Hardness and Density Distributions of Pharmaceutical Tablets

Measured by Terahertz Pulsed Imaging

ROBERT K. MAY,1 KE SU,1 LIANGHAO HAN,2 SHUNCONG ZHONG,3 JAMES A. ELLIOTT,2 LYNN F. GLADDEN,1 MIKE EVANS,4
YAOCHUN SHEN,3 J. AXEL ZEITLER1
1
Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3RA, UK
2
Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3QZ, UK
3
Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK
4
TeraView Ltd., St John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge, CB4 0WS, UK

Received 21 February 2013; revised 4 April 2013; accepted 4 April 2013

Published online 22 April 2013 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/jps.23560

ABSTRACT: We present terahertz pulsed imaging (TPI) as a novel tool to quantify the hard-
ness and surface density distribution of pharmaceutical tablets. Good agreement between the
surface refractive index (SRI) measured by TPI and the crushing force measured from diametral
compression tests was found using a set of tablets that were compacted at various compression
forces. We also found a strong correlation between TPI results and tablet bulk density, and
how these relate to tablet hardness. Numerical simulations of tablet surface density distribu-
tion by finite element analysis exhibit excellent agreement with the TPI measured SRI maps.
These results show that TPI has an advantage over traditional diametral compression and
is more suitable for nondestructive hardness and density distribution monitoring and control
of pharmaceutical manufacturing processes. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. and the American
Pharmacists Association J Pharm Sci 102:2179–2186, 2013
Keywords: Mechanical properties; compaction; tableting; imaging methods; processing; tera-
hertz pulsed imaging (TPI); tablet hardness testing; density distribution; finite element analysis
(FEA); diametral compression test (DCT)

INTRODUCTION cause it provides a quantitative estimate of the inter-

nal bonding strength of the powder compact, which is
Recently, terahertz pulsed imaging (TPI) has at-
what gives the tablet sufficient mechanical strength
tracted increased attention due to a vast range of
to maintain its internal structure and geometry under
potential applications, especially in the field of phar-
applied external forces. Variations in tablet hardness
maceutical analysis such as tablet coating thick-
are hence known to correlate with differences in dis-
ness measurement,1–4 dissolution testing,5 and solid-
solution or mechanical response during any postcom-
state characterization (e.g., polymorphism,6,7 phase
pression operations such as tablet coating, handling,
transitions,8,9 and hydrate forms10 ). An important
packaging, storage, or shipping. In addition to these
parameter in solid dosage form processing that re-
factors, there are more immediate consequences dur-
quires precise detection and control is the hardness
ing processing: compaction of cylindrical tablets with
(tensile strength) of a compressed tablet. Hardness
an excessive compression force can result in tablet
testing of solid oral dosage forms is important be-
failure due to a phenomenon called capping, which
is caused by internal stress relaxation following the
Correspondence to: J. Axel Zeitler (Telephone: +44-1223- tablet compaction.11
334783; Fax: +44-1223-334796; E-mail: jaz22@cam.ac.uk)
Robert K. May’s present address is TeraView Ltd., St John’s Traditionally hardness has been determined us-
Innovation Park, Cambridge CB4 0WS, UK. ing mechanical methods12 such as diametral com-
Shuncong Zhong’s present address is School of Mechanical En- pression test (DCT)13 whereby an increasing force is
gineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou City, PR
China.
applied to opposite sides of a tablet until the tablet
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 102, 2179–2186 (2013)
fractures. However, this testing method is destruc-
© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. and the American Pharmacists Association tive in nature and provides only an approximation of

JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 102, NO. 7, JULY 2013 2179

2180 MAY ET AL.
crushing strength. Furthermore, all mechanical test-
ing methods are geometry dependent and cannot pro-
vide any information regarding the spatial distribu-
tion of tensile strength. To reduce process time and
improve measurement accuracy, a number of alterna-
tive techniques, such as, near infrared spectroscopy
(NIRS),14–16 Raman spectroscopy,17 and ultrasound
testing18 have been developed to evaluate tablet hard-
ness. All commonly used NIRS techniques are based
on multivariate spectral analysis, which is used to
quantify the shift in spectral baseline due to a change
in the scattering losses as a result of a change in
porosity and hence density. The NIR light is reflected
from the surface of the tablets and harder tablets were
shown to have a smoother surface and hence higher
reflectivity. The method requires careful calibration
and the development and validation of such models
are often time consuming and have their own limi-
tations. Given that the method largely depends on a
change in the scattering losses with tablet hardness
the NIRS method, as well as the Raman method, are
inherently sensitive to changes in particle size of the
formulation. In practice, this means that a new cali-
bration is required if any of the formulation ingredi-
ents change between batches, if demixing occurs or,
in the case of granulated products, if the process con-
ditions during the granulation step change. However,
NIRS methods have been widely used in the com-
munity to quantify tablet hardness for almost two
decades. Virtanen et al.17 have utilized Raman spec-
troscopy to measure the crushing forces of tablets.
The surface roughness of tablets is related to the
crushing force of tablets. As the Raman method is
sensitive to surface texture, it can be used only when
the surfaces of the tablets are unaltered. Similar to
the NIRS method the Raman technique is typically
a pure surface measurement with a sampling depth
of no more than a few micrometers. However, it is
possible in principle to obtain some depth resolved
measurements or to increase the sampling depth by
changing the sampling optics to collimate the exci-
tation beam to a larger spot rather than focusing it
tightly18 or by performing time-resolved or spatially
offset measurements.19,20 All these approaches have
in common that the sampling volume is increased
due to collecting photons that have diffused through
a larger sample volume. However, it would be diffi-
cult to use these techniques for imaging applications
as the photon diffusion process in an inhomogeneous
granular medium would make it almost impossible to
achieve a defined spatial resolution. Simonaho et al.21
have applied ultrasound transmission measurements
to evaluate the tensile strength of tablets. A good
correlation between the speed of sound and tensile
strength has been found. Terahertz-based measure-
ment systems recently have been introduced in phar-
maceutical tablet hardness measurement research.
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 102, NO. 7, JULY 2013
The effect of compression force on the refractive in-
dex of the solid oral dosage forms is quantified using
TPI by Palermo et al.22 However, to the best of our
knowledge, no experimental study of the relationship
between TPI results and tensile strength (crushing
force) has been published. We focus here on tablet
surface refractive index (SRI) by TPI and correlation
between the TPI results with traditional DCT and
finite element analysis (FEA) simulation.
In this paper, the TPI method is used to evaluate
the hardness of both flat-faced and biconvex tablets.
For this purpose, two sample sets with different ge-
ometries are compressed at varying forces and the
SRI is measured using TPI. After the TPI measure-
ment, the tablet hardness (crushing force) is deter-
mined using a destructive mechanical method (DCT)
and compared with SRI values. In addition, surface
density distributions are calculated using the FEA
method, and the numerical results are compared with
TPI measured SRI maps.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
For these experiments, two batches of pharmaceutical
tablet cores with different geometries are prepared by
direct compression on a rotary tablet press (double-
sided compression, XSpress R&D, Oystar-Manesty,
Merseyside, UK) using lactose monohydrate powder
under eight different compression forces. Ten tablets
were sampled randomly for each compression force.
The first batch consists of tablets with flat upper and
lower surfaces and beveled edges (flat-faced, Fig. 1a).
The second batch of tablets has convex upper and
lower surfaces (biconvex, Fig. 1b). The thickness of
the tablet is inversely proportional to the compression
force. Before testing commenced, the tablets were left
for one week to allow for relaxation of the compressed
powders. In addition, each tablet was weighed and
its dimensions were measured with a micrometer to
estimate the density of the tablets.
TPI Measurements
Terahertz pulsed imaging reflection measurements of
sample tablets were acquired using a TPI Imaga 2000
(TeraView Ltd., Cambridge, UK). A detailed descrip-
tion of the measurement technique was presented
earlier.23 The system has a useful spectral range of
60 GHz to 3 THz, corresponding to a wavelength range
of 0.09–5 mm. A pair of high resistivity silicon lenses
in combination with silicon probe optics focus the THz
radiation to a diffraction-limited spot (7 mm in front
of the silicon optics) at which the solid tablet is placed
using a six-axis robotic arm. All terahertz generation
and detection components together with the optics are
assembled into a probe unit. The surface height map
DOI 10.1002/jps
 DISTRIBUTIONS OF PHARMACEUTICAL TABLETS MEASURED BY TERAHERTZ PULSED IMAGING 2181

Figure 1. Side-view schematic of tablet geometry. (a) Flat-faced tablet; (b) biconvex tablet.
The tablet thickness varies according to applied compression force during powder compression.

of the tablet under test is first acquired from an opti-
cal laser gauge. The whole waveform of the reflected
THz pulse is acquired by point-to-point TPI measure-
ments at a step size of 200 :m across the surface of
the tablet. The spatial distribution of the SRI maps
can be subsequently calculated from the peak inten-
sity of the acquired reflected terahertz waveform. The
SRI corresponds to the effective refractive index of the
tablet matrix at the surface of the tablet that origi-
nates from a depth of approximately 0 < d < 30 :m
relative to the tablet surface.
Diametral Compression Test
The tensile strength (crushing force) of the tablets is
measured using a traditional DCT,13 whereby an in-
creasing force is applied perpendicular to the tablet
axis to opposite sides of a tablet until the tablet frac-
tures. The 10 randomly sampled biconvex tablets cor-
respond to compaction experiments at eight different
compression forces: 3.13, 6.16, 8.68, 8.87, 10.05, 16.54,
20.83, and 23.16 kN. The eight compression forces for
flat-faced tablet are 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16.5, 20, and
24 kN.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TPI Measured SRI of Both Flat-faced Tablets
and Biconvex Tablets
Terahertz pulsed imaging measurements of 10 ran-
domly sampled biconvex and flat-faced tablets com-
pacted at eight different compression forces were per-
formed. Figure 2 shows two-dimensional (2-D) maps
of SRI for eight different compression forces for both
biconvex (Fig. 2a) and flat-faced geometry (Figs. 2b

Figure 2. SRI maps for a single tablet compacted under eight different compression forces.
(a) Biconvex tablets, (b) flat-faced tablets, (c) cropped flat-faced tablets (pixels of radius greater
than 3.5 mm, corresponding to the bevel, are masked out).

DOI 10.1002/jps JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 102, NO. 7, JULY 2013
2182 MAY ET AL.
Figure 3. Crushing force and averaged SRI as a function of compression force. (a) Biconvex
tablets, (b) flat-faced tablets. Error bars represent tablet-to-tablet standard deviations.
and 2c). It can be clearly seen that the higher the
compression force, the higher the SRI. As shown in
Figure 2a, in the biconvex tablet geometry the SRI is
not constant across the surface but appears to have
a bimodal distribution with a lower value toward the
tablet center. This variability may indicate an inho-
mogeneity of the surface density and we will investi-
gate this effect further in a later section of this paper.
For the flat-faced tablets, the measured SRI is much
more uniform except for the pixels that correspond to
the edge bevel (Fig. 2b). High local curvature at the
beveled tablet edge causes scattering effects, which
make the data unreliable. To perform further analy-
sis, SRI maps were therefore masked to exclude all
pixels with a radius of more than 3.5 mm from the
tablet center as shown in Figure 2c.
SRI, Crushing Force Versus Compression Tests
Figure 3 shows the average SRI (measured by TPI)
and the crushing force (measured by DCT) as a func-
tion of compression force for both biconvex tablets
(Fig. 3a) and flat-faced tablets (Fig. 3b). Clearly, for
both geometries, the average SRI follows a similar
trend to the crushing force. Both SRI and crushing
force increase with compression force. There is a lin-
ear relationship between the crushing force, SRI and
their compression force for the flat-faced tablets. How-
ever, for biconvex tablets, both crushing force and SRI
increase with compression force until a plateau is
reached-–in this case at approximately 23 kN. Given
the tablet-to-tablet variation in SRI in this geome-
try, it is hard to confidently decide whether the re-
lationship between SRI and crushing force is linear,
exponential or indeed follows a different function al-
together. Tablets compacted at forces exceeding this
value are liable to failure by capping. Furthermore,
we observe that for the biconvex tablets, there is con-
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 102, NO. 7, JULY 2013
siderable variation in average SRI, as well as the
crushing force, of individual tablets at each compres-
sion force. It would be worth investigating in a future
study whether this variation in SRI is linked to the
mechanical properties of the tablets such as a ten-
dency for capping, for example, due to residual stress
within the tablet matrix. However, this variability
seems to be less pronounced in the case of the flat-
faced tablets. Here, the measured SRI does not vary
appreciably across the tablet surface and hence a sin-
gle point measurement from any position on the tablet
surface could be representative of the refractive index
of the tablet as a whole. For biconvex tablets, it would
require either a full 2-D mapping of the SRI distribu-
tion (alternatively a line-scan over the entire face of
the tablet could be performed to save time) or, a sin-
gle point measurement that would be repeated at the
same position on all such tablets. However, in either
case, TPI is clearly capable of nondestructively quan-
tifying the surface refractive indices of all samples
studied, thus demonstrating the potential for TPI for
in-line tablet hardness analysis during tablet manu-
facture. Further work is required to investigate how
intagliations would affect the density/hardness anal-
ysis. From previous work using TPI for coating anal-
ysis, it is well known that scattering losses lead to a
significant distortion in the reflected terahertz pulse
and hence the waveforms close to sharp edges and
any embossings or break lines are routinely removed
before quantitative coating analysis.24 For the appli-
cation proposed in this study, the absolute amplitude
of the surface reflection from the terahertz pulse is
critical rather than the phase information of the coat-
ing/core interface, which is determined for the coating
thickness measurement. The density measurement is
hence intrinsically more sensitive to scattering arti-
facts and care needs to be taken to removing the af-
fected pixels. However, this could be achieved quite
DOI 10.1002/jps
 DISTRIBUTIONS OF PHARMACEUTICAL TABLETS MEASURED BY TERAHERTZ PULSED IMAGING 2183

fit

Figure 4. (a) Combined measured crushing force as a function of bulk density for bi-convex
tablets and flat-faced tablet. (b) Average crushing force and SRI as functions of bulk density for
flat-faced tablets, (c) biconvex tablets. Error bars represent standard deviation.

easily by simple amplitude thresholding of the wave-
forms before analysis.
SRI, Crushing Force Versus Tablet Bulk Density
The volume of each tablet was estimated from the
measured dimensions and surface maps acquired us-
ing the optical laser gauge. Using the estimated tablet
volume together with the tablet mass, the bulk den-
sity of each tablet is then calculated. Figure 4a shows
how crushing force relates to the actual tablet bulk
density. In the case of biconvex tablets, the data points
appear to be clustered into two separate groups. How-
ever, when overlaid with data points from flat-faced
tablets, we see that they fit into a continuum of crush-
ing forces that varies smoothly with tablet density.
The two separate groups are not a genuine feature of
the biconvex tablets but merely because the range of
compression force is quite coarsely distributed in the
samples of this geometry. With the exception of a few
outliers, the data points from the majority of tablets
lie on the same curve and follow the exponential fit,
thus indicating that the tablet crushing force is inde-
pendent of tablet shape, and hence a good indicator
of the bulk strength of the lactose compact. Figure 4b
shows the average crushing force and mean SRI as
functions of average bulk density for flat-faced tablets
and Figure 4c shows the relationship for the biconvex
tablets. Clearly, for both geometries, the average SRI
follows a similar trend to the crushing force as the
function of tablet bulk density.
The SRI inherently represents a surface property
that does not depend on the thickness of the tablet
or on density differences within the sample matrix
below the surface. Although, in principle, it is possi-
ble to investigate density variations within the tablet
matrix using TPI, as the THz pulse penetrates deep
into the tablet, this is currently not practicable. We
have previously shown23 that TPI is sensitive to small
differences in matrix density, such as the interfaces
between multilayered tablets, more than 3 mm into
the tablet. However, we have not yet developed any
robust signal processing and data analysis routines
to extract quantitative measurements based on this
approach. A study by Henry et al.25 suggests that this
might be possible in principle. Terahertz technology
is a recent technique and more work into understand-
ing the fundamental physics of scattering in porous
media is required before such an application becomes
quantitative. Likewise, the method would be unsuit-
able for coated tablets as the measurement would re-
flect the density of the coating rather than the density
of the tablet matrix itself.5
Ultrasound transmission measurements were re-
cently suggested as an alternative nondestructive
method to assess the mechanical properties of phar-
maceutical tablets.21,26 Although the ultrasound ap-
proach is conceptually very similar to the THz mea-
surement, the main disadvantage of the ultrasound
measurement (typically at a frequency of around
10 MHz) is the requirement for a perfect contact be-
tween the ultrasound probe and the tablet to couple
the ultrasound pulse into the tablet. This can exert
significant load onto the tablet which can limit the
applicability of this technique to in-die measurements

DOI 10.1002/jps JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 102, NO. 7, JULY 2013
2184 MAY ET AL.
or relatively hard tablets only. In contrast, at THz fre-
quencies the difference in refractive index between air
and tablet is sufficiently low and coupling from free
space is no problem, hence the THz technique is a non-
contact method. However, the ultrasound technique
has the advantage of even greater penetration depth
due to the much higher power of currently available
sensors.
Radial Distribution in Surface Tablet Density and
Refractive Index as Measured by TPI and Simulated
by FEA in Biconvex Tablets
As illustrated by the SRI maps shown in Figure 2a,
the spatial distribution of SRI across the surface of bi-
convex tablets is inhomogeneous. We will investigate
the relationship between SRI and surface density (as
simulated by FEA) as a function of tablet radius in
this section.
Figure 5 shows that SRI is radially symmetric and
increases nonlinearly as function of tablet radius.
To investigate the observed variations in SRI along
the tablet radius, numerical simulations were per-
formed by FEA to model the density distribution of
powder after double-ended tablet compression. In the
FEA, a Drucker-Prager Cap plastic model, widely
used for pharmaceutical powders, is employed to
describe the compaction behavior of lactose, and the
density distributions of the tablet under different
compression forces were calculated. The model pa-
rameters of lactose used here were directly extracted
from experimental stress–strain curves measured
from a compaction simulator used in the pharma-
ceutical industry (Phoeneix Calibration & Services
Ltd, Bobbington, UK).27,28 Figure 6 shows a cross-
sectional slice through the tablet density map at a
Figure 5. Radial analysis of measured TPI data showing
SRI of 10 sample tablets at each of the eight compression
forces (3.13–23.16 kN).
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 102, NO. 7, JULY 2013
Figure 6. FEA simulated tablet density through cross-
section (xz-plane) of biconvex tablet under a 23 kN com-
pression force.
compression force of 23 kN. Tablet density is seen to
increase with the lateral distance from the tablet cen-
ter. This spatial distribution can be explained by vari-
ations in tablet density due to local tablet geometry
imposed by the shape of the tablet punch, as well as
the properties of the materials used in tablet com-
pression.
We also compare the trends in SRI and the simu-
lated surface density as a function of tablet radius,
which is shown in Figure 7. In general, the trends
in simulated surface density and measured SRI are
in close agreement. The most obvious deviation be-
tween simulated surface density and measured SRI
is that the SRI increases more rapidly with increas-
ing tablet radius. One reason for this difference may
be due to the relatively small experimentally mea-
sured value of 0.2 for the die wall coefficient of fric-
tion used in the FEAs. Another possible explanation
for the differences in simulated surface density and
measured refractive index is that the shape of the
tablet punch used in the powder compression simu-
lations was derived from the surface profile of indi-
vidual tablets measured by the laser gauge on the
TPI imaga 2000. However, the compacted material in
Figure 7. Comparison of simulated tablet surface density
by FEA and measured tablet SRI by TPI as a function of
tablet radius.
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 DISTRIBUTIONS OF PHARMACEUTICAL TABLETS MEASURED BY TERAHERTZ PULSED IMAGING
the biconvex tablets will undergo the relaxation af-
ter ejection from the die, which is nonuniform due to
the density variation within the tablet; therefore, the
shape of the compressed tablet may not be a true rep-
resentation of the punch used in pressing the tablets.
The results support the findings by Palermo et al.,22
where a casual correlation between surface density
and THz refractive index was proposed. In addition,
the good correlation between surface density and SRI
agrees well with the concept of an effective refractive
index, which is strongly dependent on the porosity of
the material.29–33 With an increase in porosity, the
effective refractive index decreases due to the lower
density of the material. This is conceptually quite dif-
ferent to the NIRS and Raman methods that have
been used to quantify tablet hardness measurements.
In these methods, the surface hardness is correlated
to a change in scattering losses: harder tablets have
a smoother surface and hence exhibit a higher reflec-
tivity as scattering from pores of length scales on the
wavelength of the light used (typically 500–1100 nm)
is reduced. In contrast, the pulses of THz radiation
span wavelengths from 100 :m to 3 mm and hence
the contrast mechanism in this technique is not pri-
marily scattering but rather the change in density of
the bulk matrix itself, albeit in this study still directly
below the surface rather than in the core of the tablet
matrix. Because of the increase in porosity the tablet
medium becomes an optically less dense medium as
air is exhibiting negligible absorption compared with
the drug and excipient matrix. It is this ability to
probe the bulk microstructure of the tablet matrix,
which gives the THz technique particular sensitivity
to the mechanical strength of the material because
the cohesive strength of the tablet is governed by the
interparticulate bonding, which, in turn, is closely re-
lated to, though not exclusively dependent on, the
resulting particle and pore sizes in the drug excipi-
ent matrix. However, it remains to be investigated in
future studies how much the sensitivity of the THz
technique is affected by lubricants and other formu-
lation components, such as API, which might have a
direct impact on the cohesive strength between parti-
cles beyond the resolution of this technique.
It is important to stress that we do not consider that
the TPI technique as a suitable replacement method
for diametral hardness testing. The physical proper-
ties that are tested for in both methods are different:
although the diametral hardness test directly mea-
sures the mechanical strength of the powder com-
pact, the TPI method measures the effective refrac-
tive index of the sample. Both parameters are linked
through the microstructure of the tablet matrix, but
although the hardness testing measures the bulk me-
chanical response, the TPI measurement currently
only represents a much smaller sampling volume, pre-
dominantly at the surface of the tablet. The ability to
DOI 10.1002/jps
2185
spatially map out the density inhomogeneity over the
surface of the tablet is unique to the TPI method and
it could be of interest during the optimization of the
formulation or the fine tuning of the tableting process.
CONCLUSIONS
Tablets with two geometries (flat-surface and bicon-
vex) are compacted at various compression forces and
TPI technique is used to determine the SRI spatial
distribution map. These SRI values are compared
with the crushing force, which indicates the hardness
of the tablet. In this proof-of-principle study, we have
found that SRI increases with compaction force and
has a strong correlation with the crushing force for
both geometries. We also found a strong correlation
between the TPI results (SRI) and tablet bulk density
and how this relates to tablet hardness. Thus, TPI is a
potential tool for nondestructive evaluation of tablet
hardness. We have previously demonstrated3 that it
is possible to acquire THz measurements of moving
tablets under process conditions in less than 10 ms.
Therefore, this technique might have potential for in-
line hardness testing applications where the hardness
of all, or at least a significant proportion of tablets,
can be tested nondestructively after compaction in
real time. Such a measurement sensor would not re-
place the need for diametral hardness testing but it
could complement it for process monitoring and PAT
applications. However, further work will need to sys-
tematically evaluate the influence of the formulation,
and the presence of API in particular, on the sensi-
tivity of the method to tablet hardness. The surface
density of the biconvex tablets map along the tablet
radius is explored through numerical simulation by
FEA and found to agree with the TPI measured SRI
maps, which explained the inhomogeneity of the SRI
spatial distribution of the biconvex tablets.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Dipankar Dey
and Ian Warr at Oystar-Manesty for the preparation
of the tablets as well as the DCT. This work was con-
ducted with financial support from the UK Technol-
ogy Strategy Board (AB293H).
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DOI 10.1002/jps