = log  ee 
 
 
= ln e + i ( 4k − 1) = 1 + i ( 4k − 1)
2 2
Example 19
Prove that
L og (1 + i tan  ) = ln ( sec  ) + i ( 2k +  )
Where 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ, 𝜃 𝜖 ℝ and −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
1 + i tan  = sec  ( cos  + i sin  )
428
= sec ei( + 2k) where 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ
( )
L og (1 + i tan ) = L og secei(+ 2k) = ln sec  + i (  + 2k )
𝑘𝜖ℤ.
Example 20
 a − ib  2ab
tan  i log = 2
Prove that,  a + ib  a − b2
Answer
a + ib = r ( cos  + i sin  ) and a − ib = r ( cos  − i sin  )
b
Where r = a 2 + b 2 , tan  =
a
 a − ib   cos  − i sin     e−i  

tan  i log  = tan  i log  = tan  i log  i  
 a + ib   cos  + i sin     e 
= tan i log e−i2  = tan  (−2i)i
2 tan 𝜃 2ab
= tan 2𝜃 = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 =
a − b2
2
Example 21
Find the values of ii

Answer
  
i =  cos + i sin 
 2 2
   
= cos  2k +  + i sin  2k +  where k  Z
 2  2
 
 2k+  i
i = e 2
𝜋
log 𝑖 = (2𝑘𝜋 + 2 ) 𝑖
ii = ei log i
429


i( 4k +1) i
 ii = e 2

−( 4k +1)
ii = e 2

−
 The principle value of i is e i 2 when k = 0
Example 22
Find the values of (1 + i )
i
Answer
(1 + i ) ilog(1+i )
i
=e
  
1 + i = 2  cos + i sin 
 4 4
     
= 2 cos  2k +  + i sin  2k +   where k  Z
  4  4 
 
i  2k+ 
1 + i = 2e  4
 
L og (1 + i ) = ln 2 + i  2k + 
 4
   
i  ln 2 + i  2k+  
(1 + i )
i
=e   4 

ln 2i −(8k +1)
= e 4
Example 23
Find the values of ( −i )
i
Answer
( −i ) ilog( −i )
i
=e
   
−i = cos  −  + i sin  − 
 2  2
430
   
= cos  2k −  + isin  2k −  where k  Z
 2  2
 
i  2k− 
−i = e  2
𝜋
𝐿𝑜𝑔 (−𝑖) = (2𝑘𝜋 − 2 ) 𝑖
𝜋 𝜋
(−1)𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑖(2𝑘𝜋− 2 )𝑖 = 𝑒 −(2𝑘𝜋− 2 )
Example 24
3 i
e
2

Find the values of  −1 − 3i 

( )
Answer
3i e
( 
)
e
( 
)
3ilog  −1− 3i 
 2 −1 − 3i  =e 2 
e
−1 − 3i  = e  cos  − 2  + isin  − 2  
2    3   3 
  2   2  
= e cos  2k −  + i sin  2k −  
  3   3 
 2 
e i  2k− 
−1 − 3i  = ee  3 
where 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ.
2  
2 
e
(
 
L og  −1 − 3i  = ln e + i  2k − 
2   3 
)
3 i  2   2 
(1− 3k ) 3 + i  3 
( )
3i 1+ i ( 3k −1) 
e 
  −1 − 3i  =e  3 
= e  
2 
= e(1−3k )2 +3i

2
( )
e 3 i
2 2 (1−3k )
−1 − 3i = e3i e
2
Example 25
zi = e
−( 2k+arg z )
cos ( ln z ) + isin ( ln z )
Prove that,  
431

Answer
ilog( z )
zi = e
log z = ln z + i ( 2k + arg ( z ) ) where 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ.
i ln z +i( 2k+ arg( z ) ) −( 2k+ arg z )

zi = e  = e
iln z
e
= e
−( 2k+ arg z )
cos ( ln z ) + isin ( ln z )
 
Review Questions
Prove the following
 
(1) (a) L og i = ( 4k + 1) i (b) L og ( −i ) = ( 4k − 1) i
2 2
(c) L og ( i ) = 2 (8k + 1) i (d) l og ( −1) = i
1 3i
(e) l og ( i − 1) = ln 2 +
2 4
1
(f) log(1 + 𝑎𝑖) = 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑎2 ) + 𝑖 tan−1 𝑎 𝑎 𝜖 ℝ, 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ.
2
(2) (i) L og (1 + cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = ln 2cos  + i (  + 2k ) where 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ.
(ii) ( )
L og 1 + e2i = ln 2cos  + i (  + 2k ) where 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ.
Summary
Complex function, One to one function, Onto function, Into function
Polynomial function a 0 zn + a1zn −1 + ... + a n −1z + a n
432
g (z)
Rational function f ( z ) = where p ( z )  0 and p(z), g(z) are
p (z)
polynomials
1
Root function f : z → principle value of z n
Geometrical relations of complex functions
Euler’s formula 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥
Logarithm of a complex number
z = rei z = re ( where 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ. L og z = ln r + i ( 2k +  )

i 2k+)
If
The principle value log z = ln z + i Where  is the principle argument of
z.
The general power of a complex number.
Learning Outcomes
End of this session the student should be able to do the following:
• Define a function, inverse function, onto function, into function,

polynomial function, Rational function, root function and the limit of
a function.
• Calculate the limits
• Find inverse functions
• Defined the exponential and Logarithmic value of a complex
number.
• Deduce the Euler’s formula.
• Calculate the Logarithmic value of a complex number.
433

Session 20
Limits and Continuity of a Complex

Function
Content
Introduction, p 434
20.1 Limits of Complex Functions, p 435
20.2 Continuity, p 440
Summary, p 444
Learning Outcomes, p 445
Introduction
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be defined and single valued in a neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 with the
possible exception of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 itself. We say that the number 𝑙 is the limit of
𝑓(𝑧) as 𝑧 approaches 𝑧0 and write lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙. In the first part of this
𝑧→𝑧0
session we discuss few theorems related to limits and calculate limits of

polynomial and rational functions.
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be defined and single valued in a neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 as well as

at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 itself. The function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ).
𝑧→𝑧0
In the second part of this session we consider few theorems related to

continuity and discuss number of problems related to the topic.
434
Session 2: Limits and Continuity of a Complex Function
20.1 Limits of complex functions
Intuitive idea of a limit of a complex function.
The most important concept in elementary calculus is that of the limit.

Recall that lim f ( x ) = l intuitively means that values f(x) of the function f(x)
x →a
can be made arbitrarily close to the real number l. If values of x are chosen
sufficiently close to, but not equal to the real number a. The concept of a
complex limit is similar to that of a real limit in the sense that lim f ( z ) = L
z →z0
will mean that the values f(z) of the complex function f can be made
arbitrary close the complex number L if values of z are chosen sufficiently
close to but not equal to the complex number zo . Although outwardly
similar, there is an important difference between these concepts of limits. In
a real limit, there are two directions from which x can approach on the real
line, from the left or from the right. In a complex limit however, there are
infinitely many directions from which z can approach zo . (Figure). In order
for a complex limit to exist, each way in which z can approach zo, must yield
the same limiting value.
y
I z - zOI = 
zO
IzI=2
O x
Figure 20.1
©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka 435

Definition of the limit of a complex function.
Let f be a complex function defined on S. If there exists a complex number

L such that for all   0 there exists a   0 such that f ( z ) − L   for all
z  S satisfying 0  z − z0   then L is the limit as z approaches z0 in S.
lim
It is denoted by 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧) =𝐿
Theorems 20.1
1. If lim f ( z ) exists then it is unique.

z →z0
2. If c is a constant lim ( c ) = c
z →z 0
lim f ( z ) , lim g ( z )
z →z 0 z →z0
3. If exists
Then i. lim k f ( z ) = k lim f ( z ) where k is a constant

z →z0 z →z0
lim f ( z ) g ( z ) = lim ( f ( z ) ) lim ( g ( z ) )

z →z0 z →z0 z →z0
ii.
 f ( z )  zlim f (z)
→z0
iii. lim 
z →z0 g ( z ) 
= Provided that
 lim
 z →z0 g ( z )
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑧) ≠ 0 .
𝑧→𝑧0
Example 1
Find the following limit lim ( z 2 + z − 1)
z →i
Answer
( )
lim z 2 + z − 1 = 𝑖 2 + 𝑖 - 1= 𝑖 − 2
z →i
436
Example 2
 z3 − i 
Find the limit lim  
 z +1 
z →− i 2
Answer
If – i is substituted then the function is undefined.
 z3 + i3 
= lim
(z + i) z + zi + i( 2 2
) = lim ( z 2
+ zi − 1)
=
i2 − i2 − 1
lim  2 2  z→−i
z →− i z − i
  (z + i) ( z − i ) z →− i (z − i) −i − i
1 1
= =− i
2i 2
Example 3
 z 2 − 2z + 4 
Find the limit lim  
z →1+ 3i
 z − 1 − 3i 
Answer
If 1+ 3i is substituted the value is undefined.
( z − 1)
2
+3 ( z − 1 − 3i )( z − 1 + 3i )
( z − 1 − 3i )
lim = lim
z →1+ 3i z − 1 − 3i z →1+ 3i
(
= lim z − 1 + 3i =
z →1+ 3i
) 2 3i
 z 2 − 2z + 4 
 lim   = 2 3i
z →1+ 3i
 z − 1 − 3i 
Example 4
Find the following limit
Re ( z )
(a) Calculate lim as z goes to zero with y = x
z →0 Im ( z )
Re ( z )
(b) Calculate lim as z goes to zero with x = 0
z →0 Im ( z )
Re(z)
What can say about the limit of lim
z →0 Im(z)

Answer
Define S1 = z : z = x + iy, y = x S2 = z : Re ( z ) = 0
x
lim =1 0
(a) (b) =0
z→0 y lim
z →0 y
z S
zS2
1
Re ( z ) Re ( z ) Re ( z )
lim  lim  lim does not exist
z →0
zS1
Im ( z ) z →0
zS2
Im ( z ) z →0 Im ( z )
Example 5
𝑧̅
Prove that limit lim(𝑧) does not exist.
𝑧→0
Solution:
𝑧̅
Assume 𝑧 → 0 along real axis. Then 𝑧 = 𝑥 and 𝑧̅ = 𝑥. Thus lim (𝑧) =
𝑧→0
𝑥
lim (𝑥) = 1
𝑥→0
Assume 𝑧 → 0 along imaginary axis. Then 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑧̅ = −𝑖𝑦.

𝑧̅ −𝑖𝑦 𝑧̅
Then lim (𝑧) = lim ( 𝑖𝑦 ) = −1. Therefore lim(𝑧) does not exist.
𝑧→0 𝑦→0 𝑧→0
Example 6
Prove that lim |𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝑍)| does not exist.
𝑧→0
Answer : Take 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
|𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝑧)| = |𝑥|
Thus lim |𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝑍)| = lim |𝑥|

𝑧→0 𝑥→0
We know that lim |𝑥| does not exist. Hence lim |𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝑍)| does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑧→0
Activity 1
1. Show the following function are one to one and find inverse functions.
1. f ( z ) = 2z + 4, z  C
438
2z − 4
2. g (z) = , z  C and z  2
z−2
1 − 2z
3. A (z) = , z  C and z  −2
z+2
2. Find the image of the following functions.

1. f ( z ) = z2 , z  2, 0  arg ( z ) 
2

2. f ( z ) = z3 , z  2, 0  arg ( z ) 
4
1 1  
3. g (z) = , z = ,  arg ( z ) 
z 2 4 2

4. h ( z ) = z 2 , arg ( z ) =
4
4. g ( z ) = 2z + 1, z = 4
3. Find following limits
z −1 − i
1.
z →i
(
lim z3 − z + 1 ) 2. lim
z →1+ i z + 2z + 2
2
z2 − ( 2 + i )
2
z4 −1
lim lim
z − (2 + i)
3. 4.
z →− i z + i z→2+i
z +3−i 2
5. lim
2i z + 6z + 11
2
z →−3+
4. (
Consider the limit lim z + i arg ( iz )
z→i
)
(a) What value does the limit approach as z approaches i along the unit
circle z = 1 in the first quadrant?
(b) What value does the limit approach as z approaches i along the unit
circle z = 1 in the second quadrant.

(c) Based on your answers for (a) and (b) what can you say about
lim ( z + i arg ( iz ) )
z→i
5. Find the values of A, B, C, a, b such that

2z + 1 A B C
1. = + +
( z + 1) ( z − 1) z + a z + b z − 1
2
z2 A B C
= + +
( z2 + 4) ( 2z + 1) z + a z + b z −1
2.
z −1 A B C
3. = + +
( z + 9) ( z − 2) z + a z + b z − 2
3
2 A B
4. = +
z + 2z + 2 z + a z + b
2
20.2 Continuity
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be defined and single valued in a neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 as well
as at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 ( i.e in a 𝛿 neighborhood of 𝑧0 ). The function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be
lim
continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if 𝑧→𝑧 0
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ).
Note that this implies three conditions that must be met in order that 𝑓(𝑧) be
continuous at = 𝑧0 .
lim
(1) 𝑧⟶𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧) must exist
(2) 𝑓(𝑧0 ) must exist , i.e 𝑓(𝑧) is defined at 𝑧0 .
lim
(3) 𝑧⟶𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 )
Alternatively, we can define 𝑓(𝑧) as continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if for any 𝜀 > 0,

we can find 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| < 𝜀 whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿.
Example 7
Suppose
𝑧 𝑧≥1
𝑓(𝑧) = {
–𝑧 𝑧<1
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 1 and lim 𝑓(𝑧) = −1. Thus lim 𝑓(𝑧) does not exist.
𝑧⟶1+ 𝑧⟶1− 𝑧⟶1
Therefore 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑧 = 1.
440
If we take 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 for all 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, then 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at 𝑧 = 1.
Continuity in a region
A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous in a region if it is continuous at all

points of the region.
Theorems on Continuity
Theorem 20.2
If 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in a region, then real and imaginary parts of

𝑓(𝑧) are also continuous in the region.
Theorem 20.3
Given 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , then so are the

functions 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧), 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑔(𝑧), 𝑓(𝑧)𝑔(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧)/𝑔(𝑧),
the last if 𝑔(𝑧0 ) ≠ 0.
Theorem 20.4
Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in a closed bounded region. Then

𝑓(𝑧) is bounded in the region.
I.e. there exist 𝑀 ∈ ℝ such that |𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑀 for all points 𝑧 in the region.
Note: Among the functions continuous in every finite regions are all
polynomials, 𝑒 𝑧 , cos 𝑧 and sin 𝑧.
Example 8
Prove that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0.
Answer
We must show that given 𝜀 > 0, we can find 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) −
𝑓(𝑧0 )| = |𝑧 2 − 𝑧0 2 | < 𝜀 when |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿.
Take 𝛿 ≤ 1.

|z 2 − z0 2 | = |(z + z0 )(z − z0 )| = |z + z0 ||z − z0 | − − − −(A)
|𝑧| − |𝑧0 | ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿 ≤ 1 ⟶ |𝑧| ≤ (1 + |𝑧0 |) − − − − − −(1)
|𝑧 + 𝑧0 | ≤ |𝑧| + |𝑧0 | ≤ (1 + |𝑧0 |) + |𝑧0 | = (1 + 2|𝑧0 |) − − − − − (2)
Substituting (1) and (2) in (A), we get

𝜀
|z 2 − z0 2 | = |z + z0 ||z − z0 | < 𝛿(1 + 2|𝑧0 |) < 𝜀 ⟹ 𝛿 < (1+2|𝑧 .
|) 0
𝜀
Take 𝛿 = min {1, (1+2|𝑧 }
0 |)
Then |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| < 𝜀 whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿.
i.e 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .
Example 9
Prove that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 is continuous in the region|𝑧| ≤ 1.
Solution:
Let 𝑧0 be any point in the region |𝑧| ≤ 1. By S.A.Q ( Number ), 𝑓(𝑧) is

continuous at𝑧0 . Thus 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in the region since it is continuous
at any point of the region.
Example 10
For what values of 𝑧 are each of the following functions continuous ?
𝑧
(a) 𝑓(𝑧) = (b) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑧
(1+𝑧 2 )
Solution:
(a) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧⁄(1 + 𝑧 2 ) = 𝑧/(𝑧 − 𝑖)(𝑧 + 𝑖). Since the denominator is
zero when 𝑧 = ±𝑖, the function is continuous everywhere except 𝑧 =

±𝑖.
(b) 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑧 = 1⁄sin 𝑧 . sin 𝑧 = 0 when 𝑧 = 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋 … ….
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous everywhere except at these points.
Example 11
442
3𝑧 4 −2𝑧 3 +8𝑧 2 −2𝑧+5

Is the function 𝑓(𝑧) = continuous at = 𝑖 ?
𝑧−𝑖
𝑓(𝑖) does not exist. i.e 𝑓(𝑧) is not defined at 𝑧 = 𝑖. Thus 𝑓(𝑧) is not
continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑖.
3𝑧 4 −2𝑧 3 +8𝑧 2 −2𝑧+5 (𝑧−𝑖)[3𝑧 3 +(3𝑖−2)𝑧 2 +(5−2𝑖)𝑧+5𝑖]

But lim 𝑓(𝑧) = lim = lim =
𝑧⟶𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 𝑧−𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 (𝑧−𝑖)
4 + 4𝑖
If we define
3𝑧 4 −2𝑧 3 +8𝑧 2 −2𝑧+5

𝑓(𝑧) = { 𝑧−𝑖
𝑧≠𝑖
4 + 4𝑖 𝑧=𝑖
Then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑖. In such a case, we call 𝑧 = 𝑖 a removable

singularity.
Activity 2
𝑧 2 +4
(1) Let 𝑓(𝑧) = if 𝑧 ≠ 2𝑖, while 𝑓(2𝑖) = 3 + 4𝑖.
𝑧−2𝑖
(a) Prove that lim 𝑓(𝑧) exist and determine its value.
𝑧→2𝑖
(b) Is 𝑓(𝑧) continuous at 𝑧 = 2𝑖? Explain.

(c) Is 𝑓(𝑧) continuous at points 𝑧 ≠ 2𝑖? Explain.
(2) Answer Question (1) if 𝑓(2𝑖) = 4𝑖 and explain why any difference should
occure.
𝑧
(3) Prove that 𝑓(𝑧) = is continuous at all points inside and on the unit circle
(1+𝑧 4 )
|𝑧| = 1 except at four points, and determine these points.

(4) Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0. Prove that 3𝑓(𝑧) − 4𝑖𝑔(𝑧) is
also continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .
(5) Find all points of discontinuity for the following functions.
2𝑧 − 3 3𝑧 2 + 4 tanh 𝑧
(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑧) = , (𝑏)𝑓(𝑧) = , (𝑐) 𝑓(𝑧) = cot 𝑧, (𝑑) 𝑓(𝑧) = 2
𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 2 𝑧 4 − 16 𝑧 +1
𝑧 2 +1
(6) Prove that 𝑓(𝑧) = is (a) continuous and (b) bounded in the region |𝑧| ≤ 2.
𝑧 3 +9
𝑧 2 +1
(7) Show that 𝑓(𝑧) = is continuous for all 𝑧 outside |𝑧| = 2.
𝑧 2 −3𝑧+2
(8) Prove that a polynomial is continuous everywhere in the finite plane.

Summary
Definition of the Limits
Let f be a complex function defined on S. If there exists a complex number

L such that for all   0 there exists a   0 such that f ( z ) − L   for all
z  S satisfying 0  z − z0   then L is the limit as z approaches z0 in S.
lim
It is denoted by 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧) =𝐿
Theorems
1. If lim f ( z ) exists then it is unique.

z →z0
2. If c is a constant lim ( c ) = c
z →z 0
3. If lim f ( z ) , lim g ( z ) exists

z →z 0 z →z0
Then i. lim k f ( z ) = k lim f ( z ) where k is a constant

z →z0 z →z0
ii. lim f ( z ) g ( z ) = lim ( f ( z ) ) lim ( g ( z ) )

z →z0 z →z0 z →z0
 f ( z )  zlim f (z)
→z0
iii. lim   = Provided that lim 𝑔(𝑧) ≠ 0 .
z →z0  g ( z )  lim g ( z ) 𝑧→𝑧0
  z →z0
Continuity
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be defined and single valued in a neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 as well

as at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 ( i.e in a 𝛿 neighborhood of 𝑧0 ). The function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be
lim
continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if 𝑧→𝑧 0
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ).
Note that this implies three conditions that must be met in order that 𝑓(𝑧) be
continuous at = 𝑧0 .
lim
(1) 𝑧⟶𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧) must exist
(2) 𝑓(𝑧0 ) must exist , i.e 𝑓(𝑧) is defined at 𝑧0 .
444
lim
(3) 𝑧⟶𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 )
Alternatively, we can define 𝑓(𝑧) as continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if for any 𝜀 > 0,

we can find 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| < 𝜀 whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿.
Theorems on Continuity
Theorem
If 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in a region, then real and imaginary parts of 𝑓(𝑧) are
also continuous in the region.
Theorem
Given 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , then so are the functions
𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧), 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑔(𝑧), 𝑓(𝑧)𝑔(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧)/𝑔(𝑧), the last if 𝑔(𝑧0 ) ≠ 0.
Theorem
Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in a closed bounded region. Then 𝑓(𝑧) is

bounded in the region.
i.e there exist 𝑀 ∈ ℝ such that |𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑀 for all points 𝑧 in the region.
Note: Among the functions continuous in every finite regions are all
polynomials, 𝑒 𝑧 , cos 𝑧 and sin 𝑧.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the session student should be able to,
▪ Define a limit of a function

▪ Calculate limits using limit theorems
▪ Define continuity
▪ Discuss the continuity of a given function

Unit Vii Function On Complex Variable

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Unit Vii Function On Complex Variable

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Session 1: Complex Functions

FUNCTION ON COMPLEX VARIABLE

Limits and Continuity of a Complex Function

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

This unit introduces to the complex functions. As we know “functions” play

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

19.1 Basic concepts of complex functions

Let A, B be nonempty two subsets of the complex number system. A rule

When the rule is f the function is denoted by w = f ( z ) or f : z → w

A is called the domain of the function f. It is denoted by Df

B is called the domain of the function f

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

The set f ( z ) : z  Df  is called the range of the function f. It is denoted by

Definition One to one function

Let f be a function If, for all z1 , z 2  Df f ( z1 ) = f ( z 2 ) if and only if z1 = z 2

then f is defined as a one to one function.

When A, B sub sets of complex number system, f : A → B means that

On to functions and Into functions.

Let f be a function such that f : A → B

1. If R f  B we say that f is defined on A into B.

2. If R f = B we say that f is defined on A onto B. Figure 1.1.1

Inverse of a function and inverse function

Suppose f is a function. When z  Df we have z → f ( z ) . If the relation is

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

Note: f −1 exists if and only if f is one to one function and domain of 𝑓 −1 is

19.2 Polynomial and rational functions

Let a 0 , a1....a n  C be independent of complex variable z. The

function of the form f ( z ) = a 0 z n + a1z n −1 + .. + a n −1z + a n is called the

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

Let P(z), Q(z) be polynomials. The function of the form

i. Show that f is one to one function.

ii. Find the inverse function of f.

Since z1 , z 2 are arbitrary For all z1 , z 2  Df

 f is one to one function

i. write down the largest domain of the function f.

ii. Show that f is one to one function.

iii. Find the inverse function of f.

i. When z = 1 , f (z) is undefined there for the domain

 3z1z 2 − 3z1 + z 2 − 1 = 3z1z 2 + z1 − 3z 2 − 1

Since z1 , z 2 arbitrary For all z1 , z 2  Df

 f is a one to one function.

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

It is called a many-valued function.

4 = C(1 + i)(1 – i) = C(1 – i2)  C = 2

19.3 Root Function

Consider the cubic roots of unity. They are 1,  ,  2

Since 1,  ,  2 distinct the relation is not a function. Therefore to define a

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

19.4 Geometric relations under complex functions

Since the domain and range of a complex function both 2-dimensional

Definition of a complex function using complex planes

We study these geometrically by computing the images under f of various

( 1+i ) ( 2+i ) ( 3+i ) ( 4+i )

O A B x O' A' B' 

Shifted in 2 units to the right hand side.

f ( 0 ) = −3, f (1) = −2, f (1 + i ) = −2 + i, f (i ) = −3 + i

Shifted 3 units to the left hand direction.

f(1) = 5 + 2i, f(2) = 6 + 2i, f(2 + i) = 6 + 3i, f(1 + i) = 5 + 3i

©2020, The Open University of Sri Lanka

Shifted 4 units to the right and 2 units to the up.

f(0) = 1, f(1) = 3, f(1 + i) = 2(1 + i) + 1= 3 + 2i

O A B1 x O' A' B' 