JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION - BENGALURU

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: MICROWAVE AND ANTENNA (15EC71)

FACULTY INCHARGE: Dr.SATHISH SHET K , Assistant Professor

Text Books:
1. Microwave Engineering – Annapurna Das, Sisir K Das TMH Publication, 2nd, 2010.
2. Microwave Devices and circuits- Liao, Pearson Education.
3. Antennas and Wave Propagation, John D. Krauss, Ronald J Marhefka and Ahmad S
Khan,4th Special Indian Edition , McGraw- Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., 2010.
Reference Books:
1.Microwave Engineering – David M Pozar, John Wiley India Pvt. Ltd. 3rdEdn, 2008.
2.Microwave Engineering – Sushrut Das, Oxford Higher Education, 2ndEdn, 2015.
3.Antennas and Wave Propagation – Harish and Sachidananda: Oxford University Press,
2007.

MODULE 1

Microwave Tubes: Introduction, Reflex Klystron Oscillator, Mechanism of Oscillations, Modes

of Oscillations, Mode Curve (Qualitative Analysis only). (Text 1: 9.1, 9.2.2) Microwave
Transmission Lines: Microwave Frequencies, Microwave devices, Microwave Systems,
Transmission Line equations and solutions, Reflection Coefficient and Transmission
Coefficient, Standing Wave and Standing Wave Ratio, Smith Chart, Single Stub matching.
(Text 2: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.5, 3.6 Except Double stub matching) L1, L2
1) What are the limitations of conventional microwave tubes? Discuss how these
limitations can be reduced.
Ans:-
The conventional electronic vacuum tubes fail to operate above 1GHz because of
 Interelectrode capacitance: with the increase in input signal frequency, the effective
grid to cathode impedance of the tube decreases dur to the interelectrode capacitance.
Beyond 100MHz, the reactance of the grid to cathode capacitance becomes so small
and signal is short circuited within the tube. Since the interelectrode capacitances are
effectively in parallel with external tuned circuits, They will also affect the resonance
frequency of the tunes circuit.
 Lead inductance: since the lead inductances within a tube are effectively in parallel
with the interelectrode capacitance, the net result is to raise the frequency limit.
However, the inductance of the cathode lead is common to both grid and plate
circuits. This provides a path for degenerative feedback, resulting in decrease in
overall circuit efficiency.
 Electron transit time: the transit time required for electrons to travel from cathode to
the plate is insignificant at low frequencies. However, at high frequencies transit time
becomes an appreciable portion of a signal cycle. Transit times in excess of 0.1 cycle
cause a phase shift between plate current and grid voltage resulting in a significant
decrease in tube efficiency.
Efficient microwave tubes usually operate on the theory of electron velocity modulation
concept to avoid the problems encountered in conventional tubes. The electron transit
time is used in the conversion of DC power to RF power. An electron can be accelerated
or decelerated by an electro static field. The negatively charged electron will be attracted
to the positively charged electrode, travel in a direction opposite to electric field and will
increase in velocity by absorbing DC energy. An electron travelling in the same direction
as the electric field, the negatively charged electrode will repel the electron and cause it
to decrease in velocity giving up energy to the field. This velocity modulation of
electrons is explained in the figure.

2) Using functional block diagram explain working of reflex klystron oscillator. Also
discuss mechanism and modes of operation.
Ans:-
The schematic configuration of Reflex klystron tube is shown in fig 9.3, which uses only
a single re-entrant microwave cavity as resonator. The electron beam emitted from the
cathode K is accelerated by the grid G and passes through the cavity anode AB to the
repeller space between the cavity anode and the repeller electrode R. the feedback
required to maintain oscillations within the cavity is obtained by reversing the electron
beam emitted from K toward R and sending it back through the cavity. The electrons in
the beam are velocity modulated before the beam passes through the cavity second time
and will give up the energy to the cavity to maintain oscillations. This type of klystron
oscillator is called a reflex klystron because of the reflex action of the electric beam.

The physical design of the tube controls the number of modes possible in practical
operation applications. Normally a range of 4 modes of operation are available. The
choice of mode is determined by the power available from the mode and the band of
frequencies over which the circuit can tuned.
Mechanism of operation
Due to DC voltage in the cavity circuit, RF noise is generated in the cavity. This electro-
magnetic field in the cavity becomes pronounced at cavity resonant frequency. As
explained in figure 9.4 the electrons passing through the cavity gap D experience this RF
field and are velocity modulated in the following manner.
The electrons a shown in figure 9.5 which encountered the positive half cycle of the RF
field in the cavity gap D will be accelerated, those (reference electrons) b which
encountered zero RF field will pass with unchanged original velocity, and the electrons c
which encountered the negative half cycle will be retarded on entering the repeller space.
 All these velocity modulated electrons will be repelled back to the cavity by the repeller
due to its negative potential. The repeller distance L and the voltages can be adjusted to
receive al the voltage modulated electrons at a same time on the positive peak of the
cavity RF velocity cycle. Thus, the velocity modulated electrons are bunched together and
lose the kinetic energy when they encounter the positive cycle of the cavity RF field. This
loss of energy is thus transferred to the cavity to conserve the total power. If the power
delivered by the bunched electrons to the cavity is greater than the power loss in the
cavity, the electro-magnetic field amplitude at the resonant frequency of the cavity will
increase to produce microwave oscillations. The RF power is coupled to the output load
by means of a small loop which forms the center conductor of the coaxial line. When the
power delivered by the electrons becomes equal to the total power loss in the cavity
system, a steady microwave oscillation is generated at resonant frequency of the cavity
Mode of oscillations
The bunched electron in the reflex klystron can deliver maximum power to the cavity at
any instant which corresponds to the positive peak of RF cycle of the cavity oscillation. If
T is the time period at resonant frequency, t0 is the time taken by the reference electron to
travel in the repeller space between entering the repeller space at b and the returning to
the cavity at positive peak voltage on formation of the bunch, then
t0=(n+3/4)T=NT
Where N =n+3/4, n=0, 1,2,3,4…..as shown in figure 9.5.
Thus, by adjusting repeller voltage for a given dimension of the reflex klystron, the
bunching can be made to occur at N=n+3/4 positive half cycle. Accordingly, the mode of
oscillations is named as N=3/4,13/4,23/4…. for modes n=0,1,2,3,4 …., respectively. It is
obvious that lowest order mode ¾ occurs for a maximum value of repeller voltage when
the transit time t0 of the electrons in the repeller space is minimum. Higher modes occur
at lower repeller voltages. Since at the highest repeller voltage, the acceleration of the
bunched electrons on return is maximum, the power output of lowest mode is maximum.

3. Derive the expression for the following wrt to klystron oscillator

1. Velocity modulation
2. Transit time
3. Density modulation under beam current
4. Power output
5. Efficiency

Velocity modulation

ASSUMPTIONS
1. Cavity grid and repeller are plane parallel and very large in extent
2. No RF signal is excited in repeller space.
3. Electrons are not intercepted by the cavity anode grid.
4. No debunching takes place in repeller space.
5. The cavity RF gap voltage amplitude V1 is small compared to the DC beam voltage.
 The electron velocity u to attend due to the DC beam voltage Vo while entering the cavity
gap at T = 0 in uniform, given by

Where Vo is in in voltage and u = 0 at cathode.The instantaneous cavity RF voltage can be

written as
V(t) =V1 sin wt
where V1<<Vo. The average Transit Time through the cavity gap d and the transit angle are
given by, respectively,

The average microwave voltage in the cavity gap can be written as

Where B1 is called the beam coupling Coefficient of cavity gap.

Transit time:

The round trip transit time in the repeller space is given by

The factor 2 in the numerator arises because of the to and fro journey
Therefore

Since the reference electron does not undergo any velocity modulation its transit time is
repelled in space

Density modulation and beam current:

The time of arrival of electrons to the cavity gap can be expressed by

Called the bunching parameter of the reflex klystron

The conversion of the charge gives

Io|dt|=ib|dt|
Where Io is the DC beam current
By fourier expansion, the Beam current of a reflex klystron oscillator is

The fundamental component of the RF induced current in the cavity is, therefore

Power output:

The magnitude of the fundamental RF current in the cavity is given by

The rms RF power delivered to the cavity is

Prf=V1 irf/2
Since

Therefore
 Efficiency :

The DC power supplied by the beam voltage Vo is

Pdc= Vo Io

Where N=n+¾

4. Write a short note on mode curves.

Ans:-
Since the output power and frequency can be electronically controlled by varying the
repeller voltage, expansions for these parameters in terms of repeller voltage are
important to draw mode curves.
PRF = 0.3986 x Vo x Io x (Vo + VR) √(e/2mVo) / 2 f L
fMHz = (Vo + VR ) N / Lcm x √Vo x 6.47 x 10-2
|VR| = (6.74375 x 10-6 f L √Vo / N) – Vo
d|VR| / dfHz = 6.74375 x 10-6 L √Vo / N;
N = n + ¾, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…
The nature of variation of output power and frequency with repeller voltage for
different modes are shown in fig.
 The variation in output power for different modes of operation can be explained by the
debunching process of the electrons in the repeller field space, that is spreading out of
the bunched electrons before the reach electrostatic fields across the cavity grid. The
lower concentration of electrons in the returning bunched deliver less power to the
oscillating cavity, which in turn reduces the amplitude of the cavity oscillations and
causes a decrease in output power. In higher modes of operation, the electron bunches
are formed more slowly. The long drift time in the higher modes allows more time for
this electron interaction and as a result, the effects of debunching are more severe.
5. A reflex Klystron is to be operated at frequency of 10 GHz, with dc beam voltage
300V, repeller space 0.1 cm for 1 mode, Calculate PRFmax and corresponding repeller
voltage for a beam current of 20mA.
Ans:-
PRFmax = (0.398VOIO) / N
= 0.398 x 300 x 20 x 10-3 / 1(3/4)
= 1.365 Watts
|VR| = (6.74 x 10-6 x f(Hz) x L(m) x √VO / N) - VO
L(m) = 10-3m
N = 1(3/4) = 1.75
|VR| = (6.74 x 10-6 x 10 x 109 x 10-3 x √300 / 1.75) – 300
Therefore,
VR = -367.08 Volts

6. A reflex klystron is operated at 5GHz with dc beam voltage 350V, repeller spacing
0.5c.m for N= mode. Calculate bandwidth over ∆VR=1V.
Ans:-
N = 3(3/4) = 15/4
∆ VR = 6.7438 x 10-6 x Lm x ∆fHz x √VO / N
 1 = 6.74 x 10-6 x 0.5/100 x ∆fHz x √350 x 4/15
∆f = 5.948 MHz

7. Explain with a neat Block diagram of a typical microwave system.

A Microwave system normally consists of transmitter subsystem including a crowave
oscillator waveguides and transmitting antenna and the receiver subsystem that includes are
receiving antenna transmission line for waveguide, a microwave amplifier and receiver. The
figure shows a typical microwave system
In order to design microwave system and conduct a proper test of it, an adequate of
knowledge of the components involved is essential beside microwave device the text
therefore describes microwave components such as resonator microstrip lines hybrids and
microwave integrated circuits.

8. With the schematic and functional block diagram explain the mechanism of Two
Cavity Klystron amplifier.
The basic principle of two cavity klystron operation can be determined in the following
manner. A high velocity electron beam produced by the accelerating anode is successfully
passed through a input re-entrant cavity resonator grade of field free space of length L, an
output reentrant cavity resonator grade and finally collected by a collector electrode. The
electron beam is focused to travel axially without spreading during transit by applying and
axle magnetic field produced by an external coil current. The input RF signal to be amplified
sides the buncher cavity with the coupling loop. The combination of anode voltage V0 and
cavity gap with D as such that the transit of electron through the each cavity gap is less than
the quarter of the time period t of the input signal cycle the electrons passing through the
buncher grade are accelerated through which unchanged initial DC voltage depending upon
when the encounter enter the RF signal field at the buncher cavity gap at a positive or
negative or zero crossing plane of cycle respectively as shown by the distance time plot in the
figure below fig C .This is called a applegate diagram.

Thus, the electron beam is velocity modulated to form ventures or undergoes density
modulation in accordance with the input RF signal cycle while passing through the cavity
grade the density modulated electron beam induce RF current in the output cavity and thereby
exceeds the RF field in the output cavity of the input signal the face of the field in the output
cavity is opposite to that of the input cavity so that the bench the electrons are retarded by the
output gap cavity the loss of kinetic energy of the electron radiated process transfer RF
energy to the output cavity continuously at the signal cycle. The amplitude of the signal at the
output cavity attains a study large value when the loss of kinetic signal or energy of the bunch
the electrons compensate the output cavity circuits laws amplified signal is coupled out from
the Catcher cavity through a current loop to the load the current induced in The Catcher
cavity is rich in harmonics up to say 15. The cavity is tune to the fundamental or any
harmonic as desired.

fig c
9. Transmission-Line Equations
A transmission line can be analyzed either by the solution of Maxwell's field equations or by
the methods of distributed-circuit theory. The solution of Maxwell's equations involves three
space variables in addition to the time variable. The distributed-circuit method, however,
involves only one space variable in addition to the time variable. In this section the latter
method is used to analyze a transmission line in terms of the voltage, current, impedance, and
power along the line. Based on uniformly distributed-circuit theory, the schematic circuit of a
conventional two-conductor transmission line with constant parameters R, L, G, and C. The
parameters are expressed in their respective names per unit length, and the wave propagation
is assumed in the positive z direction
By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the summation of the voltage drops around the central loop is
given by

Rearranging this equation, dividing it by Az, and then omitting the argument (z, t), which is
understood, we obtain

Using Kirchhoff's current law, the summation of the currents at point B can be expressed as

By rearranging the preceding equation, dividing it by Az, omitting (z, t), and assuming Az
equal to zero, we have

Then by differentiating with respect to z and with respect to t and combining the results, the
final transmission-line equation in voltage form is found to be
Also, by differentiating with respect tot and with respect to z and combining the results, the
final transmission-line equation in current form is

All these transmission-line equations are applicable to the general transient solution. The
voltage and current on the line are the functions of both position z and time t. The
instantaneous line voltage and current can be expressed as

where Re stands for "real part of." The factors V(z) aand I(z) are complex quantities of the
sinusoidal functions of position z on the line and are known as phasors. The phasors give the
magnitudes and phases of the sinusoidal function at each position of z, and they can be
expressed as

where V+ and I+ indicate complex amplitudes in the positive z direction, V- and L signify
complex amplitudes in the negative z direction, a is the attenuation constant in nepers per unit
length, and f3 is the phase constant in radians per unit length. If we substitute jw for a/at in
Eqs and divide each equation by the transmission-line equations in phasor form of the
frequency domain become

in which the following substitutions have been made:

For a lossless line, R = G = 0, and the transmission-line equations are expressed as

It is interesting to note that Eqs for a transmission line are similar to equations of the electric
and magnetic waves, respectively. The only difference is that the transmission-line equations
are one-dimensional.

10. Solutions of Transmission-Line Equations

The one possible solution for Eq

The factors V + and V- represents complex quantities. The term involving e-jf3z shows a
wave traveling in the positive z direction, and the term with the factor ejf3z is a wave going
in the negative z direction. The quantity {3z is called the electrical length of the line and is
measured in radians. Similarly, the one possible solution for Eq

The magnitude of both voltage and current waves on the line is shown in Fig
At microwave frequencies it can be seen that
R <= wL and G <= wC
By using the binomial expansion, the propagation constant can be expressed as

Therefore the attenuation and phase constants are, respectively, given by

Similarly, the characteristic impedance is found to be

The phase velocity is

The product of LC is independent of the size and separation of the conductors and depends
only on the permeability µ, and permittivity of E of the insulating medium. If a lossless
transmission line used for microwave frequencies has an air dielectric and contains no
ferromagnetic materials, free-space parameters can be assumed.
Thus the numerical value of 1/vLC for air-insulated conductors is approximately equal to the
velocity of light in vacuum. That is,

When the dielectric of a lossy microwave transmission line is not air, the phase velocity is
smaller than the velocity of light in vacuum and is given by

In general, the relative phase velocity factory can be defined as

A low-loss transmission line filled only with dielectric medium, such as a coaxial line with
solid dielectric between conductors, has a velocity factor on the order of about 0.65.

11. Derive the expression for reflection and transmission coefficient in case of
transmission line

Reflection Coefficient

The traveling wave along the line contains two components: one traveling in the positive
z direction and the other traveling the negative z direction. If the load impedance is
equal to the line characteristic impedance, however, the reflected traveling wave
does not exist.
A transmission line terminated in an impedance Ze. It is usually more convenient to start
solving the transmission-line problem from the receiving rather than the sending end, since
the voltage-to-current relationship at the load point is fixed by the load impedance. The
incident voltage and current waves traveling along the transmission line are given by

in which the current wave can be expressed in terms of the voltage by

If the line has a length of e, the voltage and current at the receiving end become

The ratio of the voltage to the current at the receiving end is the load impedance.
That is,
The reflection coefficient, which is designated by r (gamma), is defined as

the result is the reflection coefficient at the receiving end:

If the load impedance and/or the characteristic impedance are complex quantities, as
is usually the case, the reflection coefficient is generally a complex quantity that can
be expressed as

Transmission Coefficient

A transmission line terminated in its characteristic impedance Zo is called a properly

terminated line. Otherwise it is called an improperly terminated line. As described
earlier, there is a reflection coefficient r at any point along an improperly termi-
nated line. According to the principle of conservation of energy, the incident power
minus the reflected power must be equal to the power transmitted to the load. This
can be expressed as

The letter T represents the transmission coefficient, which is defined as

The transmission of power along a transmission line where Pinc is the incident power, P,er
the reflected power, and P1r the transmitted power.

Let the traveling waves at the receiving end be

Multiplication of Eq by Ze and substitution of the result in yield

which, in turn, on substitution

The power carried by the two waves in the side of the incident and reflected waves is

The power carried to the load by the transmitted waves is

By setting Pinr = P1, and using the above equations

This relation verifies the previous statement that the transmitted power is equal to
the difference of the incident power and reflected power.

12. Discuss with necessary equation standing wave and standing wave ratio.
Standing wave
The general solutions of the transmission-line equation consist of two waves traveling in
opposite directions with unequal amplitude as shown in Eqs. (3-1-23) and (3-1-24).

Equation (3-1-23) can be written

-αz αz
With no loss in generality it can be assumed that V+e and V - e are real. Then the
voltage-wave equation can be expressed as

This is called the equation of the voltage standing wave, where

which is called the standing-wave pattern of the voltage wave or the amplitude of the
standing wave, and

which is called the phase pattern of the standing wave. The maximum and minimum values
of Eq. (3-3-3) can be found as usual by differentiating the equation with respect to βz and
equating the result to zero. By doing so and substituting the proper values of βz in the
equation, we find that

The standing-wave patterns of two oppositely traveling waves with unequal amplitude in
lossy or lossless line are shown in Figs. 3-3-1 and 3-3-2
When V+≠ 0 and V- = 0, the standing-wave pattern becomes
Standing wave ratio
Standing waves result from the simultaneous presence of waves traveling in opposite
directions on a transmission line. The ratio of the maximum of the standing-wave pattern to
the minimum is defined as the standing-wave ratio, designated by ρ. That is,

The standing-wave ratio results from the fact that the two traveling-wave components of Eq.
(3-3- l) add in phase at some points and subtract at other points. The distance between two
successive maxima or minima is λ/2. The standing-wave ratio of a pure traveling wave is
unity and that of a pure standing wave is infinite. It should be noted that since the standing-
wave ratios of voltage and current are identical, no distinctions are made between VSWR and
ISWR.
When the standing-wave ratio is unity, there is no reflected wave and the line is called a fiat
line. The standing-wave ratio cannot be defined on a lossy line because the standing-wave
pattern changes markedly from one position to another. On a lowloss line the ratio remains
fairly constant, and it may be defined for some region. For a lossless line, the ratio stays the
same throughout the line.
Since the reflected wave is defined as the product of an incident wave and its reflection
coefficient, the standing-wave ratio ρ is related to the reflection coefficient Γ by
and vice versa

This relation is very useful for determining the reflection coefficient from the standing-wave
ratio, which is usually found from the Smith chart. The curve in Fig. 3-3-4 shows the
relationship between reflection coefficient |Γ|and standing-wave ratio ρ.

13. A transmission line has the following parameters R=2ohms, G=0.5m mho/m,
f=1GHZ, L=8nH, C=0.23pf, calculate a)characteristic impedance and b)
propogation constant

Ans: Zo =

=181.3
=179.5+j0.2648

ℽ=

=
=0.0514+j0.2725
14) A certain transmission line has a characteristic impedence of 75+j0.01ohms and is
terminated in a load impedence of 70+j50 ohms. Compute the Reflection coefficient,
Transmission coefficient and Standing wave ratio.
Ans:-

Reflection coefficient=

=0.33
Reflection coefficient = 0.08+j0.32

Transmission coefficient =

= 1.12
Transmission coefficient = 1.08+j0.32

Standing Wave Ratio =

= 1.174

15) List the characteristics of Smith chart.

Ans:-
 The constant r and constant x loci form two families of orthogonal circles in the
chart.
 The constant r and constant x circles all pass through the point (Γ r = 1, Γi = 0).
 The upper half of the diagram represents +jx.
 The lower half of the diagram represents -jx.
 At a point Zmin =1/ρ, there is Vmin on the line.
 At a point Zmax =ρ, there is Vmax on the line.
 The horizontal radius to the right of the chart center corresponds to V max, Imin, Zmax
and ρ (SWR).
  The horizontal radius to the left of the chart center corresponds to V min, Imax, Zmin and
1/ρ.
 The normalized impedance or admittance is repeated for every half wavelength of
distance.
 The distances are given in wavelengths toward the generator and also toward the
load.
 Since the normalized admittance y is reciprocal of the normalized impedance z, the
corresponding quantities in the admittance chart are 180° out of phase with those in
the impedance chart.
 The distance around the Smith chart once is one half of wavelength (λ /2).
 For admittance the constant r circles become constant g circles, and the constant x
circles become constant susceptance b circles.

16. A lossless line of characteristic impedance Rₒ=50Ω is to be matched to a load Zꙇ=50/

[2+j (2+√3)] Ω by means of lossless short-circuited stub. The characteristic impedance
of the stub is 100Ω. Find the stub position (closest to the load) and length so that a
match is obtained.
Ans:-
1. Compute the normalized load admittance and enter it on the Smith chart.
Yꙇ = 1/zꙇ = Rₒ/zꙇ = 2 + 1(2 + √ 3) = 2 + j3.732
2. Draw a SWR circle through the point of ye so that the circle intersects the unity circle
at the point
Yd = 1 - j2.6
Note that there are an infinite number of Yd· Take the one that allows the stub to be
attached as closely as possible to the load.
3. Since the characteristic impedance of the stub is different from that of the line, the
condition for impedance matching at the junction requires
Y11 =Yd+ Ys
Where Ys is the susceptance that the stub will contribute. It is clear that the
stub and the portion of the line from the load to the junction are in parallel, as seen by
the main line extending to the generator. The admittances must be converted to
normalized values for matching on the Smith chart.
Then,
Y₁ ₁ Yₒ = Yd Yₒ+ ys Yₒs
ys = (Y₁ ₁ -Yd) (Yₒ/Yₒs) = [l - (1 - j2.6)]100/50 = + j5.20
4. The distance between the load and the stub position can be calculated from the
distance scale as
d = (0.302 - 0.215) λ= 0.087λ
5. Since the stub contributes a susceptance of+ j5.20, enter + j5.20 on the chart and
determine the required distance C from the short-circuited end (z = 0, y = oo), which
corresponds to the right side of the real axis on the chart, by transversing the chart
toward the generator until the point of+ j5.20 is reached. Then
C = (0.50 - 0.03l) λ= 0.469λ
When a line is matched at the junction, there will be no standing wave in the
line from the stub to the generator.
 6. If an inductive stub is required,
Y’d = 1 + j2.6
The susceptance of the stub will be
Y’s = - j5.2
7. The position of the stub from the load is
d' = [0.50 - (0.215 - 0.198)] λ = 0.483λ
and the length of the short-circuited stub is
C' = 0.031λ
17. A line of Zo=400 Ω is connected to a load of 200 + j300Ω, which is excited by a
matches generator at 800MHz. Find the location and length of a single stub nearest to
the load to produce an
impedance match.
Solution :
1.The normalized load impedance is given by

zR = = = 0.5 + j0.75

This point is located on the chart of figure 2.54 as point A.

2. With ‘O’ as centre, radius OA, the constant S circle is drawn and the diametrically
opposite point ‘B’ is located as shown
∴Admittance of zR = yR= 0.625 – j0.925.
Point B on the chart is the load admittance point.
3. The constant-S circle cuts the g=1 circle at two points C and D. Moving towards the
generator in clockwise direction from point B, point C appears first. This point locates the
position of the stub.
4. OC is joined and extended to C”. OB is also joined and extended to B’. The distance from
B’ to C’ = (0.136+0.17)λ = 0.306λ is the value of d
∴ d = 0.306λ= (0.306)(c/f)

= (0.306)( )

∴ d = 11.475 cm
18. A 300Ω line feeding an antenna has a standing wave ratio of 4 and distance from
load to the first voltage minimum is 28cm. If the frequency is 150 MHz, design a single
stub matching system to eliminate standing wave.
Steps:
1. The point A corresponding to VSWR=S=r=4 is located on the right side of the
horizontal axis.
2. With ‘O’ as centre, radius OA, the constant S-circle is drawn cutting the left side of
horizontal axis at B.
3. Since the smith chart is used as admittance chart, point A is the Vmin point. OA is the
joined and extended to P.
4. Given f=150MHz, dVmin =28 cm
 5. From point P, in order to locate the load admittance point, a distance equal to 0.14 λ is
move on the periphery, in anti-clockwise direction (wavelengths-toward-load
direction), to get point C as shown. OC is joined to cut the constant S-circle at C. This
is the load admittance point. The normalized load admittance is

YR= 0.4+j0.75
The diametrically opposite point to C on the constant-S circle gives the normalized
impedance at point Q as
zR= 0.58-j1.05
The load impedance ZR= zR Ro
=(0.58-j 1.05) (300)
ZR= 174-j 315Ω
6. The constant-S circle cuts the g=1 circle at two points D and E. While moving from
load to admittance point C in clockwise direction (towards generator), the point D is
reached. Therefore, the short circuited stub is to be connected at this point. OD is
joined and extended to D. The distance from C to D gives the location d of the stub as
d= (0.176-0.11) λ =0.066 λ
d= (0.066) (200)
d=13.2 cm

7. The point P on the chart represent the short circuit point. The susceptance at point D
is capacitive given by j1.5. To neutralize this an inductive susceptance of -1.5 is
required. The point F is located on the periphery of the chart corresponding to co-
ordinates
0-j1.5. The distance from P to F in clockwise direction gives the length ‘l’ of the short
circuited stub as
l= (0.344-0.25) λ
= (0.094) (200)
l= 18.8 cm
 JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION - BENGALURU
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: MICROWAVE AND ANTENNA (15EC71)

FACULTY INCHARGED : Dr.SATHISH SHET K , Assistant Professor

MODULE-2
Microwave Network theory: Symmetrical Z and Y-Parameters for Reciprocal
Networks, S matrix representation of Multi-Port Networks. (Text 1: 6.1, 6.2, 6.3)
Microwave Passive Devices: Coaxial Connectors and Adapters, Attenuators, Phase
Shifters, Waveguide Tees, Magic tees. (Text 1: 6.4.2, 6.4.14, 6.4.15, 6.4.16) L1, L2
1) Prove that impedance and admittance matrices are symmetrical for a reciprocal
junction.

Solution: In a reciprocal network, the impedance and the admittance matrices are
symmetrical and the junction media are characterized by scalar electrical parameters µ and
ɛ. For multiport (N ports) network, let the incident wave amplitude V +n be chosen that the
total voltage Vn = V+n + V-n = at all the ports n=1,2, …,N, except for ith port where the fields
are Ei , Hi. Similarly, let Vn =0 at all the ports except jth one where the fields are Ej, Hj. Then
from the Lorentz reciprocity theorem

Where S is the closed surface area of the conducting walls enclosing the junction and N
ports in the absence of any source. Since the integral over the perfectly conducting walls
vanishes, the only non-zero integrals are those taken over the reference planes of the
corresponding ports, so that

Since Vn except Vi are zero, Eti =n x Ei and Etj =n x Ej are zero on all reference planes at the
corresponding ports except ti and tj, respectively. Therefore, the above equation reduces to,
Pij = Pji

Where Pij represents the power at the reference plane I due to an input voltage at
plane j.

From the admittance matrix representation [I] =[Y][V] and power relation P=VI
reduces to,

Vi Vj Vij = Vj Vi Vji or, Yij = Yji

And Zij = Zji
This proves that the impedance and admittance matrices are symmetrical for a
reciprocal junction.

2) Write the S-Matrix representation for multiport network.

Solution: The incident and reflected amplitudes of microwaves at any port are used to
characterize a microwave circuit. The amplitudes are normalized in such a way that the
square of any of these variables gives the average power in that wave in the following
manner:
Input power at the nth port, Pin = ½ |an
Reflected power at the nth port, Prn = ½ |bn|2
Where an and bn represent the normalized incident wave peak amplitude and normalized
reflected wave peak amplitude at the nth port.
In a two-port network we can express the normalized waves in terms of normalized voltage
,

,
Where a’s represent normalized incident wave amplitude and b’s represent normalized
reflected wave amplitude at the corresponding ports. Here the total voltage wave is the sum
of incident and reflected waves V+ and V- respectively:
V1 = V+1 + V-1
V2 = V+2 + V-2
The numeric suffices represent the port number. The total or net power flow into any port is
given by
P = Pi – Pr = ½(|a|2 - |b|2)
Therefore, in this normalization process, the characteristic impedance is normalized to
unity. For a two-port network the relation between incident and reflected waves are
expressed in terms of scattering parameters Sij’s
b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a2
b2 = S21 a1 + S22 a2
The normalization process leads to a symmetrical matrix for reciprocal structures. The
physical significance of S-parameters can be described as follows:
= reflection coefficient 1 at Port 1 when Port 2 in terminated with a

matched
load(a2=0)
= reflection coefficient 2 at Port 2 when Port 1 in terminated with a

matched
load(a1=0)
= attenuation of wave travelling from Port 2 to Port 1 when a1=0

= attenuation of wave travelling from Port 1 to Port 2 when a2=0

In general, since the incident and reflected waves have both amplitude and phase, the S-
parameters are complex numbers.
For a multiport(N) networks or components, the S-parameter equations are expressed by

In microwave devices or circuits, it is important to express several losses in terms of S-

parameters when the ports are matched terminated. In a two-port network if power fed at
Port 1 is Pi, power reflected at the same port is Pr and the output power at Port 2 is Po, then
following losses are defined in terms of S-parameters:
 Insertion loss(dB) =10 log = 10 log

= 20 log = 20 log

 Transmission loss or attenuation (dB) = 10 log

= 10 log

 Reflection loss(dB) = 10 log

= 10 log

 Return Loss (dB) = 10 log

= 20 log = 20 log
3). Derive the Properties of S-Parameters for junction of ports having common
characteristic impedance.

Solution: In general, the scattering parameters are complex quantities having the following
properties for different characteristics of the microwave network or junction where
characteristic impedance is same at all ports.

The Properties of S-Parameters for junction of ports having common characteristic

impedance are as follows:

 Zero Diagonal Elements for Perfect Matched Network-

 For and ideal N-port matched network with matched termination at all the ports,
Sii=0 since there is no reflection from any port. Therefore, under perfect matched
conditions, the diagonal elements of [S] are zero.

 Symmetry of [S] for a Reciprocal Network

A reciprocal device has the same transmission characteristics in either direction of a pair of
ports and is characterized by a symmetric scattering matrix.
 (1)

which results in transpose of S-matrix:

(2)

This condition can be proved in the following manner. For a reciprocal network with
assumed normalization, the impedance matrix equation is

Or

Or (3)

Where [U] is the unit matrix. The S-matrix equation for the network is

(4)

Comparing equations (3) and (4), we have

(5)

Let , (6)
For reciprocal network, the Z-matrix is symmetric. Hence

or
or (7)
Now the transpose of [S]

(8)
Since the Z-matrix is symmetrical
(9)
(10)
Therefore,

(11)
Thus it is proved that for a symmetrical junction.
  Unitary Property for a Lossless Junction

For any lossless network, the sum of the products of each term of any one row or of any
column of the S-matrix multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity.
For a lossless n-port device, the total power leaving N-ports must be equal to the total
power input to these ports, so that

or (12)
If only the ith port is excited and all other ports are matched terminated, all a n=0, except ai,
so that,

(13)

(14)
Therefore for a lossless junction

(15)
If all an=0, except aj and ak ,

(16)
In matrix notation, these relations can b expressed as

or (17)
Here, [U] is the identity matrix or the unit matrix. A matrix [S] for lossless network which
satisfies the above three conditions Eq.15,16,17 is called a unitary matrix.

 Phase shift property

Complex S-parameters of a network are defined with respect to the positions of the port or
reference planes. For a two-port network with unprimed reference planes 1 and 2 as shown
in the figure, the S-parameters have definite complex
values

[S] = (18)

If the reference planes 1 and 2 are shifted

outward to 1’ and 2’ by electrical phase shift ɸ1 =β1l1 and ɸ2 =β2l2 respectively, then the
new wave variables are , , , .
The new S-matrix S’ is given by
 [S’] = [S]
(19)

This property is valid for any number of ports and is called the phase shift property
applicable to a shift of reference planes.

4. Derive the relation between i) [S] and [Z] matrices ii) [S] and [Y] matrices.

Solution: Relation between [S] and [Z] matrices

For a multiport network, [V] =[Z][I]. the steady-state total voltage and the current at
the kth port are

= (1)

And (2)
Or,
Or,

Or, ) (3)

Similarly, ) (4)

Therefore, [V+] =

= (5)

Or, [I] =2 (6)

Similarly, [V-]=

(7)

Or,
Or, [b]= (8)
Therefore,

[S]= (9)

Relation between [S] and [Y] matrices

Similar to the relation between [S] and [Z] matrices, we can write
(10)
And (11)

Therefore (12)

And (13)

Hence

And (14)

Or (15)

Therefore (16)

Similarly, ; (17)
Thus, the following properties are found common for [S], [Z] and [Y]:
1.Number of elements are equal.
2.For reciprocal devices, both [Z] and [S] satisfy reciprocity properties. Z ij=Zji, SIJ=SJI.
3.If [Z] is symmetrical, [S] is also symmetrical.
4.The following are the advantages of [S] over [Z] or [Y].
a. In microwave techniques the source remains ideally constant in power,
regardless of circuit changes. Besides frequency measurements, the only other
possible measurements, the only other possible measurements parameters are
VSWR, power and phase. These are essentially measurements of b/a, |a|2 and
|b|2. Such a direct correspondence is not possible with [Z] or [Y] representations.
b. The unitary property of [S] helps a quick check of the power balance of lossless
structures. No such immediate check is possible with [Z] or [Y].
c. [S] is defined for a given set of reference planes only. If the reference planes are
changed, the S-coefficients vary only in phase. This is not the case in [Z] or [Y],
because voltage and current are functions of complex impedance and therefore
both magnitude and phase change in [Z] and [Y].
5) A shunt impedance Z is connected across a transmission line with characteristic
impedance Z0. Find the S-matrix of the junction.
Solution: For S-parameters, two ports are considered matched. Let the output line be

matched terminated.
So that a2 = 0.
Therefore,
b1 = S11 a1 b2 = S12 a1

S11 = =

S11 = = = S22 for symmetry

Now for the pure shunt element, the transmitted wave amplitude (for a2 = 0) can be expressed
by b2 = a1 + b1 = a1 + S11 a1 = a1 ( 1 + S11 ). Therefore,

S21 = = 1 + S11 = S12 =

[S] = =

Alternative

V1 = Z I1 + Z I2 ; [Z] =

V2 = Z I1 + Z I2 ;
-1
[S] =

6) Two transmission lines of characteristic impedance Z1 and Z2 are joined at plane pp’.
Express S parameters in terms of impedance when each line is matched terminated.

Solution: The incident and scattered wave amplitude are related by [b] = [S][a].
 i. Since the output line is matched (a1 = 0), the input impedance Zin at the junction =
Z2 = load for line Z1.
Therefore,
= reflection coefficient on the input side.
ii. Similarly, for symmetry, assuming input side is matched (a1 = 0),
= -S11
iii. In general,
b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a2
b2 = S21 a1 + S22 a2
with output line matched (a2 = 0) for lossless line, Zin at the junction = Z2,
a pure shunt element.
Therefore , b1 = S11a1. Due to different impedance of the two arms,

or,

or,
iv. With the input line matched (a1= 0), b2 = a2S22
Z1 b1  (a2  b2) Z 2  (a2  S 22 a2) Z 2  a2 (1  S 22) Z 2

Q7) A series reactance Z=jX is connected between two lines with different
characteristic impedance Z1 and Z2.Find the S-Matrix of the junction.
Solution: The normalized voltages and power inputs at Port 1 and Port 2 are:
 Transmission lines

 
a1 V1 ; a V2
= 2 =
Z1 Z2
2 2
P1 = a1 ; P2 = a 2
2 2
S-matrix is determined assuming that each of the lines are terminated by its characteristic
impedance.
Therefore,

V1 b1  jX  Z2  Z1
  S11  Zin Z1 
Zin  Z1 jX Z2  Z1

V1 a1

V 2 b2 jX  Z1  Z2
  S22 

V2 a 2 jX  Z1  Z2

Net input voltage for output line matched (a2 = 0)

a1 + b1 = a1 (1 + S11)
Input current ,
  
V1 V1 V
I1    (1  S11) 1
Z1 Z1 Z1
For the continuity of current in a lossless series element jX ,with output port matched (a2 =
0).

I2 = -I1 =  V1 (1  S11)  - I-2
Z1
Also ,
-
V2
I 

2
Z2
 -
V1 V
 (1 - S11)  2
Z1 Z2
Thus , for symmetry
   -
b2 V 2 V V Z1
S21 = S12 =  / 1  2
a1 Z2 Z1 V1 Z2

 Z2  Z1  Z2 (1 )
=
  (1- S11) S11
 Z1  Z2 Z1
Or,

S21 = S12 =
Z 2 2 Z1 Z 2
Z 1 Z 1  Z 2  jX
2 Z0 jX
If Z1 = Z2 = Z0 , S1 = S21 = (1 -S11) = 1-
2 Z0  jX jX  2Z0
Q8) A series reactance Z=jX is inserted in a ∞ length of transmission line of
characteristic impedance Z0. Find the S-parameters for the junction.

Solution:

Transmission lines

Here,
Z=jX
Let,
1
Y=
jX
Therefore,
I1 = YV1 - YV2
I2 = -YV1 + YV2

Y = Y - Y

- Y Y 
Now,
1
  
S   U - Y  U  Y 
 Y0  Y0 

 
= U -Y U Y  1
1 1 2Y 
=   (S11 + S12 = 1);
1  2Y 2Y 1

S11 = ℾ1|a2=0 =
Z  Z   Z
0 0
=
Z
Z  Z   Z
0 0 Z  2Z0
Z
S22 = ℾ2|a1=0 =
Z  2Z0

2V1 Z
S12 =  2Z0  1 
Vg Z  2Z0 Z  2Z0

Z
S21 = 2V 2  2Z0  1 
Vg Z  2Z0 Z  2Z0

Hence,
 Γ1 1  Γ1
S  1  
 Γ1 Γ1 
Q 9) Find the S-matrix of length l of a lossless transmission terminated by matched
impedance.
Solution : For a length l of a transmission line,there is no discontinuity at the two ends, so
that S11 = S22 = 0.The output signals arise due to input:

b1 = a2 e j t

b2 = a1 e j t
Or,
 b1   0 e jβ t   a1 
     jβ t     Sa 
b2 e 0  a 2

-j t
 0 
 S    jβ t
e

e 0 
10. Derive the relation between Z,Y and ABCD parameters with S parameters.
Solution:

Solution: Two Port network between two lines of unequal impedance and
Relationship between ABCD parameters and Z parameters
For the two port network shown in figure fig.
Current – voltage equation in terms of ABCD parameters is:

= (1a)

The V-I equation in terms of Z-parameters is

= (1b)

Solving eqn (1a) and (1b),we get

A= | =

B= | =

C= | =

D= | = (1c)

For the reciprocal network = and AD - BC=1. Equation (1c) show the relationship
between ABCD parameters and Z parameters.
Relationship between ABCD parameters and Y parameters:
For the two port network fig, the current-voltage equation in terms of Y parameters.
=
= (2a)
Solving (1a) and (2a) , we get the relationship between ABCD and Y parameters.

A=-

B=-

C=-

D=- (2b)

Relationship between [S] and [ABCD]:

Let the two port network have current and voltage configurations as shown in
Fig .The steady state voltage and current are expressed by

V= + ; a= ; (3a)

I= - ; b= ; (3b)

Therefore,

V= (a+b) (3c)

I= (a-b) (3d)

Now for the two-port network shown

=A +B and
=C +D (3e)
Consider direction of in fig . or

( + )=A ( + )+ ( - ) (3f)

and

( - )= C ( + ) + ( - ) (3g)

Where and are the characteristic impedance of input and output lines respectively.
Therefore,

+ =A ( + ( (4a)

- =C ( + )+D ( ) (4b)

Using following normalization:

A =
 = C = and D = (4c)

We can express

+ = ( + )+ ( ) (4d)

- = ( + )+ ( - ) (4e)
The S parameters equation is for the network given by:
= + (4f)
= + (4g)
Solving for equation (4d – 4g)

= (4h)

= (4i)

= (4j)

= (4k)

1.If the network is reciprocal, = , So that ) = 1 and

= = (5a)

2.If the network is symmetrical , = so that = and

= = (5b)

3.If the Symmetrical and reciprocal is placed in a common transmission

line of characteristic impedance = = , then
= A , = , = C , = D and

= (5c)

= = (5d)

11. Explain different types of Attenuator.

Solution: In order to control power levels in a microwave system by partially absorbing the
transmitted
Microwave signal, attenuator are employed. Resistive films (dielectric glass slab coated with
aquatic) are used in the design of both
 Fixed attenuators and
 Variable attenuators
Fixed attenuators:
1. A co-axial fixed attenuator uses the dielectric loss material inside the centre
conductor of the co-axial line to absorb some of the centre conductor microwave
power propagating through it dielectric rod decides the amount of attenuation
introduced.
2. The microwave power absorbed by the lossy material is dissipated as heat. In
waveguides, the dielectric slab coated with aduadag (resistive film) is placed at the
centre of the waveguide parallel to the maximum E-field for dominant TEIO mode.
3. Induced current on the lossy material due to incoming microwave signal, results in
power dissipation, leading to attenuation of microwave energy signal. The dielectric
slab is tapered at both ends up to a length of more than half wavelength to reduce
reflections as shown in figure 11.1.
4. The dielectric slab may be made movable along the breadth of the waveguide by
supporting it with two dielectric rods separated by an odd multiple of quarter guide
wavelength and perpendicular to electric field.
5. When the slab is at the centre, then the attenuation is maximum (since the electric
field is concentrated at the centre for TEIO mode) and when it is moved towards one
side-wall, the attenuation goes on decreasing thereby controlling the microwave
power corning out of the other port.

Variable attenuator:
1. Figure 11.2 shows a flap attenuator which is also a variable attenuator.
2. A semi-circular flap made of lossy dielectric is made to descend into the longitudinal
slot cut at the centre of the top wall of rectangular waveguide. When the flap is
completely outside the slot, then the attenuation is zero and when it is completely
inside, the attenuation is maximum.
3. A maximum direction of 90 dB attenuation is possible with this attenuator with a
VSWR of 1.05.
4. The dielectric slab can be properly shaped according to convenience to get a linear
variation of attenuation within the depth of insertion.
5. A precision type variable attenuator consists of a rectangular to circular transition
(RCT), a piece of circular waveguide (CW) and a circular-to-rectangular transition
(CRT) as shown in figure 11.3.
6. Tapered Resistive cards ₁ are placed inside these sections as shown.
7. The centre circular section containing the resistive card can be precisely rotated by
360° with respect to the two fixed resistive cards.
8. The induced current on the resistive card R due to the incident signal is dissipated as
heat producing attenuation of the transmitted signal.
9. TE₁₀ mode in RCT is converted into TE₁₁ in circular waveguide.
10. The resistive cards R₁ and R a kept perpendicular to the electric field of TE₁₀ mode
so that it does not absorb the energy.
11. But any component parallel to its plane will be readily absorbed. Hence, pure TE
mode is excited in circular waveguide section.
12. If the resistive card in the centre section is kept at an angle 8 relative to the E-field
direction of the TE₁₁ mode, the component E cos θ parallel to the card get absorbed
while the component E sin θ is transmitted without attenuation.
13. This component finally comes out as E sin²θ
 Figure 11.3 Precision type Variable Attenuator

Attenuation of the incident wave is

α = E⁄E sin²θ =1⁄sin²θ = 1⁄ |S ₁| -------------------------- (1)
 dB = -40 log (sin θ) = -20log|S ₁| ----------------------------- (2)
Attenuation depends on the angle of rotation θ of the resistive card with respect to the E-field.
Attenuators are normally matched reciprocal devices so that
|S ₁| = |S₁ | = VSWR - 1⁄ VSWR + 1 << 0.1 ----------------------- (3)
S-matrix of an ideal precision rotary attenuators is
0 Sin²θ
[S] = ----------------------- (4)
Sin²θ 0

13) What are waveguide tees.Explain its basic types with schematic diagram.

Solution: A waveguide Tee is formed when 3 waveguides are interconnected in the form of
English alphabet T and thus waveguide tee is a 3-port junction.The waveguide tees are used
toconnect a branch or section of waveguide in series or parallel with the main waveguide
transmission line either for splitting or combining power in waveguide system.
There are basically 2 types of tees namely
H-plane Tee junction
E-plane Tee junction

A combination of these two tee junctions is called a Hybrid tee or Magic tee.
H-plane tee:
The 2 input waves are fed into port 1 and 2, of collinear arms. The output at port 3 will be
inphase and additive.The port 3 is called sum arm.Input wave at P3 will divide equally
between port 1 and 2 inphase.With port 3 matched the [S] matrix of the H-plane tee is given
by:

 1 1 1 
 2 

2 2 
S H  plane T  
1 1 1 
 2 2 2
 1 1 
 0 
 2 2 

Fig:E-plane tee
E-plane Tee junction
The incident wave at port 3 results in waves at port 1 and port 2 which are equal in
magnitude but opposite in phase.
S13 = S31 = -S32 = -S23
And S12 = S21
If 2 input waves are fed into port 1 and 2 of the collinear arm,the output wave at port 3 will
be opposite inphase and subtractive. Therefore port 3 is called difference arm.
plane junction is also called series junction.All the diagonal elements of [S] matrix of E-plane
cannot be zero as the junction cannot be matched to all the 3 arms simultaneously.
Considering port-3 as matched, we can derive the [S] matrix as follow
Denoting the incident and out going waves as ai and bi. The input power to port 3 is,
| a3 |2 - | b3 |2  | a 3 |2 - | a 3 |2 | S33 |2

= | a3 |2 (1 | S 33 |2 ) (1)

Output power is | b1 |2  | b2 |2  | a 3 |2 | S13 |2  | a 3 |2 | S23 |2

= 2 | a3 |2 | S 13 |2 (2)

Because of symmetry | S31 |  | S32 | (S31 = S32)

Since the junction is assumed as lossless, input power must be equal to output power
|a3|2 (1-|S33|2) = 2 |a3|2 |S13|2
By suitable matching element we can take S23 =0.
1
S31 = S13 = = -S23 and S12 = S21 , S31 = S32
2

The [S] matrix can be written as :

 1 1 1 
 2 2 2 

1 1 1 
[S] =  
 2 2 2
 1 1 
  0 
 2 2 
Because of mismatch at any two ports the VSWR of either E-plane or H-plane Tee junction is
very high.

1 S 1 2
1 3
VSWR =   2 3
1  1- 1 1
2 2
 Fig: H-plane tee
14. Derive the S – matrix relation for E – plane
Solution: An E -plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to
the E field of the main guide.
If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm, there are two different transmission
characteristics.
It can be seen from Figure that if the E-plane tee is perfectly matched with the aid of screw
tuners or inductive or capacitive windows at the junction, the diagonal components of the
scattering matrix, S1~, Szz, and S33, are zero because there will be no reflection.
When the waves are fed into the side arm (port 3), the waves appearing at port 1 and port 2 of
the collinear arm will be in opposite phase and in the same magnitude. Therefore It should be
noted that Equation does not mean that S13 is always positive and S23 is always negative.
The negative sign merely means that S13 and S23 have opposite signs. For a matched junction,
the S matrix is given by

[S]= (1)

From the symmetry property of S matrix, the symmetric terms in equation are equal and they
are:
S12 =S21 S13 = S31 S23 = S32 (2)
From the zero property of S matrix, the sum of the products of each term of any column (or
row) multiplied by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other column (or
row) is zero and it is
Hence,
S11S*12 + S21 S*22 + S31S*32 = 0 (3)
S13S*23 = 0 (4)
This means that either S13 or S13, or both, should be zero. However, from the unity property
of S matrix, the sum of the products of each term of any one row (or column) multiplied by
its complex conjugate is unity; that is,
S21S*21 + S31S*31 = 1 (5)
S12S*12 + S32S*32 = 1 (6)
S13S*13 + S23S*23 = 1 (7)
Substitution of equation 2 in equation 5 results in zero and thus equation 7 is false. In a
similar fashion, if S23 = 0, then S13 becomes zero and therefore equation 8 is not true.
|S12|2 = 1 = |S13|2 = 1 = |S 23|2 (8)
--This inconsistency proves the statement that the tee junction cannot be matched to the three
arms. In other words, the diagonal elements of the S matrix of a tee junction are not all zeros.
In general, when an £-plane tee is constructed of an empty waveguide, it is poorly matched at
the tee junction. Hence Sij*0 if i = j.
However, since the collinear arm is usually symmetric about the side arm, IS13l = IS23l and
S11 = S22. Then the S matrix can be simplified to

[S] = (9)

15.Derive the S-matrix relation for H-plane.

Solution: H-plane tee also called shunt tee. An H - plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the
axis of its side arm is "shunting" the E field or parallel to the H field of the main guide as
shown in figure.

It can be seen that if two input waves are fed into port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm, the
output wave at port 3 will be in phase and additive. On the other hand, if the input is fed into
port 3, the wave will split equally into port 1 and port 2 in phase and in the same magnitude.
Therefore, the S matrix of the H -plane tee is similar to Eqs.

= (1)

w.k.t,
 (2)
Follows Symmetry,

= (3)

= (4)

As per Identity Matrix,

(5)

= (6)

2 2 2
=| +| +| =1 (7)
2 2 2
=| +| +| =1 (8)
2 2
=| +| =1 (9)
From Eq (9),
2
2| =1
| = (10)

Substitute Eq (10) in Eq (7) & (8),

2 2
| +| + =1
2 2
| +| = (11)

Similarly,
2 2
| +| + =1
2 2
| +| = (12)

From (11) & (12),

| =| = (13)

Consider ,
+ =0 (14)

+ =0

=- (15)
[S] =

16.List the characteristics of magic-T when all the ports are terminated with matched load.
Also derive the expression of S matrix.
Solution: A magic tee is a combination of the E -plane tee and H -plane tee as shown in
figure. The magic tee has several characteristics:

1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2, the
output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4.
2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (the H arm), it will be divided equally between port 1 and port
2 of the collinear arms and will not appear at port 3 (the E arm).
3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (the E arm), it will produce an output of equal magnitude and
opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. The output at port 4 is zero. That is, S43 = S34 = 0.
4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in the
other collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E arm causes a phase delay while the Harm
causes a phase advance. That is, S, z = Sz1 = 0.
Therefore, the S matrix of a magic tee can be expressed as
The magic tee is commonly used for mixing, duplexing, and impedance measurements.
Suppose, for example, there are two identical radar transmitters in equipment stock.
A particular application requires twice more input power to an antenna than either transmitter
can deliver. A magic tee may be used to couple the two transmitters to the antenna in such a
way that the transmitters do not load each other.
The two transmitters should be connected to ports 3 and 4, respectively, as shown in Fig.
Transmitter 1, connected to port 3, causes a wave to emanate from port 1 and another to
emanate from port 2; these waves are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase.
Similarly, transmitter 2, connected to port 4, gives rise to a wave at port 1 and another at port
2, both equal in magnitude and in phase.
At port 1 the two opposite waves cancel each other. At port 2 the two in-phase waves add
together; so double output power at port 2 is obtained for the antenna as shown in figure.

 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 
 
S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 
[S] = 
 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 
 
 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 

But
S21 = 0 S12 = 0 S43 = 0
S11 = 0 S22 = 0 S33 = 0
And S14 = S24 S13 = - S23
For port 3 and port 4 S-matrix becomes :

0 0 S13 S14 
0 0  S13 S14 
[S] = 
 S 31 S 32 0 0
 
 S 41 S 42 0 0

0 0 S13 S13
0 0  S13 S14 
[S] = 
 S 31 S 32 0 0
 
 S 41 S 42 0 0

0 0 1 1
 1
1 0 0  1
[S] =
2 1  1 0 0
 
1 1 0 0

17) A 20mw signal is fed into one of the collinear (port 1) of a lossless H plane T
junction. Calculate the power delivered through each port when other ports are
terminated in matches load.
Solution: Since port 2 and 3 are matched terminated , a2 = a3 = 0,|S11| = 1/2.The total
effective power input to port 1 is
 1
P1 = |a1|2(1-|S11|2)
2

1 2
= 20 (1 - )
2

= 5 mW
The power transmitted to port 3 is

1
P3 = |a1|2|S31|2
2

1
= 20 *
2

= 10 mW
The power transmitted to port 2 is

1
P2 = |a1|2|S21|2
2

1 2
= 20*( )
2

= 5 mW
Therefore,
P1 = P3 + P2

18) In a H plane T junction ,compute power delivered to the loads of 40 ohms and 60
ohms connected to arms 1 and 2 when a 10mW power is delivered to the matched port
3.
Solution: With port 3 matched ,the scattering matrix for H
plane T is

1 -1 2
S   -1 1 2

 2 2 0 

Therefore, input power at port 3 is equally divided in arms 1 and 2. Since input at port 3 = 10
mW = 0.01W power towards ports 1 and 2 = 0.005W = (1/2)|b1|2=(1/2)|b2|2 .Considering
first order reflection, reflected power from ports 1 and 2 are

1 | 1 b1 |2 and 1 | 2 b2 |2
2 2
Therefore, power delivered to load Z1 = 40 ohms and Z2 = 60 ohms are
 1 1 1
P1 = | b1 |2 - | Γ1 b1 |2 = | b1 |2 (1- | Γ1 |2 )
2 2 2

1 1 1
P2 = | b2 |2 - | Γ2 b 2 |2 = | b 2 |2 (1- | Γ 2 |2 )
2 2 2

Now taking the characteristic impedance of line = 50 ohms

| 40 - 50 | 1
| 1 |  
| 40  50 | 9
| 1 |2  0.01234

| 60 - 50 | 1
| Γ2 |  
| 60  50 | 11
| Γ2 |2  8.269 10-3

 P1 = 0.005 (1-0.01234) = 4.938 mW

P2 = 0.005(1-8.269*10 -3) = 4.958 mW

19) A magic-T is terminated at collinear ports 1 and 2 and difference port 4 by

impedance of reflection coefficients 1=0.5,2=0.6 and 4=0.8,respectively.If 1 W power
is fed at the sum port 3,calculate the power reflected at Port 3 and power transmitted to
the other three ports.
Solution: S-matrix for a matched magic-T with collinear ports 1 and 2 and sum and
difference ports 3 and 4 respectively, is given by

[S]=

If a1, a2, a3 and a4 be the normalized input voltages and b1, b2, b3 and b4 are the corresponding
output voltage at ports 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively, then
a 1=1 b1, a2=a =2 b 2,a3=input voltage at port 3,and
a4=4 b 4.
Now,

pi= =1W, or a = 2V

Therefore,

=
Or ,

=1

- +b3 +0=0

+ +0+b4 =0

The unknown quantities b’s may be solved by Carmel’s rule.

b 1=

= = 0.928V

Similarly, b2 = = 1.07V

b3 = = 0.78V

b4 = = -0.126V

Therefore,

Power transmitted at Port1 = |b1|2 = 0.4309W

Power transmitted at Port2 = |b2|2 = 0.5738W

Power transmitted at Port4 = |b4|2 = 0.00797W

Power reflected at Port3 = |b3|2 = 0.3065W

20) Discuss the applications of Magic-T

Solution: The magic-T has a number of applications in various microwave circuits ,such as
the E-H tuner for impedance matching,balanced mixer in a microwave superheterodyne to
balance out the local oscillator noise at the IF amplifier input,power combiner and duplexer.
 E-H Tuner-In an E-H tuner (fig.6.50) both the E and H –arms are terminated by
movable shorts which act as E-plane and H-plane stubs. The position of the shorts can
be adjusted so that a wide range of load impedance may be matched to reduce the
VSWR of a wave guide system connected through the collinear arms.
 Balanced Mixer-In a balanced microwave mixer configuration, an incoming signal is
fed to the E-arm and a local oscillator signal is fed to H-arm as shown in
fig.6.51.When these two signals enter the collinear arms ,the crystal diodes placed in
these arms produce the IF signal or difference signal in the following manner.
The local oscillator signal from the H-arm will arrive at the diodes in collinear arms
in-phase, whereas the
incoming signal from the E-
arm will arrive at the diodes
out-of-phase. These signals are
mixed in the non-linear diodes
and produce IF signals in the
collinear arms which are out-
of-phase by 180.Since local
oscillator noise will be in
phase at the diodes, this gets
cancelled at the balanced IF
input to IF amplifier whereas, the IF signals are added up in phase for amplification in
IF amplifier.LO and RF signals are uncoupled due to magic-T properties of E and H-
arms. For equal power inputs at isolated port 3 and 4, P3 =P4 =P= |a|2, where
a3=a4=a.If Port1 is matched, a1=0.Therefore,
b 2= =0
And hence a2=0.Consequently b3=b4=0.Thus
b1=S 13a+S 14a= 2a
Therefore, output power at Port 1 is P1= |b1|2=|a|2=2P=sum of two equal input powers.
In a duplexer circuit of a radar system, a common antenna is connected to Port1 while
the transmitter and receiver are connected to isolated E and H-arms and a dummy load
is connected at Port2. Half of the power transmitted is coupled to the antenna and
50% of the received power gets into the receiver, remaining 50% power is observed in
dummy load.
MODULE-3
Strip Lines: Introduction, Micro Strip lines, Parallel Strip lines, Coplanar Strip lines, Shielded
Strip Lines. (Text 2: Chapter 11) Antenna Basics: Introduction, Basic Antenna Parameters,
Patterns, Beam Area, Radiation Intensity, Beam Efficiency, Directivity and Gain, Antenna
Apertures, Effective Height, Bandwidth, Radio Communication Link, Antenna Field Zones &
Polarization. (Text 3: 2.1- 2.11, 2.13,2.15) L1, L2, L3

1.A certain microstrip line has the following parameters: εr=5.23,h=7 mils,t=2.8 mils and
w=10mils. Calculate the characteristics impedance of the line.

Sol :
Zo = (87/√Er+1.41) ln(5.98h/0.8w+t)
Zo = (87/√5.23+1.41) ln(5.98h/0.810+2.8)
Zo = 45.78 ohm
Q2. Discuss briefly micro strip lines and its losses and also derive the expression for quality
factor.

Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which is used to convey microwave-

frequency signals. It consists of a conducting strip separated from a ground plane by
a dielectric layer known as the substrate. Microwave components such
as antennas, couplers, filters, power dividers etc. can be formed from microstrip, with the
entire device existing as the pattern of metallization on the substrate. Microstrip lines are
used extensively to interconnect high-speed logic circuits in digital computers because they
can be fabricated by automated techniques and they provide the required uniform signal
paths.

Losses in Microstrip Lines

1. Dielectric losses
When the conductivity of a dielectric cannot be neglected, the electric and magnetic fields in
the dielectric are no longer in time phase. In that case the dielectric attenuation constant is
given by

Where (J' is the conductivity of the dielectric substrate board in U/cm. This dielectric
constant can be expressed in terms of dielectric loss tangent as shown

Then the dielectric attenuation constant is expressed by

Since the microstrip line is a nonmagnetic mixed dielectric system, the upper dielectric above
the microstrip ribbon is air, in which no loss occurs. The result is
In the above equation, the conversion factor of 1 Np = 8. 686 dB is used, Ɛre is the effective
dielectric constant of the substrate and q denotes the dielectric filling factor

We usually express the attenuation constant per wavelength as

Where and is the wavelength in free space, or

and c is the velocity of light in vacuum.

If the loss tangent, tan θ, is independent of frequency, the dielectric attenuation per
wavelength is also independent of frequency. Moreover, if the substrate conductivity is
independent of frequency, as for a semiconductor, the dielectric attenuation per unit is also
independent of frequency. Since q is a function of Ɛr and w/h, the filling factors for the loss
tangent qƐn/Ɛre and for the conductivity are also functions of these quantities.

Fig1. Filling factor for loss tangent of microstrip substrate as a function of w/h.

2. Ohmic losses:
In a microstrip line over a low-loss dielectric substrate, the predominant sources of losses at
microwave frequencies are the non-perfect conductors. The current density in the conductors
of a microstrip line is concentrated in a sheet that is approximately a skin depth thick inside
the conductor surface and exposed to the electric field. Both the strip conductor thickness and
the ground plane thickness are assumed to be at least three or four skin depths thick. The
current density in the strip conductor and the ground conductor is not uniform in the
transverse plane. The microstrip conductor contributes the major part of the ohmic loss. A
diagram of the current density J for a microstrip line is shown

Assuming for simplicity, that the current distribution is uniform and equal to I /w in both
conductors and confined to the region Ix I < w/2. With this assumption, the conducting
attenuation constant of a wide microstrip line is given by

Where is the surface skin resistance in Ω/square,

is the skin depth in cm.

3. Radiation losses:
In addition to the conductor and dielectric losses, microstrip line also has radiation losses.
The radiation loss depends on the substrate's thickness and dielectric constant, as well as its
geometry. Lewin has calculated the radiation loss for several discontinuities using the
following approximations:
1. TEM transmission
2. Uniform dielectric in the neighborhood of the strip, equal in magnitude to an effective
value
3. Neglect of radiation from the transverse electric (TE) field component parallel to the strip
4. Substrate thickness much less than the free-space wavelength
Lewin’s results show that the ratio of radiated power to total dissipated power for an open-
circuited microstrip line is

where F (Ɛre) is a radiation factor given by

in which Ɛre is the effective dielectric constant and λo = c / f is the free-space wavelength.
The radiation factor decreases with increasing substrate dielectric constant. So, alternatively,

where Rr is the radiation resistance of an open-circuited microstrip.

Quality Factor Q of Microstrip Lines

Many microwave integrated circuits require very high quality resonant circuits. The quality
factor Q of a microstrip line is very high, but it is limited by the radiation losses of the
substrates and with low dielectric constant. Recall that for uniform current distribution in the
microstrip line, the ohmic attenuation constant of a wide microstrip line is given by

Where,

Ω
The wavelength in the microstrip line is

where f is the frequency in GHz.

Since Qc is related to the conductor attenuation constant by

where αc is in dB/λ8 , Qc of a wide microstrip line is expressed as

where h is measured in cm and Rs is expressed as

Finally, the quality factor Qc of a wide microstrip line is

where a is the conductivity of the dielectric substrate board in ℧/m.

For a copper strip, a = 5.8 x 107 ℧ /m and Qc becomes

Similarly, a quality factor Qd is related to the dielectric attenuation constant:

where αd is in dB/ λ8.

Substituting,
where λo is the free-space wavelength in cm. Note that the Qd for the dielectric attenuation
constant of a microstrip line is approximately the reciprocal of the dielectric loss tangent θ
and is relatively constant with frequency.

3. .Explain the parallel strip lines and give the parameters of it. Also derive the
characteristic impedance and attenuation losses.

A parallel strip lines consists of two perfectly parallel strips separated by a perfect dielectric
slab of uniform thickness as shown in the figure below.

The plate width is w, the separation distance is d, and the relative dielectric constant of the
slab is εrd.
Distributed Parameters
In a microwave integrated circuit a strip line can be easily fabricated on a dielectric substrate
by using printed-circuit techniques. A parallel stripline is similar to a two-conductor
transmission line, so it can support a quasi-TEM mode,
Consider a TEM-mode wave propagating in the positive z direction in a lossless strip line
(R=G=0). The electric field is in the y direction, and the magnetic field is in the x direction. If
the width w is much larger than the separation distance d, the fringing capacitance is
negligible. Thus the equation for the inductance along the two conducting strips can be
written as

H/m

where µc is the permeability of the conductor. The capacitance between the two conducting
strips can be expressed as

F/m
Where εd is the permittivity of the dielectric slab.
If the two parallel strips have some surface resistance and the dielectric substrate has some
shunt conductance, however, the parallel stripline would have some losses. The series
resistance for the both strips is given by

Where is the conductor surface resistance in Ω/square

The shunt conductance of the strip line is

Characteristic Impedance
The characteristic impedance of a lossless parallel strip line is

The phase velocity along a parallel strip line is

Attenuation Losses
The propagation constant of a parallel strip line at microwave frequencies can be expressed
by

Thus the attenuation and phase constants are

and

Substitution of the distributed parameters of a parallel strip line into Equation yields the
attenuation constants for the conductor and dielectric losses:

And

4. A lossless parallel strip line has a conducting strip width w.The substrate dielectric
separating the two conducting strips has a relative dielectric constant of 6
(beryllium oxide BeO) and a thickness d of 4 m. Calculate a.The required width w of
the conducting strip in order to have a characteristic impedance of 50Ω b. The strip-
line capacitance. c.The strip-line inductance. d. The phase velocity of the wave in the
parallel strip line.

Solution:-
a.The width of the conducting strip is W= 377 √
0 = 377 6 4×10−3 50 =12.31 × 10−3 m

b.The strip line capacitance is

C = ( ×w)/d = 8.854×10−12×6×12.31×10−3 4×10−3
=163.50 pF/m

c.The strip line inductance is

L =( ×) /w
 = 4 ×10−7×4×10−3 4×10−3
= 0.41 /
d.The phase Velocity is = √ = 3 ×10 8 √ 6 1.22 × 10 8 /s

5.Write a explanatory note on coplanar strip lines and shielded strip lines.

A coplanar strip line consists of two conducting strips on one substrate surface with one strip
rounded, as shown. The coplanar strip line has advantages over the conventional parallel strip
line because its two strips are on the same substrate surface for convenient connection. In
microwave integrated circuits (MICs) the wire bonds have always presented reliability and
reproductively. The coplanar strip lines eliminate the difficulties involved in connecting the
shunt elements between the hot and ground strips. As a result, reliabilty in increased,
reproductibilty is enhanced, and production cost is decreased.
The characteristic impedance of a coplanar strip line is
Z0=2Pavg
I02
Where I0 is the total peak current in one strip and pavg is the average power flowing in the
positive z direction and it can be expressed as

Pavg=½ Re ∫∫ (E x H*) . uz dx dy

Where Ex =electric field intensity in the positive direction

H=magnetic field intensity in the positive y direction.
*= conjugate

SHIELDED STRIP LINES

A partially shielded strip line has its strip conductor embedded in a dielectric medium and its
top and bottom ground planes have no connection,as shown.
The characteristic impedance for a wide strip(w/d>0.35) is
-1
Z0 =94.15 w k+ Cf
√e d 8.854€r
where,
K=(1-t/d) -1
t = the strip thickness
d= the distance between the two ground planes
cf=8.854er/π [2K ln(K+1)-(K-1)ln(K2-1)] and is the fringe capacitance in pF/m

The figure shows characteristic impedance z0 for a partially shielded strip line
7. Explain the basic principle of radiation using basic radiation equation

Radiation is the term used to represent the emission or reception of wave front at the
antenna, specifying its strength. After a RF signal has been generated in a transmitter, some
means must be used to radiate this signal through space to a receiver. The device that does
this job is the antenna.
The transmitter signal energy is sent into space by a transmitting antenna; the RF signal is
then picked up from space by a receiving antenna. The antenna must be able to radiate
efficiently so the power supplied by the transmitter is not wasted.
Regardless of antenna type, radiation depends on the same basic principles that radiation is
produced by accelerated or decelerated charge. The basic radiation equation is given by,
IL = QV (Ams-1)
where I = time changing current, As-1
L = Length of current element, m
Q = charge, C
V = time change of velocity which equals the acceleration of charge, ms-2
The spacing between the wires is assumed to be a small fraction of wavelength. As the
separation tends towards the order of wavelength or more, the wave tends to be radiated so
that opened out line acts like an antenna which launches a free space wave.
8. Explain the following terms as related to antenna system
a)Directivity b)effective height c)beam area d)radiation pattern e)field pattern f)half power
beam g)beam solid angle h)gain i)radiation intensity
Answer:
a)Directivity:
From the field point of view, the most important quantitative information on the antenna is
the directivity, which is a measure of the concentration of radiated power in a particular
direction. It is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the
antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.The average radiation intensity
is equal to the total radiated power divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified, the
direction of maximum radiation is implied.
Mathematically, the directivity (dimensionless) can be written as
D=U (θ ,φ)max/ U (θ ,φ)avg
The directivity is a dimensionless quantity. The maximum directivity is always ≥ 1.
Directivity is the ratio of total solid angle of the sphere to beam solid angle. For antennas
with rotationally symmetric lobes, the directivity D can be approximated as:
D = 4π / θ Φ
Directivity of isotropic antenna is equal to unity, for an isotropic antenna Beam area ΩA=4π
Directivity indicates how well an antenna radiates in a particular direction in comparison with
an isotropic antenna radiating same amount of power Smaller the beam area, larger is the
directivity.

b)Effective height:
The effective height is another parameter related to the apertures. Multiplying the effective
height(meters), times the magnitude of the incident electric field E (V/m) yields the voltage V
induced.
Thus V=he E or he= V/ E (m). Effective height provides an indication as to how much of the
antenna is involved in radiating or receiving.To demonstrate this, consider the current
distributions a dipole antenna for two different lengths.
If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, it’s effective height would be l Here the
current distribution is nearly sinusoidal with average value 2/π=0.64(of the maximum) so that
it’s
effective height is 0.64l .It is assumed that antenna is oriented for maximum response.
If the same dipole is used at longer wavelength so that it is only 0.1λ long, the current tapers
almost linearly from the central feed point to zero at the ends in a triangular distribution. The
average
current is now 0.5 & effective height is 0.5l
 Fig.8 Effective Height
For an antenna of radiation resistance Rr matched to it’d load, power delivered to load is
= 2/4 and
voltage is given by V=heE
Therefore, P=(heE)2/(4Rr)
In terms of Effective aperture the same power is given by
P=SAe= (E2/z0 )Ae
Equating the two,

c)Beam area:
The total beam area ΩA consists of the main beam area ΩM plus the minor lobe area Ωm .
ΩA = ΩM + Ωm
The ratio of main beam area to the total beam area is called the beam efficiency εM
εM = ΩM / ΩA
The ratio of minor lobe area to the total beam area is called stray factor εm
εm = Ωm / ΩA

d)Radiation pattern:
The radiation pattern or antenna pattern is the graphical representation of the radiation
properties of the antenna as a function of space. That is, the antenna's pattern describes how
the antenna radiates energy out into space (or how it receives energy). It is important to state
that an antenna can radiate energy in all directions, so the antenna pattern is actually three-
dimensional. It is common, however, to describe this 3D pattern with two planar patterns,
called the principal plane patterns. These principal plane patterns can be obtained by making
two slices through the 3D pattern, through the maximum value of the pattern. It is these
principal plane patterns that are commonly referred to as the antenna patterns.
Radiation pattern or Antenna pattern is defined as the spatial distribution of a ‘quantity’ that
characterizes the EM field generated by an antenna. The ‘quantity’ may be Power, Radiation
Intensity, Field amplitude, Relative Phase etc.
Always the radiation has Main lobe through which radiation is maximum in the z direction
and Minor lobe (side and back lobes) in the x and y direction. Any field pattern is presented
by 3D spherical coordinates or by plane cuts through main lobe axis. Two plane cuts as right
angles are called as principal plane pattern. To specify the radiation pattern with respect to
field intensity and polarization requires three patterns:
i. The θ component of the electric field as a function of the angles θ and Φ or Eθ(θ,Φ) in Vm-
1
ii. The Φ component of the electric field as a function of the angles θ and Φ or EΦ(θ,Φ) in
Vm-1
iii. The phases of these fields as a function of the angles θ and Φ or δθ(θ,Φ) and δΦ(θ,Φ) in
radian or degree.

e)Field pattern:
It is obtained by dividing a field component by its maximum
value. The normalized field pattern is a dimensionless number with maximum value of unity
EΦ(θ,Φ) n= EΦ(θ,Φ) / EΦ(θ,Φ) max (2)
Half power level occurs at those angles (θ,Φ)for which Eθ(θ,Φ)n =0.707. At distance d>>λ
and d>>
size of the antenna, the shape of the field pattern is independent of the distance.

f)Half power beam width:

Beamwidth is associated with the lobes in the antenna pattern. It is defined as the angular
separation between two identical points on the opposite sides of the main lobe. The most
common type of beamwidth is the half-power (3 dB) beamwidth (HPBW). To find HPBW, in
the equation, defining the radiation pattern, we set power equal to 0.5 and solve it for angles.
The angular width on the major lobe of radiation pattern between two points where the power
is half of the maximum radiated power is called Half Power Beam-width. Here the power
decreases to half of its maximum value.

g)beam solid angle:

The beam solid angle of an antenna is given by the integral of the normalized power pattern
over a sphere (4π steradians).

Beam area ΩA is the solid angle through which all of the power radiated by antenna would
stream if P(θ, Φ) maintained its maximum value over ΩA and was zero.
Total power radiated = P(θ, Φ) ΩA watts
Beam area is the solid angle ΩA is often approximated in terms of the angles subtended by
the Half Power points of the main lobe in the two principal planes(Minor lobes are neglected)
ΩA= θHP ΦHP

h)Gain:
Any physical Antenna has losses associated with it. Depending on structure both ohmic and
dielectric losses can be present. Input power Pin is the sum of the Radiated power Prad and
losses Ploss
Pin=Prad + Ploss
The Gain G of an Antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than Directivity D
due to ohmic losses in the antenna. Mismatch in feeding the antenna also reduces gain. The
ratio of Gain to Directivity is the Antenna efficiency factor k (dimensionless)
 = , ℎ 0≤ ≤1
In practice, the total input power to an antenna can be obtained easily, but the total radiated
power by an antenna is actually hard to get. The gain of an antenna is introduced to solve this
problem.
This is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to
the total input power accepted by the antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified,
the
direction of maximum radiation is implied. Mathematically, the gain (dimensionless) can be
written as
G=4πU/Pin

i)Radiation intensity:
The power radiated from an Antenna per unit solid angle is called the Radiation Intensity.
“U” Units: Watts/steradians or Watts/ square degree
Poynting vector or power density is dependent on distance from the antenna while Radiation
intensity is independent of the distance from the antenna. The normalized power pattern can
also be expressed as the ratio of radiation intensity as a function of angle to its maximum
value.
Beam Efficiency Pn(θ,Φ)n = S(θ,Φ)/ S(θ,Φ)max

9) State and explain aperture efficiency, effective height and bandwidth of an antenna.

Effective Aperture
Aperture Concept: Aperture of an Antenna is the area through which the power is radiated or
received. Concept of Apertures is most simply introduced by considering a Receiving
Antenna. Let receiving antenna be a rectangular Horn immersed in the field of uniform plane
wave as shown

Let the Poynting vector or power density of the plane wave be S watts/sq –m and let the area
or
physical aperture be Ap sq-m.
But the Field response of Horn is not uniform across Ap because E at sidewalls must be equal
to zero. Thus effective Aperture Ae of the Horn is less than Ap.
Aperture Efficiency is as follows: εap=Ae/Ap

The effective antenna aperture is the ratio of the available power at the terminals of the
antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident upon the antenna, which is
matched to the antenna in terms of polarization. If no direction is specified, the direction of
maximum radiation is implied.
Effective Aperture (Ae) describes the effectiveness of an Antenna in receiving mode, It is the
ratio of power delivered to receiver to incident power density. It is the area that captures
energy from a passing EM wave. An Antenna with large aperture (Ae) has more gain than
one with smaller aperture(Ae) since it captures more energy from a passing radio wave and
can radiate more in that direction while transmitting.

Effective height
Multiplying the effective height, he (meters), times the magnitude of the incident electric
field E (V/m) yields the voltage V induced.
Thus V=heE or he= V/ E (m). Effective height provides an indication as to how much of the
antenna is involved in radiating (or receiving).
To demonstrate this, consider the current distribution dipole antenna for two different lengths.

If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, it’s effective height would be l Here the
current distribution is nearly sinusoidal with average value 2/π=0.64(of the maximum) so that
it’s effective height is 0.64l .It is assumed that antenna is oriented for maximum response.

If the same dipole is used at longer wavelength so that it is only 0.1λ long, the current tapers
almost linearly from the central feed point to zero at the ends in a triangular distribution. The
average current is now 0.5 & effective height is 0.5l

For an antenna of radiation resistance Rr matched to it’s load , power delivered to load is
= 2/4 and
voltage is given by V=heE
Therefore, P=(heE)2/(4Rr)
In terms of Effective aperture the same power is given by
P=SAe= (E2/z0 )Ae
Equating the two,

Bandwidth or frequency bandwidth:

This is the range of frequencies, within which the antenna characteristics (input impedance,
pattern) conform to certain specifications. Antenna characteristics which should conform to
certain requirements might be: input impedance, radiation pattern, beamwidth, polarization,
side-lobe level, gain, beam direction and width, radiation efficiency.
Separate bandwidths may be introduced: impedance bandwidth, pattern bandwidth, etc.
The FBW of broadband antennas is expressed as the ratio of the upper to the lower
frequencies,
where the antenna performance is acceptable.

Based on Bandwidth antennas can be classified as

1. Broad band antennas-BW expressed as ratio of upper to lower frequencies of acceptable
operation
eg: 10:1 BW means fH is 10 times greater than fL
2. Narrow band antennas-BW is expressed as percentage of frequency difference over center
frequency eg:5% means (fH –fL ) /fo is .05. Bandwidth can be considered to be the range of
frequencies on either sides of a center frequency (usually resonant freq. for a dipole)

= /

Broadband antennas with FBW as large as 40:1 have been designed. Such antennas are
referred to as frequency independent antennas. For narrowband antennas, the FBW is
expressed as a percentage of the frequency difference over the center frequency.

The characteristics such as Zi, G, Polarization etc of antenna does not necessarily vary in the
same manner. Sometimes they are critically affected by frequency. Usually there is a
distinction made between pattern and input impedance variations. Accordingly, pattern
bandwidth or impedance bandwidth are used. Pattern bandwidth is associated with
characteristics such as Gain, Side lobe level, Polarization, Beam area. (large antennas)
Impedance bandwidth is associated with characteristics such as input impedance, radiation
efficiency (Short dipole) Intermediate length antennas BW may be limited either by pattern
or impedance variations depending on application. If BW is Very large (like 40:1 or greater),
Antenna can be considered frequency independent

10.Show that directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the area of the sphere to the beam
area?
The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power density
( ) to its average value over a sphere as observed in the far field of an
antenna.
So,

The directivity is a dimensionless ratio 1.

The average power density over a sphere is given by
Therefore directivity

Where = = normalized power pattern

Thus, directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the area of the sphere to the beam area of
an antenna.
MODULE-4
Point Sources and Arrays: Introduction, Point Sources, Power Patterns, Power Theorem,
Radiation Intensity, Field Patterns, Phase Patterns, Arrays of Two Isotropic Point Sources,
Pattern Multiplication, Linear Arrays of n Isotropic Point Sources of equal Amplitude and
Spacing.(Text 3: 5.1 – 5.10,5.13) Electric Dipoles: Introduction, Short Electric Dipole, Fields of a
Short Dipole (General and Far Field Analyses), Radiation Resistance of a Short Dipole, Thin
Linear Antenna (Field Analyses), Radiation Resistances of Lambda/2 Antenna. (Text 3: 6.1 -6.6)
L1, L2, L3, L4

1. State and explain power theorem and its application to an isotropic source.
Ans.If the Poynting vector is known at all points on a sphere of radius r from a point source
in a lossless medium, the total power radiated by the source is the integral over the surface of
the sphere of the radial component Sr of the average Poynting vector. Thus,

P= . ds = rds

where
P = power radiated,W
Sr= radial component of average Poynting vector, W m−2
ds = infinitesimal element of area of sphere =r2 sin θ dθ dφ, m2

For an isotropic source, Sris independent of θ and φ so

P = Sr s = Sr 4 r2 (W)
and Sr= P / 4 r2 (W m−2)
The above equation indicates that the magnitude of the Poynting vector varies inversely as
the square of the distancefrom a point-source radiator. This is a statement of the well-known
law for the variation of power per unitarea as a function of the distance.

2. Explain the field and phase patterns.

Ans:
Field Patterns:
The relation between the average Poynting vector and the electric field at a point of the far
field is
Sr = (1)
where Z0 = intrinsic impedance of medium and
(2)
Where
E = amplitude of total electric field intensity
Eθ= amplitude of θ component
Eφ= amplitude of φ component
The field may be elliptically, linearly or circularly polarized. If the field components are rms
values, rather than
amplitudes, the Poynting vector is twice that of eqn (1).

A pattern showing the variation of the electric field intensity at a constant radius r as a
function of angle (θ, φ)
is called a field pattern.

When the field intensity is expressed in volts per meter, if is absolute field pattern. if the field
intensity is expressed in units relative to its value in some reference direction, it is a relative
field pattern. The reference direction is usually taken in the direction of maximum field
intensity. The relative pattern of the Eθcomponent is t given by, (3)
and the relative pattern of the Eφcomponent is given by, (4)

where
Eθm= maximum value of EθEφm= maximum value of Eφ

The magnitudes of both the electric field components, Eθ andEφ vary inversely as the
distance from the source. Thus, in general,
Eθ= F1( and Eφ= F2( (5)
Since Srm=

The relative total pattern is =

i.e relative total power pattern = = Pr = = (7)

Eqn 7 indicates that the relative total power pattern is equalto the square of the relative total
field pattern.

Phase Patterns

The far field in all directions from a source may be specified by the following four
quantities:

1. Amplitude of the polar component Eθof the electric field as a function of r, θ, and φ.
2. Amplitude of the azimuthal component Eφof the electric field as a function of r, θ, and φ.
3. Phase lag δ of Eφbehind Eθas a function of θ and φ.
4. Phase lag η of either field component behind its value at a reference point as a function of
r, θ, and φ.

Figure shows the pattern in three-dimensional, polar and decibel displays. the polarity of the
lobes alternate (+ and −). Thus when the magnitude of the field of one lobe (+) and the
adjacent lobe (−) are equal, the total field goes to zero, producing a null.
a.3D polar pattern b. polar pattern c. showing alternate phasing (+ and −) of pattern
lobes.

3.Explain the principle of pattern multiplication with an example.

principle of pattern multiplication, which may be expressed as follows:
The field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar point sources is the product of the
pattern of the individual source and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources having
the same locations, relative amplitudes, and phase as the non-isotropic point sources.
The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the product of the
individual source pattern and the pattern of an array of isotropic point sources each located at
the phase centre of the individual source and having the same relative amplitude and phase,
while the total phase pattern is the sum of the phase patterns of the individual source and the
array of isotropic point sources
This principle may be applied to arrays of any number of sources provided only that they are
similar. The individual non-isotropic source or antenna may be of finite size but can be
considered as a point source situated at the point in the antenna to which phase is referred.
This point is said to be the “phase center.”
E=f (θ,φ)F(θ,φ) fp(θ , φ) +Fp(θ , φ)
E = f (θ , φ)F (θ , φ) = Field pattern
fp(θ , φ) + Fp(θ , φ) =Phase pattern
where
f (θ , φ) = field pattern of individual source
fp(θ , φ) = phase pattern of individual source
F (θ , φ) = field pattern of array of isotropic sources
Fp(θ , φ) = phase pattern of array of isotropic sources
Example (1):-
The nonisotropic point sources of the same amplitude the phase angle δ = 0 ,d = λ/2 a part
arranged as shown,

Produce Point Sources

and the Principle of
Pattern Multiplication
Follow (C),

(a) sin φ, (b)cos[π/2(cos φ)], (c) E=sin φ, b=cos[π/2(cos φ)]

The individual source has the pattern shown at (a), which, when multiplied by the pattern of
an array of two isotropic point sources (of the same amplitude and phase) as shown at (b),
yields the total array pattern of (c).

4. Obtain the field pattern for two-point source situated symmetrically with respect to
the origin. Two sources are feed with equal amplitude and equal phase signals, Assume
distance between two sources=λ/2.
Solu:Consider two isotropic point source 1 and 2 separated by distance d and located
symmetrically with respect to origin of the coordinate.

The electric field intensity of point P is vector condition and field close to source 1 and 2
respectively.
Ep=E1+E2 …………..(1)
=Eoe-jψ/2+Eoejψ/2……..(2)
where ψ/2 is the phase shift due to separation d/2 from the origin.
Ep=2 Eo(e-jψ/2+oejψ/2/2)……..(3)

=2E0 ………….(4)

The angle ф is measured counter clockwise from the positive x axis.The origin of the
coordinates is taken on the reference for phase.Then at the distant point in the direction ф the
field from the source 1 is retarded by 1/2dr , while the field from the source 2 is
advanced by 1/2dr where dr is the distance between the source expressed in the radians
that is
dr=2πd/ λ =ßd…..(5)
In equation (4) ψ=dr and the amplitude of the field components at a distance r is given
by Eo..
Sub ψ value in equ (4)
Ep=2Eo …(6)
Ep=2Eo …(7)
Normalizing the above equation by setting 2Eo=1.

Put d= ℎ do=

E= …(8)
The field pattern E versus ф expressed by equation (8) is shown below.
The pattern is bidirectional figure.
ф= ,E=1 point of maxima = or 3
at θ=0,pont of minima = 0 or

at θ=+π/3,-π/3,E=1/
bandwidth point =+π/3,-π/3

5. Derive the expression and draw the field pattern for an array of two isotropic point
sources of same amplitude and opposite phase. Also determine its maxima, minima and
HPBW.
Ans: Consider two source of same amplitude with opposite phase
y To distant point

d/2 d/2 ф x
d
Total field in the direction d at a large distance r is given by
E=E0e+jψ/2- E0e-jψ/2 ..........(1)
E = 2E0 [ (ejψ/2 – e-jψ/2 ) / 2 ] ..........(2)

E= 2jE0 sin( ..........(3)

E=2jE0sin[(dr cosф)/2] .........(4)

Operator j, indicating that the face reversal of one of the source results in 900 phase shift of
total field as compared to same amplitude and phase
Put 2jE0=1 d=(λ/2) dr=2πd/λ

E=sin[ ………….(5)

The direction фm of maximum field are obtained as follows

sin[ = ……..….(6)

= (2K+1) where K=0,1,2,3……

Put K=0,
(π/2)cosфm= => cosфm=
фm=00 or 1800
Minimum Direction:

sin[ =
 = put K=0,

( )cosф0=0

cosф0=900 or 2700
HPBW:

sin[ =

cosфHP= put K=0,

cosфHP=

cosфHP= =>фHP=600 or 1200

The pattern is a relatively broad figure-of-eight with maximum field in the same direction as
the line joining the sources (x axis).

Figure

6. Derive an array factor expression in case of linear array of n isotropic point sources
of equal amplitude and spacing.
Solu: An array is said to be linear if the individual elements of the array are spaced equally
along a line and uniform, if the same are fed with currents of equal amplitude and having
uniform phase shift along the line.
If ‘n’ is any positive integer then, the total field E at a large distance in the direction φ is
given by
E = 1 + ejψ + ej2ψ + ej3ψ +···+ e j(n−1)ψ ……………(1)
Where ψ is the total phase difference of the fields from adjacent sources and is given by the
equation
ψ = (2π d /λ) cos φ + δ = dr cos φ + δ………………..(2)
Where δ is the phase difference of adjacent sources.

Fig1: Arrangement of linear array of n isotropic point sources

The amplitudes of the fields from the sources are all equal and taken as unity. Source 1
(Fig.1) is the phase reference. Thus, at a distant point in the direction φ the field from source
2 is advanced in phase with respect to source 1 by ψ, the field from source 3 is advanced in
phase with respect to source 1 by 2ψ and so on.
Eq(1) is a geometric series. Each term represents a phasor, and the amplitude of the total field
E and its phase angle ξ can be obtained by phasor (vector) addition.Analytically, E can be
expressed in a simple trigonometric form which we now develop as follows:
Multiply (1) by ejψ , giving
Eejψ= ejψ + ej2ψ + ej3ψ +···+ ejnψ………………….. (3)
Now subtract (3) from (1) and divide by (1 − ejψ) , yielding
E = (1 − ejnψ)/(1 − ejψ)…………… (4)
Equation (4) may be rewritten as
E = ejnψ/2 /ejψ/2 [( ejnψ/2 − e−j nψ/2 )/(ejψ/2 − e−jψ/2)]………………. (5)
from which
E = ejξ [sin(nψ/2)/sin(ψ/2)]= [sin(nψ/2)/sin(ψ/2)] ξ………………… (6)
where ξ is referred to the field from source 1. The value of ξ is given by
ξ = [(n – 1)/2] ψ …………….(7)
If the phase is referred to the center point of the array, (6) becomes
E = sin(nψ/2)/sin(ψ/2)………….(8)
In this case the phase pattern is a step function as given by the sign of (8). The phase of the
field is constant wherever E has a value but changes sign when E goes through zero.
When ψ = 0, (6) or (8) is indeterminate so that for this case E must be obtained as the limit of
(8) as ψ approaches zero. Thus, for ψ = 0 we have the relation that
E = n……………. (8a)
This is the maximum value that E can attain. Hence, the normalized value of the total field
for Emax = n is
E = (1/n)[sin(nψ/2)/sin(ψ/2)]…………..(9)
The field as given by (9) will be referred to as the “array factor”.
We may conclude from the above discussion that the field from the array will be a maximum
in any direction φ for which ψ = 0. Stated in another way, the fields from the sources all
arrive at a distant point in the same phase when ψ = 0. In special cases, ψ may not be zero for
any value of φ, and in this case the field is usually a maximum at the minimum value of ψ.
Let us study the different cases as follows:
Case1:Broadside Array (Sources in Phase)
In this case, δ=0 ineq(2). Therefore,
ψ = dr cos φ + δ…………….(10)
To make ψ = 0 requires that φ = (2k+1)(π/2), where k = 0, 1, 2, 3,.... The field is, therefore, a
maximum when
φ = π/2 and 3π/2…………….(10a)
That is, the maximum field is in a direction normal to the array. Hence, this condition, which
is characterized by in-phase sources (δ = 0), results in a “broadside” type of array.
As an example, the field pattern of a broadside array of four in-phase isotropic point sources
of equal amplitude is presented in Fig.2. The spacing between sources is λ/2. The field
pattern for this array is shown in Fig.2.
Fig.2: Field pattern of broadside array of four isotropic point sources of the same
amplitude and phase.

Case 2: Ordinary End-Fire Array

Let us now find the phase angle between adjacent sources that is required to make the field a
maximum in the direction of the array (φ = 0). An array of this type may be called an “end-
fire” array. For this we substitute the conditions ψ = 0 and φ = 0 into (2), from which
δ = −dr.....................(11)
Hence, for an end-fire array, the phase between sources is retarded progressively by the same
amount as the spacing between sources in radians.
As an example, the field pattern of an end-fire array of four isotropic point sources is
presented in Fig.3. The spacing between sources is λ/2 and δ = −π.

Fig.3: Field pattern of ordinary end-fire array of four isotropic point sources of same
amplitude. Spacing is λ/2 and the phase angle δ = −π.

Case 3: End-Fire Array with Increased Directivity

Fig.4: Field pattern of ordinary end-fire array of four isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude spaced λ/2 apart. The phasing is adjusted for increased directivity δ = −
(5π/4).
The situation discussed in Case 2, namely, for δ = −dr, produces a maximum field in the
direction φ = 0 but does not give the maximum directivity. It has been shown by Hansen (1)
and Woodyard that a larger directivity is obtained by increasing the phase change between
sources so that
δ = −[dr + (π/n)]…………………..(12)
This condition will be referred to as the condition for “increased directivity.” Thus for the
phase difference of the fields at a large distance we have
ψ = [dr(cos φ − 1) ]– (π/n)……………(13)
As an example, the field pattern of an end-fire array of four isotropic point sources for this
case is illustrated in Fig.4. The spacing between sources is λ/2, and therefore δ = − (5π/4).

7.Distinguish between end fire array and broad side array.

Sol.
End fire array
1. The array is said to be end fire array, if
maximum radiation is along the array axis.
Broad side array
1. The array is said to be broad side array, if
the direction of maximum radiation is
perpendicular to the array axis.

2. In end fire, phase difference between 2. In broad side, phase difference α = 0

adjacent element is α= -βd

3.General expression for pattern maxima is, 3.General equation for pattern maxima is
(θmax)minor=cos-1 (θmax)minor=cos-1

4.General expression for pattern minima is, 4.General Expression for pattern minima is,
θmin =2sin-1 (θmin)major=cos-1
 5.Half power beam width is given by,
5.Half power beam width is given by, HPBW =
HPBW=57.3 degree

6.Directivity of broad side array is ,

6.Directivity of end fire array is, D= 4 D=2
L=Length of array L=Length of array

7.Beam width between first nulls is,

7.Beam width between first nulls is BWFN= degree
BWFN=114.6 degree

8. In broad side array, all elements are equally

8. In End fire array, all elements are equally spaced along the array axis and fed with
spaced along the array axis and fed with current of equal magnitude and same phase.
current of equal magnitude but their phases
are different.
9. Radiation pattern of broad side array is
9. Radiation pattern of broad side array is bidirectional
Unidirectional
10.In broad side array,
10.In end fire array, φ =βdcosθ+α (since α=0)
φ =βdcosθ+α (since α=-βd) Therefore
Therefore φ =βdcosθ
φ =βd(cosθ-1)

8. Four isotropic point sources are placed λ/6 distance apart. The power is applied with
equal amplitude and phase difference of π/3 between adjacent element, determine
FNBW.

Soln:

n=4 , d=λ/6 , dr = (2π/λ)×(λ/6)=π/3

Peaks: ψ = dr cosϕ + δ

dr cosϕ + δ = 0

dr cosϕ + π/3 = 0

π/3 cosϕ+π/3=0

π/3 cosϕ= −π/3

 ϕ = ±cos−1(−1)
0
=±

Sidelobes: sin(nψ/2) = ±1

(nψ/2) = sin−1(±1)

4×ψ/2 = sin−1(±1)

2ψ = ±(2k+1) π/2

2×(π/3 cosϕ+π/3) = ±(2k+1) (π/2)

2×(π/3)(cosϕ+1) = ±(2k+1) π/2

cosϕ+1 = ±(2k+1)(3/4)

ϕ = cos−1(−1 ± (2k+1) (3/4))

For k=0 , ϕ = ±cos−1(−1+(3/4)) = ± . 0

For k=1, ϕ = ± cos−1 (−1 + (9/4)) =

Nulls: sin (nψ /2) = 0

nψ /2 = sin−1(0)

4 × ψ/2 = ±kπ

2ψ = ±kπ

ψ = ± kπ/ 2

π/3 (cosϕ + 1) = ± (kπ /2)

(cos ϕ + 1) = ± (3k/ 2)

cosϕ = (−1 ± 3k/ 2 )

ϕ = ± cos−1(−1 ± (3k/ 2) )

For k=0, ϕ = ± cos−1(−1) = ± 0

For k=1, ϕ = ± cos−1 (−1 + (3/2)) = ± 0

FNBW = 180 + 60

FNBW = 2400
9. Obtain the field pattern for linear uniform array of 6 isotropic point sources spaced
λ/2 distance apart. The power is applied with equal amplitude and in phase. Also find
HPBW and FNBW.

Answer:
Given:

d=

n=6

= d= =π

Given that that the power is applied with equal amplitude and in phase

⇒δ
Ψ cos ϕ

Directions of peaks are obtained by substituting Ψ

0= π cos ϕ
⇒ ϕ= (0)
⇒ ϕ=90°

To find side lobes:

Sin (n =1
n = (1)

n = ±(2k+1) where k

= ±(2k+1)

We Know that n=6, d= , =π

⇒ = ±(2k+1)

π ϕ =±(2k+1)

When k=0:

⇒Φ [± ]
Φ [- ] = 99.59°
Φ [+ ] = 80.4°
When k=1:

⇒Φ [± ]
Φ [- ] = 120°
Φ [+ ] = 60°
When k=2:

⇒Φ [± ]
Φ [- ] = 146.44°
Φ [+ ] = 33.55°
When k=3:

⇒Φ [± ]
 Φ [- ] = ∞ (Not exist)
Φ [+ ] = ∞ (Not exist)
To find nulls:
sin =0

⇒ = (0)

⇒ kπ

⇒ kπ

⇒ = kπ

⇒ π ϕ = kπ
⇒ 3cosϕ = k
⇒ 3cosϕ = k

⇒ϕ= [ ]
When k=0:

ϕ= [0] = 90° (eliminate this value as it is already exists)

When k=1:

ϕ= [ ]
⇒ ϕ= [ ]= 109.5°
⇒ ϕ= [ ]= 70.5°
When k=2:

ϕ= [ ]
⇒ ϕ= [ ]= 131.8°
⇒ ϕ= [ ]= 48.2°
When k=3:

ϕ= [ ]
⇒ ϕ= [-1] = 180°
⇒ ϕ= [+1] = 0°

From the above Graph,

First Null Beam width (FNBW)=109.5°-70.5° = 39°

= = = rad

Convert radian into Degree,

⇒ x =38.2°

Half Power Beam Width (HPBW)= = =19.5°

10. Linear antenna consists of 4 isotropic sources. The distance between elements is λ/2
The power is applied with equal amplitude and in phase. Also find HPBW and FNBW.

Given: d= , n=4

= d= =π

Given that that the power is applied with equal amplitude and in phase

⇒δ
Ψ cos ϕ

re t n f pe k re t ne y u t tut ng Ψ

0= π cos ϕ
⇒ ϕ= (0)
⇒ ϕ=90°

To find side lobes:

sin (n =1
n = (1)

n = ±(2k+1) where k

= ±(2k+1)

We Know that n=4, d= , =π

⇒ = ±(2k+1)

2π ϕ =±(2k+1)

When k=0:

⇒Φ [± ]
Φ [- ] = 75.5°
Φ [+ ] = 104.5°
When k=1:

⇒Φ [± ]
Φ [- ] = 41.4°
Φ [+ ] = °

When k=2:

⇒Φ [± ]
Φ [- ] , which does not exist
Φ [+ ] , which does not exist

To find nulls:

sin =0

⇒ = (0)
 ⇒ kπ

⇒ kπ

⇒ = kπ

⇒ 2π ϕ = kπ
⇒ 2cosϕ = k
⇒ 2cosϕ = k

⇒ϕ= [ ]
When k=0:

ϕ= [0] = 90° (eliminate this value as it is already exists)

When k=1:

ϕ= [ ]
⇒ ϕ= [ ]= 60°
⇒ ϕ= [ ]= 120°

When k=2:

ϕ=
⇒ ϕ= = °
⇒ ϕ= = 180°

From the above Graph,

First Null Beam width (FNBW)=120°-60° = 60°

= = = 1 radian =57.29°

Half Power Beam Width (HPBW)= = = 30°

11. Show that radiation resistance of half wave dipole is 73 Ω

Ans.
The half-wave dipole antenna is a special case of the dipole antenna. The “half-wave” term
means that the length of this dipole antenna is equal to a half-wavelength at the frequency of
operation. To find the radiation resistance, the poynting vector is integrated over a large
sphere yielding the power radiated, and this power is then equated to , where is
the radiation resistance at a current maximum point and is the peak value in time of the
current at this point. The total power was radiated is given in terms of for a short
dipole. is the absolute value. Hence, the corresponding value of for a linear antenna is
obtained from by putting .

n (1)

n (2)

Equating the radiated power as given by (2) to we have

(3)
And

n (4)

Where the radiation resistance is referred to the current maximum. In the case of a
Antenna this is at the centre of the antenna or at the terminals of the transmission line.
Proceeding the evaluation of (4) with the aid of the sine integral and the cosine integral
, it may be shown that the radiation resistance of the antenna is
(5)
This is the well-known value for the radiation resistance of a thin, linear, centre-fed,
antenna with sinusoidal current distribution. The terminal impedance also includes some
inductive reactance.

(6)
To make the reactance zero, that is to make antenna resonant, requires that the antenna be
shorted a few percent less than . This shortening also results in a reduction in the value of
the radiation resistance to about
12 Derive the expression for Radiation Resistance of Short Dipole with uniform current.
To calculate the radiation resistance of the short dipole of Fig 1.

Fig1: A short dipole antenna (a) and its equivalent (b).

The radiation resistance of a short dipole is calculated by integrating the Poynting vector of the far
2
field over a large sphere to obtain the total power radiated. This power is then equated to I R where I
is the rms current on the dipole and R is a resistance, called the radiation resistance of the dipole.
The average Poynting vector is given by

S = Re (E × H ) (1)

The far-field components are Eθ and HΦ so that the radial component of the Poynting vector is

Sr = (Re Eθ HΦ*)
(2)
*
where Eθ and are HΦ complex.

Fig: 2 Sketch suggesting that within the radian sphere at r = λ/2π = 0.16λ the
situation is like that inside a resonator with high-density pulsating energy accompanied by
leakage which is radiated.
The far-field components are related by the intrinsic impedance of the medium. Hence,

w.k.t Z = =

Eθ = H Z = H (3)
Thus, (2) becomes

Sr = (Re Z H HΦ*) but Z=

Sr = |H |2 (4)

The total power P radiated is then

P= = r n

For air or vacuum

P= = r n (5)

|H | is the absolute value of the magnetic field, which is

|H | = wkt
π

|H | (6)

Substituting this into (5), we have

3
P= r sin

P= sin3 (7)
The double integral equals 8π/3 sin3 and (7) becomes

P= = (8)

This is the average power or rate at which energy is streaming out of a sphere surrounding the dipole.
Hence, it is equal to the power radiated. Assuming no losses, it is also equal to the power delivered to
the dipole. Therefore, P must be equal to the square of the rms current I flowing on the dipole times a
resistance Rr called the radiation resistance of the dipole. Thus,

= (9)

Solving for

= (10)

Radiation Resistance Short Dipole with uniform current is

13. Starting from electric and magnetic potential, obtain the field components for a
short dipole due to current element.

Fig 1: Relation of dipole to coordinates.

Let the dipole of length L be placed coincident with the z axis and with its center at the origin
as in Fig1. The relation of the electric field components, Er, Eϴ and EФ, is then as shown. It is
assumed that the medium surrounding the dipole is air or vacuum. In dealing with antennas or
radiating systems, the propagation time is a matter of great importance. Thus, if a current is
flowing in the short dipole of Fig 2, the effect of the current is not felt instantaneously at the
point P, but only after an interval equal to the time required for the disturbance to propagate
over the distance r. In connection with the pattern of arrays of point sources, but here we are
more explicit and describe it as a retardation effect.
Accordingly, instead of writing the current I as
I = Iₒ e jωt ……….. (1)
Which implies instantaneous propagation of the effect of the current, we introduce the
propagation (or retardation) time as done by Lorentz and write
[I] = Iₒ e jω[t-(r/c)] ……….(2)
Where [I] is called the retarded current
Fig 2: Geometry for short dipole.
Specifically, the retardation time r/c results in a phase retardation,
ωr/c = 2πf r/c radians
ωr/c= 360 f r/c
ωr/c = 360 t/T , where T = 1/f = time of one period or cycle (seconds) and f = frequency
(hertz, Hz = cycles per second).
The brackets may be added to indicate explicitly that the effect of the current is retarded.
Equation (2) is a statement of the fact that the disturbance at a time t and at a distance r from
a current element is caused by a current [I] hat occurred at an earlier time t − r/c.
The time difference r/c is the interval required for the disturbance to travel the distance r,
where c is the velocity of light (300 Mms-1).
Electric and magnetic fields can be expressed in terms of vector and scalar potentials. Since
we will be interested not only in the fields near the dipole but also at distances which are
large compared to the wavelength, we must use retarded potentials, i.e., expressions
involving t − r/c. For a dipole located as in Fig.1 or Fig. 2, the retarded vector potential of the
electric current has only one component, namely, Az.

Its value is

……… (3), where [I] is the retarded current given by

[I] = I0 e jω [t−(s/c)] ……. (4)
z = distance to a point on the conductor
Iₒ = peak value in time of current (uniform along dipole)
μₒ = permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7H m−1
If the distance from the dipole is large compared to its length (r >> L) and if the wavelength
is large compared to the length (λ>> L), we can put s = r and neglect the phase differences of
the field contributions from different parts of the wire.

……… (5)
The retarded scalar potential v of a charge distribution
is

dτ = infinitesimal volume element,

εₒ = permittivity or dielectric constant of free space = 8.85 × 10-12 F m−1
Since the region of charge in the case of the dipole being considered is confined to the points
at the ends .The retarded scalar potential reduces to,

[q]is given by

Substituting equation [q] in v, we get

Fig 3: Relation for short dipole when r>>L

Referring to fig.3, when r>>L, the lines connecting the ends of the dipole and the point P may
be considered as parallel so that,
S1=r-L/2cosϴ and
S2= r+L/2cosϴ
Substituting s1 and s2 in v we get and it is shown that the fields of a short electric dipole are,

μₒεₒ = 1/c2, where c = velocity of light.

Turning our attention now to the magnetic field, this may be calculated from curl of A as
follows

Since AФ = 0, the first and fourth terms of above equation are zero, since Ar and Aϴ are
independent of φ, so that the second and third terms of above equation are also zero. Thus,
only the last two terms contribute, so that ∇×A, and hence also H, have only a φ component.
Thus,

Thus, the fields from the dipole have only three

components Er, Eϴ and Hφ. The components
Eφ, Hr and Hϴ are everywhere zero. When r is very large, the terms in 1/r2 and 1/r3 in (12), Er
and Eϴ, and HФ can be neglected in favor of the terms in 1/r. Thus, in the far field Er is
negligible, and we have effectively only two field components, Eϴ and Hφ, given by
14. starting from electric and magnetic potential, obtain the far filed components for a
short dipole

Fig 1: Relation of dipole to coordinates.

Let the dipole of length L be placed coincident with the z axis and with its center at the origin
as in Fig1.
The relation of the electric field components, Er, EΘ and EФ, is then as shown.
It is assumed that the medium surrounding the dipole is air or vacuum.
In dealing with antennas or radiating systems, the propagation time is a matter of great
importance. Thus, if a current is flowing in the short dipole of Fig2, the effect of the current
is not felt instantaneously at the point P, but only after an interval equal to the time required
for the disturbance to propagate over the distance r. Accordingly, instead of writing the
current I as

I=I0ejwt (1)

which implies instantaneous propagation of the effect of the current, we introduce the
propagation (or retardation) time as done by Lorentz and that is given as

[I ] = I0 ejω[t−(r/c)] (2)
where [I ] is called the retarded current.
Specifically, the retardation time r/c results in a phase retardation
ωr/c = 2πfr/c radians= 360◦ fr/c= 360◦ t/T,
where T = 1/f = time of one period or cycle (seconds) and
f = frequency (hertz, Hz=cycles per second).
The brackets may be added as in (2) to indicate explicitly that the effect of the current is
retarded. Equation (2) is a statement of the fact that the disturbance at a time t and at a
distance r from a current element is caused by a current [I] that occurred at an earlier time t
−r/c. The time difference r/c is the interval required for the disturbance to travel the distance
r, where c is the velocity of light (=300 Mm s−1).

Fig.2.Geometry of short dipole

Electric and magnetic fields can be expressed in terms of vector and scalar potentials. Since
we will be interested not only in the fields near the dipole but also at distances which are
large compared to the wavelength, we must use retarded potentials, i.e., expressions
involving t −r/c. For a dipole located as in Fig.1 or a Fig.2 the retarded vector potential of the
electric current has only one component, namely, Az. Its value is

Az = dz (3)

where [I] is the retarded current given by

[I] = I0 ejω[t−(s/c)] (3a)

In (3) and (3a),

z = distance to a point on the conductor
I0 = peak value in time of current (uniform along dipole)
μ0 = permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 H m−1

If the distance from the dipole is large compared to its length (r >> L) and if the wavelength
is large compared to the length (λ >> L), we can put s = r and neglect the phase differences of
the field contributions from different parts of the wire. The integrand in (3) can then be
regarded as a constant, so that (3) becomes

Az = (μ0LI0 ejω[t−(r/c)] )/4πr (4)

The retarded scalar potential V of a charge distribution is

V=
(5)

Where [ρ] is the retarded charge density given by

[ρ]=ρ0 ejω[t−(s/c)] (6)
and dƮ= infinitesimal volume element
ε0 = permittivity or dielectric constant of free space = 8.85×10−12 Fm−1
Since the region of charge in the case of the dipole being considered is confined to the points
at the ends and reduces to

V= { − } (7)

From 3a,
jω[t−(s/c)]
[q]= dt = I0 dt= (8)

Substituting (8) into (7),

V= [ − ] (9)

Fig.3 Relation for short dipole when r >> L

Referring to Fig.3, when r>>L, the lines connecting the ends of the dipole and the point P
may be considered as parallel so that
s1 = r – (L/ 2 cosθ) ( 10) and s2 = r + (L/ 2 cosθ) (11)
Substituting (10) and (11) into (9), it may be shown that the fields of a short electric dipole
are:
  Electric fields of short dipole (General case)

Er= ( ) (12)

Eθ= ( ) (13)

In obtaining (12) and (13) the relation was used that μ0ε0 = 1/c2, where c =velocity of light.
Turning our attention now to the magnetic field, this may be calculated from curl of A as
follows:

∇×A =( r/ r sin θ)[ - ]+(θ^/r sinθ) - ]+(ϕ^/ r)[ - ] (14)

Since Aϕ = 0, the first and fourth terms of (14) are zero, since Ar and Aθ are independent of ϕ,
so that the second and third terms of (14) are also zero. Thus, only the last two terms
contribute, so that ∇×A, and hence also H, have only a ϕ component. Thus,
 Magnetic fields of short dipole (General case)

|H|=Hϕ = [(IoLsinθ ejω[t−(r/c)] /4π)] [ + ] (15)

Hr =Hθ = 0 (16)
Thus, the fields from the dipole have only three components Er, Eθ and Hϕ . The components
Eϕ, Hr and Hθ are everywhere zero. When r is very large, the terms in 1/r2 and 1/r3 in (12),
(13), and (15) can be neglected in favour of the terms in 1/r. Thus, in the far field Er is
negligible, and we have effectively only two field components, Eθ and Hϕ, given by
 Electric and magnetic fields of short dipole (Far field case)

Eθ = =j sinθ ejω[t−(r/c)] (17)

Hϕ = =j sinθ ejω[t−(r/c)] (18)

15. Obtain the expression for fields of dipole in general for the case of thin linear
antenna.
Ans. Consider a dipole of length ‘i’ planed along Z-axis with centre at origin 0.(i≥λ/4).
The current variation along the dipole write edge (A) is
i=Iosinὼt
=I0 sin[2π /λ (distance from ‘A’)]
Consider a current element dz at a distance Z from origin.The current magnitude remains
almost constant through out the length dz at Iz, where
Iz=I0sin[2π/λ(l/2+-Z)]
l/2-z-->abovey-axis
l/2+z-->belowx-axis
taking into account the phase angle w.r.t point of observation the current distribution for dz is
[I]=I0sin[2π/λ(1/2+-Z)]ejὼ(t-x)
the Far-field components due to dz are
dE0=i60π[I]sinθ l/sλ*dz
dHф=i[I]sinθ/2sλ*dz
Total magnetic field is

Hф=ʃdHф=iI0sinθ/2λ ejὼ(t-x)dz

Approximately s=r-zcosθ->abovey-axis
s=r+zcosθ->belowx-axis
resulting Hф
Hф==i[I0]sinθ/2rλ*2/ßsin2θ*[cos(βl/2*cosθ)-cos(βl/2)]
=i[I0]/rλβ[cos(βl/2*cosθ)-cos(βl/2)/sinθ]
Since β=2π/λ
Hф=i[I0]/2πr*[cos(βl/2*cosθ)-cos(βl/2)/sinθ]
Since Eθ=120πHф
Eθ=i60[I0]/r*[cos(βl/2*cosθ)-cos(βl/2)/sinθ]
The above field experiments are general field experiment used for any dipole length i≥λ/4
Field pattern’s
|Eθ|=i60[I0]/r*[cos(βl/2*cosθ)-cos(βl/2)/sinθ]
The relative field magnitude is
E=|Eθ|/|Eθ|mon=[cos(βl/2*cosθ)-cos(βl/2)/sinθ]

16. Find the length of short dipole working at a frequency of 2MHz with a radiation
resistance of 2.99Ώ

Given:
f = 2MHz = 2x106 Hz
Rr = 2.99 Ω
To find L:
w.k.t radiation resistance for short dipole with uniform current is given by

Rr = 80 π2 ( )2

λ = c/f = = x 102

2.99 =

= L2

L = 9.2306m
 Module-5
Loop and Horn Antenna: Introduction, Small loop, Comparison of Far fields of Small Loop and
Short Dipole, The Loop Antenna General Case, Far field Patterns of Circular Loop Antenna
with Uniform Current, Radiation Resistance of Loops, Directivity of Circular Loop Antennas
with Uniform Current, Horn antennas Rectangular Horn Antennas.(Text 3: 7.1-7.8, 7.19, 7.20)
Antenna Types: Helical Antenna, Helical Geometry, Practical Design Considerations of Helical
Antenna, Yagi-Uda array, Parabola General Properties, Log Periodic Antenna. (Text 3: 8.3, 8.5,
8.8, 9.5, 11.7) L1, L2, L3

1.Compare the far fields of small loop and short dipole.

Small Loop Antenna
The small loop antenna is a closed loop. These antennas have low radiation resistance and
high reactance, so that their impedance is difficult to match to a transmitter. As a result, these
antennas are most often used as receive antennas, where impedance mismatch loss can be
tolerated.
Short Dipole Antenna
The self-impedance in short dipole antenna is generally capacitive. The radiation resistance is
quite small and ohmic losses are high and the SWR bandwidth is quite small, <1% of design
frequency. The bandwidth for short dipoles is difficult to define hence, these antennas are
typically used in narrowband applications.

(E)

(H)

 The presence of ‘j’=>90° operator in the short dipole expressions and its absence in
the loop equations indicates that the fields of the electric short dipole and that of the
small loop are in time phase quadrature.
 i.e. for some current I having some magnitude & phase in both short electric dipole &
small loop, the far field component (Eφ, Hθ) are in phase Quadrature.
 Phase quadrature is a fundamental difference between the fields of small loop & short
dipoles.

Note: Phase Quadrature=>Phase Difference of 90°(π/2) =j

Q2.. Derive the radiation resistance of Circular loop of any radius a.

To find the radiation resistance of a circular loop antenna the pointing vector is integrated
over a large sphere yielding the total power P radiated. This power is then equated to the
square of the effective current on the loop times the radiation resistance Rr

P= Rr (1)

Where I0 = peak current in time on the circular loop. The radiation resistance so obtained is
the value which would be appear at the loop terminals and it is assumed that the current is
uniform and in phase for any radius ‘a’. The average pointing vector of a far field is given by
(2)

Where is the absolute value of magnetic field and Z is the intrinsic impedance of the
medium which in this case is free space. Substituting the absolute value of for in (2)
we know that

= J1 n (3)

after substituting of the value of we get

Sr = n (4)

The total power radiated P is the integral of Sr over a large sphere ; that is,

P= = 15 ( )2 n n (5)

P = 30 n n (6)

In general (Watson-1)

n = (7)

(Where y is any function)

Applying (7) to (6) we obtained

P = 30 (8)

Equating (8) and (1) putting yielda

Rr = 60 (Ω) (9)

This is the radiation resistance as given by Foster for a single – turn circular loop with
uniform in phase current and of any circumference

1 (10)
 Large Loop ( ) Rr = 60 = 592 = 3720 Radiation resistance for
any radius ‘a’

Q3.. Explain different types of Horn Antennas. Why flaring of walls of waveguide in case of Horn
Antenna is necessary

1. Sectoral horn
2. Pyramidal horn
3. Conical sectoral Horn is of two types
a. Sectoral H-plane b. Sectoral E-plane
1. Sectoral Horn Antenna:
These types of horn antennas are identified by having one side of the horn antenna structure
aligned with a wall of the terminating waveguide port, while the other sides of the horn
 antenna are flared out. Depending on the orientation of the flared and flat sides of a sectoral
horn antenna, the antenna could be an E-plane or H-plan horn antenna.

It is two types:

a. Sectoral H-plane: if flaring is along the direction of magnetic field (H) is called sectoral H-
plane horn.
b. Sectoral E-plane: if flaring is along the direction of electric field (E) is called sectoral E-
plane horn.
2. Pyramidal horn:
it is a horn in which flaring is along both E and H. it has a shape of a truncated pyramid.
3. Conical horn:
If walls of a circular waveguide are flared out, a conical horn is obtained.
Flaring of walls of waveguide in case of Horn Antenna is necessary because a waveguide
when excited at one end and open at second end radiates. However, the radiation is poor and
non-directive pattern results because of the mismatch between the waveguide and free space.
The mouth of the waveguide is flared out to improve the radiation efficiency, directive
pattern and directivity.

Q4. Find the length L, H-plane aperture and flare angle of pyramidal horn for which
E-plane aperture is 10λ horn is fed by a rectangular wave guide with more. Assume δ =
0.2λ in C-plane and 0.375λ in H-plane. Also find E-plane, H-plane beam width and
directivity

Given = 10λ, = 0.2λ, = 0.375λ, L=? = ?, = ?, ( ,(

Axial Length

L=

For E Plane = 10λ, = 0.2λ

L= = = 62.5λ

H-plane aperture
For H plane axial length

L= => = 8L

= 8 x 62.5λ x 0.375λ
= 187.5
 = 13.693λ
Angle

= t n = t n

= 2(4.574)
= 9.1480

= t n

t n = 12.5

= 9.15; = 12.5
Half power beam width

( = Plane =

= 5.6

( = Plane = =

= 4.89
Directivity

D= ; AP =

D=

D = 1026.975
Power gain (GP)

GP = 0.6D = = 616.185

60% efficiency for horn

Q5. A dish antenna operating at a frequency of 1.43GHZ has a diameter of 64m and is fed by a
directional antenna. Calculate HPBW, BWFN and gain with respect to dipole with even
illumination.

Given j=1.43GHZ, d=64m, HPBW=? HWFN=? Gain=?

λ=
 eg

i) HPBW

= =0.228 r

ii) BWFN

= r

Gain w.r.t dipole

D=

=6 = 562.62 eci.

6. Briefly explain Helical Antenna with its helical Geometry.

It is an antenna which is in the shape of a helix. Its polarization and radiation properties
depend on the diameter, pitch, number of terms, wavelengths, excitation and spacing between
the helical loops.

D=diameter of helix(center to center)

C=circumference of helix=D
S=spacing between turns(center to center)
α= pitch angle
L=length of 1 turn
n=number of turns
A=axial length=ns
d=diameter of helix conductor

Helical antenna consists of helical loops mode of a thick conductor which have the
appearance of a screw thread. It is associated with a ground plane mode of the conductor. The
ground plane is often mode of screen or sheet or of radial and concentric conductors. This
antenna is fed by a coaxial cable. This can be operated in normal and axial mode.

A=axial length=ns
d=diameter of helix conductor

Normal mode: In this mode radiation is maximum in broadside direction. This can be called
broadside mode. This mode happens if NL<<, i.e. the dimensions of helix are small. In this
beam width is small and efficiency is between these two parameters can be increased if the
helix is large.

Axial ratio for elliptical polarisation is

AR= 2S2D2

If AR=0, elliptical polarisation becomes linear horizontal polarisation

AR=∞, elliptical polarisation becomes vertical linear polarisation
AR=1,elliptical polarisation becomes circular polarisation

Hence for circular polarisation AR=1

2S=2D2
S=2D22= C22
=tan-1C2

The normal mode is not used because of small bandwidth and low efficiency.
Axial mode:The radiation is maximum along the axis of the helix. It can be considered as
end-fire mode. In this mode polarisation is almost circular. This mode can be obtained when
D and S are of the order of .Circular polarisation occurs when C =1 and S=4.

Radiation pattern of normal and axial mode are shown below

7. Explain the practical design considerations for the monofilar Axial-Mode

Helical Antenna.
Solution:
It is an antenna which is in the shape of a helix. Its polarisation and radiation properties
depend on the diameter, pitch, number of terms, wavelengths, excitation and spacing between
the helical loops.
D=diameter of helix(center to center)
C=circumference of helix=
S=spacing between turns(center to center)
α= pitch angle
L=length of 1 turn
n=number of turns
A=axial length=ns
d=diameter of helix conductor

Helical antenna consists of helical loops mode of a thick conductor which have the
appearance of a screw thread. It is associated with a ground plane mode of the conductor. The
ground plane is often mode of screen or sheet or of radial and concentric conductors. This
antenna is fed by a coaxial cable. This can be operated in normal and axial mode.

Normal mode: In this mode radiation is maximum in broadside direction. This can be called
broadside mode. This mode happens if NL<< , i.e. the dimensions of helix are small. In this
beam width is small and efficiency is between these two parameters can be increased if the
helix is large.

Axial ratio for elliptical polarisation is

AR=
If AR=0, elliptical polarisation becomes linear horizontal polarisation
AR=∞, elliptical polarisation becomes vertical linear polarisation
AR=1,elliptical polarization becomes circular polarization

Hence for circular polarization AR=1

2sλ = π2 D2

S=

α=

The normal mode is not used because of small bandwidth and low efficiency.

Axial mode:The radiation is maximum along the axis of the helix. It can be considered as
end-fire mode. In this mode polarisation is almost circular. This mode can be obtained when
D and S are of the order of Circular polarisation occurs when =1 and S= .

Radiation pattern of normal and axial mode are shown below

Applications of helical antenna:

 1. It is used to transmit and receive VHF waves for 1000 spheric propagation.
2. It is used for satellite, space communication.
3. Space telemetry at HF and VHF bands,
4. Radio astronomy.

8. Explain the construction details of yagi-uda antenna ?

Solution :

This antenna was developed by prof yagi and prof uda. It is an array antenna which consists
of one active element and few parasitic elements. The active elements consists of a folded
dipole whose length is λ/2.parasitic elements consists of one reflector and few directors. The
length of reflectors is greater than λ/2 . It is located behind the active element. The spacing
between each element is not identical and hence it can be considered as a non-linear array.
The number of directors in antenna depends on the gain requirement. The impedance of the
active element is resistive of the directors are capacitive.
The purpose of the reflector and directors is to increase the gain but they load the driven
element. The mutual impedance of the antenna depends on the spacing and the length of
elements. Its radiation pattern is almost uni-directional end gives a gain of about 7db.
It is used as a transmitting antenna at HF and used for tv receptions at VHF. Reflector
resonates at a lower frequency and the director resonates at a higher frequency compared to
that of driven element. Folded dipole is used to obtain high impedance for proper matching
between transmitter and free space. More directors can be used to increase the gain.

Design parameter of three elements of yagi antenna is as follows

1. Reflectors = 500/f(MHZ) feet
2. Driven elements lengths =475/f(MHZ)feet
3. Directors length =455/f(MHZ)feet
9. Explain the constructional details of log periodic Antenna?

Solution :

It is an array antenna which had structural geometry such that its Impendence is periodic with
the logarithm of the frequency.
It is a non-linear array in which the spacing and the elements as well as their dimensions are
unequal. However, excitation is uniform. It is basically called a frequency independent
antenna. It can be used to receive a good number of TV channels without any deterioration of
the received field strength.

Figure: constructional and feeding details of log-periodic dipole array.

Salient features:
It is a frequency independent antenna.
It is an array of non identical dipoles which are all excited equally.
It’s impendence, directional patterns and directivity are constant with frequency.
It is a broad band antenna.
It has a unidirectional characteristic.
They are used in VHF and UHF bands.

The analysis of log-periodic array is described in terms of three regions:

CAPACITIVE: In this region, the elements are shorter than λ/2. they are capacitive, hence
current leads the applied voltage 90°, these elements produce small back ward radiation.
RESISTIVE: here the dipoles are of λ/2 length and they are resistive the current are large and
they are impulse with the voltage. These elements produce considerable forward radiation.
INDUCTIVE: here the elements are for length λ/2.the elements reflect the incident wave in
the back ward direction.
DESIGN EQUATION: the dipole length increase along the antenna so that included angle _
is constant, and the length L and spacing D of the adjacent are scaled so that

K=Dn / (Dn-1) = ln / (ln-1) ,n = 1,2,3, where K is constant.

10. Determine the cut-off frequencies and band pass of a log periodic dipole
array with a design factor of 0.7. Ten dipoles are used in the structure, the
smallest having a dimension L/2 equal to 0.3m.

A: I(1) =length of least diploe is 0.3x2=0.6m

I1 =

f1 = = = 250MHZ

The cut-off frequency of a dipole of length I2 is

f2= ×0.7=175MHz
Similarly,
f3=175×0.7=122.5 MHz
f4=122.5×0.7=85.75 MHz
f5=87.75×0.7=60.025 MHz
.
.
f10=250 × (0.7)9 =10.088MHz
Pass band = f1 – f10 ~=239.912MHz.

11) Design a log-periodic dipole array with 7 dB gain and a 4 to 1 bandwidth. Specify
apex angle α, scale constant k and number of elements.

Figure1

Relation of log-periodic array parameters of apex angle α, scale factor k and spacing sλ with
optimum design line and gain values according to Carrel and others.
gain along this line from calculations of Carrel (1), Cheong (1) and King, DeVito (1) and
Stracca and Butson (1) and Thomson.
The length l (and spacing s) for any element n+1 is greater than for element 1, or

= F

Where F= frequency ratio or bandwidth.

Solution: From the figure 1, the 7-dB point on the maximum gain line corresponds to the
apex angle α = and k = 1.2. (We also note that sλ = 0.15.).
= F or n ln k = ln F.
And

n= = = = 7.6.

Taking n=8+1 = 9. Adding 2 more elements for a conservative design brings the total to .

The number of extra elements needed depends, for example, on the design gain. Thus, for a
high-gain design the active region requires more elements than for a low-gain design so that
the bandwidth is less than given by .

12. Discuss the properties of parabola.

Solution : The Parabola-General Properties:

Suppose that we have a point source and that we wish to produce a plane-wave front over a
large aperture by means of a sheet reflector.
Referring to Fig. 9–18a, it is then required that the distance from the source to the plane-wave
front via path 1 and 2 be equal or
2L = R(1 + cos θ) ……...(1)
and
R = 2L/1 + cos θ ………(2)
This is the equation for the required surface contour. It is the equation of a parabola with the
focus at F.

Parabolic reflector: It is a reflector antenna which has the shape of paraboloid and has the
properties of a parabola.
Fig 9-18 (a) Fig 9-18 (b) Fig 9-18 ©

Referring to Fig. 9–18b, the parabolic curve may be defined as follows. The distance from
any point P on a parabolic curve to a fixed point F, called the focus, is equal to the
perpendicular distance to a fixed line called the directrix. Thus, in Fig. 9–18b,
PF = PQ.
Referring now to Fig. 9–18c, let AA be a line normal to the axis at an arbitrary distance QS
from the directrix.

Since
PS = QS − PQ
and PF = PQ, it follows that the distance from the focus to S is
PF + PS = PF + QS − PQ = QS. ………….. (3)
Thus, a property of a parabolic reflector is that all waves from an isotropic source at the focus
that are reflected from the parabola arrive at a line AA with equal phase. The “image” of the
focus is the directrix, and the reflected field along the line AA appears as though it originated
at the directrix as a plane wave. The plane BB (Fig. 9–18c) at which a reflector is cut off is
called the aperture plane.
Construction and operation:

A parabola can be constructed by joining the points which are equidistant from the director
and focus.
A metabolic plate having a parabolic curvature is called a parabolic reflector.

Fig 9-19 parabolic reflector

Consider a point source placed as a focus of parabolic reflector. The field paths are parallel to
axis after reflection from the reflector. Consider a plane of observation passing through focus,
parallel to the directrix. Since distance between directrix and observation plane remains same
2L = R (1 + cos θ) ……...(1)
and
R = 2L/1 + cos θ ……… (2)
The total distance traveled by a wave along the axis is 2L and that of a wave operated at an
angle θ is R+R cos θ.
The power transmission after reflection will be planar wave fronts.

Paraboloid is obtained by rotating the parabolic curve along the axis. Such system requires a
point source or any source of small dimensions.
Cylindrical parabolic system is obtained by projecting a parabolic curve linearly. Such
system requires a line source like array of short dipoles or array of horn antenna.
A cylindrical parabola converts a cylindrical wave radiated by an in-phase line source at the
focus, as in Fig. 9–19a, into a plane wave at the aperture, or a paraboloid-of-revolution
converts a spherical wave from an isotropic source at the focus, as in Fig. 9–18b, into a
uniform plane wave at the aperture.
Confining our attention to a single ray or wave path, the paraboloid has the property of
directing or collimating radiation from the focus into a beam parallel to the axis as in Fig. 9–
19.

13. A Parabolic Reflector of 2m diameter is used at 10 GHz. Calculate the beam width
between first nulls (BWFN) HPBW and gain in dB.

Solution

Given: d = 2m
f = 10GHz
the free space wavelength is given by

= = 0.03m

i) the beam width b/w the first nulls (BWFN) is given by

BWFN = 140( / d) degree

= 140 ( )=

ii) For parabolic reflector, power gain is given by

where = k.Ak = 0.65 for dipole antenna

Gain in dB is given by

= 44.55 dB.
 JSS ACDEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, BANGALORE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MICROWAVE AND ANTENNAS 15EC71

Consolidated Question Bank

SUBJECT TEACHER: Dr. Sathish Shet K(SSK),Assistant Professor

Module 1

1. What are the limitations of conventional microwave tubes? Discuss how these limitations
can be reduced?
2. Using functional block diagram explain working of Reflex Klystron Oscillator. Also
discuss mechanism and modes of oscillation.
3. Derive the expression for the following w.r.t to klystron oscillator.
i) Velocity modulation (state the assumptions) ii) Transit Time iii)Density modulation
and beam current iv) power output v)Efficiency.

4. Write a short note on mode curves.

5. A reflex Klystron is to be operated at frequency of 10GHz, with dc beam voltage 300V,
repeller space 0.1cm for 1 mode, Calculate PRFmax and corresponding repeller voltage
for a beam current of 20mA.
6. A reflex klystron is operated at 5GHz with dc beam voltage 350V, repeller spacing
0.5c.m for N= mode. Calculate bandwidth over ∆VR=1V.
7. With schematic and functional block diagram explain the working mechanism of Two-
cavity klystron amplifier.

8. With neat block diagram explain the typical Microwave system

9. Derive the equation of transmission line.
10. Derive the possible solution of transmission line equation.
11. Derive the expression for Reflection and transmission coefficient in case of transmission
line.
12. Discuss with necessary equation standing wave and standing wave ratio.
13. A transmission line has the following parameters;
R=2Ω/m G=0.5mmho/m f=1GHz, L=8 nH/m C=0.23pF. Calculate a)the characteristic
impedance b) the propagation constant.
14. A certain transmission line has a characteristic impedence of 75+j0.01 Ω and is
terminated in a load impedance of 70+j50Ω. Compute a)the reflection coefficient b)the
transmission coefficient c)standing wave ratio.
15. List the characteristics of smith chart .
16. A lossless line of characteristics impedance RO=50Ω is to be matched to a load
Zl= Ω by means of lossless short-circuited stub. The characteristics impedance
of stub is 100 . Find the stub position (closest to the load) and length so that a match is
obtained.
17. A line of Z0=400 Ω is connected to a load of 200+j300 Ω, which is exited by matching
generator at 800 MHz. Find the location and length of a single stub nearest to the load to
produce impedance match.
18. A 300 Ω line feeding an antenna has a standing wave ratio of 4 and distance from laod to
the first voltage minimum is 28cm. If the frequency is 150MHz, design a single stub
matching system to eliminate standing waves.

Question Bank - Module 2

1. Prove that impedance and admittance matrices are symmetrical for a reciprocal junction.
2. Write the S-Matrix representation for multiport network.
3. Derive the Properties of S-Parameters for junction of ports having common characteristic
impedance.

4. Derive the relation between i)[S] and [Z] matrices ii)[S] and [Y].
5. A shunt impedance Z is connected across a transmission line with characteristic
impedance Z0. Find the S-matrix of the junction.
6. Two transmission lines of characteristic impedance Z1 and Z2 are joined at plane pp1.
Express S-parameter in terms of impedances when each line is matched terminated.
7. A series reactance Z=jX is connected between two lines with different characteristic
impedances Z1 and Z2. Find the S –Matrix of the junction.
8. A series reactance Z=jX is inserted in a ∞ length of transmission line of characteristic
impedance Z0. Find the S-parameters for the junction.
9. Find the S-matrix of a length l of a lossless transmission line terminated by matched
impedance.
10. Derive the relation between Z,Y and ABCD parameters with S parameters.
11. Explain different types of Attenuators.
12. Briefly describe the different types of Phase shifters.
13. What are waveguide tees. Explain its basic types with neat schematic.
14. Derive the S- matrix relation for E-plane
15. Derive the S- matrix relation for E-plane
16. List the characteristics of magic-T when all the ports are terminated with matched load .
Also derive the expression of S matrix.
17. A 20mW signal is fed into one of the collinear Port 1 of a lossless H –plane T-junction.
Calculate the power delivered through each port when other ports are terminated in
matched load.
18. In a H-plane T –junction, compute power delivered to the loads of 40Ω and 60Ω
connected to arms 1 and 2 when a 10mW power is delivered to the matched Port 3.
19. A magic T is terminated at collinear Ports 1 nad 2 and difference Port 4 by impedances of
reflection coefficient Γ1=0.5, Γ2=0.6 and Γ4=0.8 respectively. If 1 w power is fed at the
sum
Port 3, calculate the power reflected at the Port 3 and power transmitted to the other three
ports.

20. Discuss the applications of Magic-T.

Module-3 Question Bank

1. A certain microstrip line has the following parameters: εr=5.23,h=7 mils,t=2.8 mils and
w=10mils. Calculate the characteristics impedance of the line.
2. Discuss briefly micro strip lines and its losses and also derive the expression for quality
factor.
3. Explain the parallel strip lines and give the parameters of it. Also derive the
characteristic impedance and attenuation losses.
4. A lossless parallel strip line has a conducting strip width w. The substrate dielectric
separating the two conducting strips has a relative dielectric constant εrd of 6 and
thickness d of 4mm.
Calculate i) width w of the conducting strip in order to have a characteristic impedance
of 50 Ω.
ii) The strip line capacitance iii)Strip line inductance iv)Phase velocity.
5. Write a explanatory note on coplanar strip lines and shielded strip lines.
6. A shielded strip line has following characteristics.
1. Dielectric constant of the insulator εr=2.56
2. Strip width w=2.5mils 3.thickness t=14mils 4.shield depth d=70 mils.
7. Explain the basic principle of radiation using basic radiation equation
8. Explain the following terms as related to antenna system
a)Directivity b)Effective height c)beam area d)Radiation pattern e)field pattern f)half
power beam width g)Beam solid angle h)gain i)Radiation intensity
9. State and explain aperture efficiency, effective height and bandwidth of an antenna
10. Show that directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the area of a sphere to the beam area.
11. Derive the Friss transmission formula
12. Distinguish the parameters of antenna field zones
13. Show that maximum effective aperture of a λ/2 dipole is 0.13λ2
14. Derive the expression for effective aperture and directivity of short dipole antenna.
15. Find the directivity of the system i)U=Um cosɵ (unidirectional and bidirectional) ii)
U=Um sinɵ( unidirectional and bidirectional ) iii)U= Um sin2ɵ(bidirectional) iv) U=Um
cos2ɵ(unidirectional) v) U=Um cos n ɵ vi) U=Um cos3ɵ
16. Determine the directivity of the system if the radiation intensity
i)U=Um cos3 ө ii)U=Um sinөsin2 Ø.
17. A radio link has a 15w transmitter connected to an antenna of 2.5m2 effective aperture
at 5Ghz. The receiving antenna has an effective aperture of 0.5m2 and is located at
15km line of sight distance from the transmitting antenna. Assume lossless antennas.
Find the power delivered to the receiver
18. Calculate the directivity of the source with the pattern U=Umsinөsin3Ø using
i)Exact Method ii) Approximate method . 0≤ө≤Π and 0≤ Ø ≤Π and zero elsewhere.
19. Calculate the directvity of power pattern given as U=Umsin2өsin3 Ø for 0≤ө≤Π
and 0≤ Ø ≤Π and zero elsewhere

MODULE-4

20. State and explain power theorem and its application to an isotropic source.
21. Explain field and phase pattern.
22. Explain the principle of pattern multiplication with an example.
23. Obtain the field pattern for two point source situated symmetrically with respect to the
origin .Two sources are feed with equal amplitude and equal phase signals, Assume
distance between two sources=λ/2.
24. Derive the expression and draw the field pattern for an array of two isotropic point
sources of same amplitude and opposite phase. Also determine its maxima, minima and
HPBW.
25. Derive an array factor expression in case of linear array of n isotropic point sources of
equal amplitude and spacing.
26. Distinguish between end fire array and broad side array.
27. Four isotropic point sources are placed λ/6 m apart. The power is applied with equal
amplitude and phase difference of Π/3 between adjacent element, determine FNBW..
28. Obtain the field pattern for linear uniform array of 6 isotropic point sources spaced λ/2
distance apart. The power is applied with equal amplitude and in phase. Also find
HPBW and FNBW.
29. Linear antenna consists of 4 isotropic sourceses. The distance between elements is λ/2
The power is applied with equal amplitude and in phase. Also find HPBW and FNBW.
30. Show that radiation resistance of half wave dipole is 73Ώ
31. Derive the expression for radiation resistance of short dipole with uniform current.
32. Starting from electric and magnetic potential, obtain the field components for a short
dipole due to current element.
33. Starting from electric and magnetic potential , obtain the far filed components for a
short dipole
34. Obtain the expression for field of dipole in general for thin linear antenna.
 35. Find the length of short dipole working at a frequency of 2MHz with a radiation
resistance of 2.99Ώ

MODULE 5

1. Derive the far field expression for small loop antenna.

2. Compare the far fields of small loop and short dipole.
3. Derive the instantaneous field expression at large distance ‘r’ from a loop of any radius
‘a’
4. Derive the radiation resistance of loop antenna.
5. Derive the radiation resistance of Circular loop of any radius a.
6. Explain different types of Horn Antennas. Why flaring of walls of waveguide in case of
Horn Antenna is necessary?
7. Find the length L,H-plane aperture and flare angle θE and θH of Pyramidal Horn for
which E-plane aperture is 10 λ Horn is fed by a rectangular waveguide with TE10 mode.
Assume δ=0.2λ in E-Plane and 0.375λ in H-Plane. Also find E-Plane, H-Plane beam
widths and directivity.
8. A Dish Antenna operating at a frequency of 1.43 GHz has a diameter of 64m and is fed
by a directional antenna. Calculate HPBW,BWFN and gain with respect to λ/2 dipole
with even illumination.
9. Briefly explain Helical Antenna with its helical Geometry.
10. Explain the practical Design considerations for the monofilar Axial –Mode Helical
Antenna.
11. Explain the constructional details of Yagi-uda antenna
12. Explain the constructional details of log-periodic Antenna.
13. Determine the cut-off frequencies and band pass of a log periodic dipole array with a
design factor of 0.7. Ten dipoles are used in the structure, the smallest having a
dimension L/2 equal to 0.3m
14. Design a log periodic dipole array with 7db gain and a 4 to 1 bandwidth. Specify apex
angle alpha, scale constant k and number of elements.
15. Discuss the General properties of Parabola

16. A Parabolic Reflector of 2m diameter is used at 10 GHz. Calculate the beam width
between first nulls (BWFN) HPBW and gain in dB.
 USN :

JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bengaluru

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
I - INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Semester: 7-CBCS Date: 9 Sep 2019

Subject: MICROWAVES AND ANTENNAS (15EC71) Time: 11:30 AM - 12:30 PM
Faculty: Dr Sathisha Shet K Max Marks: 15

Answer any 3 question(s)

Q.No Marks CO BT/CL

1 Using functional block diagram explain working of Reflex Klystron Oscillator. Also discuss 5 CO1 L3
mechanism and modes of oscillation.

OR

2 A reflex Klystron is to be operated at frequency of 10GHz, with dc beam voltage 300V, 5 CO1 L3
repeller space 0.1cm for 1 3/4 mode, Solve the values of PRFmax and corresponding
repeller voltage for a beam current of 20mA.

3 Develop the wave equation of transmission line by considering its equivalent. 5 CO1 L3

OR

4 Develop the expression for Reflection and transmission coefficient in case of transmission 5 CO1 L3
line.

5 5 CO1 L3
A line of Z0=400 Ω is connected to a load of 200+j300 Ω, which is exited by matching
generator at 800 MHz. Identify the location and length of a single stub nearest to the load
to produce impedance match.

OR

6 5 CO1 L3
A Line R0=300 Ω is connected to a load of 70 Ω resistance operated at a frequency of
45MHz. Build a single stub to produce an impedance match.
10/19/2019 dhI

USN :

JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bengaluru

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
II - INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Semester: 7-CBCS Date: 24 Oct 2019

Subject: MICROWAVES AND ANTENNAS (15EC71) Time: 11:30 AM - 12:30 PM
Faculty: Dr Sathisha Shet K Max Marks: 15

Answer any 3 question(s)

Q.No Marks CO BT/CL

1 Solve the following S-Parameter Properties 5 CO2 L3

i)Symmetry of [S] for a reciprocal network.
ii)Unitary property for lossless junction

OR

2 Identify the significance of the following microwave passive device. 5 CO3 L3

i)Attenuators ii)phse shifter

3 make use of S matrix relation explain E-plane tee and H-plane tee. 5 CO2 L3

OR

4 A lossless parallel strip line has a conducting strip width w. The substrate dielectric 5 CO3 L3
separating the two conducting strips has a relative dielectric constant εrd of 6 and thickness
d of 4mm.
Solve i) width w of the conducting strip in order to have a characteristic impedance of 50
Ω.
ii) The strip line capacitance iii)Strip line inductance iv)Phase velocity.

5 Develop the expression for effective -aperture and directivity of linear dipole ► half 5 CO4 L3
wavelength antenna.

OR

6 Solve the directivity source with the pattern U=Umsinөsin3 Ø using 5 CO4 L3
i)Exact Method ii) Approximate method . 0≤ө≤Π and 0≤ Ø ≤Π and zero elsewhere.

https://jssgroup.dhi-edu.com/jssgroup_jssateb/#/faculty/schedule/questionpaperpdf/5da94d255e603e1c261ee237 1/1
11/22/2019 dhI

USN :

JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bengaluru

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
III - INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Semester: 7-CBCS Date: 25 Nov 2019

Subject: MICROWAVES AND ANTENNAS (15EC71) Time: 11:30 AM - 12:30 PM
Faculty: Dr Sathisha Shet K Max Marks: 15

Answer any 3 question(s)

Q.No Marks CO BT/CL

1 Derive the Expression for the field pattern of two isotropic point source with equal 6 CO4 L3
amplitude and equal phase. Assume distance between two source is lambda/2. Also draw
the field pattern.

OR

2 Starting form Electric and Magnetic Potentail Obtain the far field components of Short 6 CO4 L3
Electric diople

3 Derive the expression for fields of small loop antenna. 5 CO5 L3

OR

4 Explain the constructional details of Log periodic Antenna 5 CO5 L3

5 Find the length L,H-plane aperture and flare angle θE and θH of Pyramidal Horn for which 4 CO5 L3
E-plane aperture is 10 λ Horn is fed by a rectangular waveguide with TE10 mode. Assume
δ=0.2λ in E-Plane and 0.375λ in H-Plane. Also find E-Plane, H-Plane beam widths and
directivity.

OR

6 Derive the expression for radiation resisatnce of circular loop of any radius say 'a'. 4 CO5 L3

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