Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

Don Severino De Las Alas Campus
Indang, Cavite

COLLEGE OF ECONOMICS, MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

ABC OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

Submitted to
Ms. ANGEL REA MAE Y. MARTINEZ
Faculty of the Department of
Development Studies

Final Project for

ISEA21
INTRODUCTION TO
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

Submitted by
FRANCHESCA DANA F. AGCOL
MARLAINE PAULA A. AMBATA
ANN LOUISE W. BACLLE
JULIET ELLAIN M. BAYSANTOS
ISABELLE A. BRAGA
CHLOE DAPROZA
HADASAH I. MORALES
JANELLE C. SAVARIS
JANUARY 20, 2020
International Studies is a course that tackles the political, economical, cultural and sociological
issues and topics in a global scale. This course is mostly associated with the International
Relations which is more focused in the political, economical and laws of different states and their
relationship with one another using different theories to further interpret it. Even though these two
courses have their own unique fields to focus on, each framework offers a unique perspective to
help a country’s leaders, business owners, and other interested parties create and navigate
relationships with other nations.

Studying this course isn’t easy and just because it sounds elegant to introduce doesn’t mean the
students won’t have a hard time to deal with the course. It takes more than reading and
memorizing different terminologies as well as the laws that are existing not only in the country you
are currently living in, but the other countries as well. Students must prepare themselves when in
comes to the interpretation of a certain global issue without showing any sign of personal opinions.
They should always use a trusted and reliable source in order to defend or make a stand about
the point they were trying to make. Not only that, but the students also need to be socially aware
and open to the trends and problems that are happening around the globe in order to further
understand the course as well as to engage with the class discussions more.

It may already sound discouraging but international studies as a course is much more than that.
Reading and analyzing data may be challenging but it’ll help the students to gain knowledge about
different countries that they can transfer to their colleagues. In addition to that, international
studies isn’t only about academic skills, the course also promotes community engagement and
cultural diversity. By studying the course, the students may encounter issues about the political
belief and economic structure as well as the cultural beliefs of the other countries and how they
manage to survive living there. The course has a wide range which makes it more interesting to
study.

International Studies is also connected to diplomacy in which makes one person to negotiate and
engage to other state leaders. Not only that, but those who use their degree to work in politics
can achieve their personal goals by developing and implementing related policies that have the
potential to improve lives around the world. The students will soon bloom and make the world a
better place for the future.

In which leads us to the ABC of International Studies that are listed on the latter part of the booklet.
It consists of some terminologies that the students may encounter while studying the course. As
what was said earlier, this course may sound elegant but it takes more than that to finally get this
degree. This booklet may help the future world-leaders or game-changers and
• Ad hoc Tribunals
o International tribunals have long enabled States and others to settle disputes.
However, it was the Nuremberg trials after World War II that marked the beginning
of ad hoc tribunals that could try individuals accused of the core international
crimes: genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. Ever since the
Nuremberg and Tokyo trials, the first international criminal tribunals were
established in the 1990's, to respond to atrocities committed during the conflict in
the former Yugoslavia and the mass-killings in Rwanda. The International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and its sister court for Rwanda (ICTR)
were both created by the UN Security Council.
• Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)
o Hitler was of great historical importance—a word that does not mean a positive
judgment—because his acts have changed the history of the world. He was
blamed for beginning the Second World War, which resulted in the deaths of more
than 50 million people. It also contributed to the expansion of the Soviet Union's
influence in Eastern, Central and Balkan Europe, made it possible for the
Communist movement to finally gain dominance in China, and represented a
decisive change in power away from Western Europe and towards the United
States and the Soviet Union. In addition, Hitler was responsible for the Holocaust,
the state-sponsored genocide of six million Jews and millions of others.
• African Union
o It is a continental body consisting 55 countries that makes up the continent of
Africa. The African Union (AU) was formally launched in July 2002 in Durban,
South Africa, following a decision in September 1999 by its predecessor, the OAU,
to set up a new continental organization to expand on its work. The decision to re-
launch Africa's pan-African organization was the result of a consensus among
African leaders that, in order to realize Africa's potential, attention needs to be re-
focused from the fight for decolonization and the abolition of the apartheid
continent, which was the objective of the OAU, to increased cooperation and
integration of African states to drive Africa's growth and eco-friendly development.
• Al Qaeda
o "The Base", broad-based militant Islamist organization founded by Osama bin
Laden in the late 1980s. Al-Qaeda began as a logistical network to support
Muslims fighting against the Soviet Union during the Afghan War. Al-Qaeda
merged with a number of other militant Islamist organizations including Egypt’s
Islamic Jihad and the Islamic Group and on several occasions its leaders declared
holy war against the United States. The organization established camps for Muslim
militants from throughout the world training tens of thousands in paramilitary skills,
and its agents engaged in numerous terrorist attacks, including the destruction of
the U.S. embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (1998), and
a suicide bomb attack against the U.S. warship Cole in Aden, Yemen. In 2001, 19
 militants associated with Al-Qaeda staged the September 11 attacks against the
United States. Within weeks the U.S. government responded by attacking Taliban
and Al-Qaeda forces in Afghanistan. Thousands of militants were killed or
captured, among them several key members (including the militant who allegedly
planned and organized the September 11 attacks), and the remainder and their
leaders were driven into hiding.
• Alignment
o Alignment’ is a value-neutral concept that neither infers nor connotes any particular
content to an inter-state relationship. This is a necessary theoretical step so that
the proliferation of new, non-traditional instances of international co-operation in
the twenty-first century can be assessed within a substantive context that gives
both structure and terms of reference for analysis.
• Alliance
o It is international relations, a formal agreement between two or more states for
mutual support in case of war. Contemporary alliances provide for combined action
on the part of two or more independent states and are generally defensive in nature
obligating allies to join forces if one or more of them is attacked by another state
or coalition. Although alliances may be informal they are typically formalized by a
treaty of alliance the most critical clauses of which are those that define the casus
foederis or the circumstances under which the treaty obligates an ally to aid a
fellow member.
• Ambassador
o It is an official envoy especially a high-ranking diplomat who represents a state
and is usually credited to another sovereign state or to an international
organization as the resident representative of their own government, sovereign or
appointed for a special and often temporary diplomatic assignment. An
ambassador is the ranking government representative stationed in a foreign capital
or country. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific
territory called an embassy whose territory, staff and vehicles are generally
afforded diplomatic immunity in the host country.
• Ambiguity
o Ambiguity refers to multiple meanings in that the same term or legal provision can
mean different things to different people. The term ‘state’, for instance, may have
a different meaning for a Dutch and a US citizen: the former might be thinking of
the Netherlands, the latter of a state within the federal state. Vagueness refers to
borderline cases of classification: classifying pistols as armaments and rock as
solid is unproblematic, but it is harder to determine the risk of something.
• Americanization
o Americanization is the process by which people or countries become more and
more similar to Americans and the United States. Americanization, in the early
20th century, activities that were designed to prepare foreign-born residents of the
United States for full participation in citizenship. It aimed not only at the
achievement of naturalization but also at an understanding of and commitment to
principles of American life and work.
• Amsterdam Treaty
o It is an agreement which was signed in 1997 by EU leaders and came into force in
1999. It made some changes to the treaty which established the European
Community and was intended to help European countries deal with such issues as
globalization, international crime and environmental problems.
• Anarchy
o It is the state of a society being freely constituted without authorities or a governing
body. It may also refer to a society or group of people that entirely rejects a set
hierarchy. Anarchy was first used in 1539 meaning "an absence of government".
Anarchy can refer to the curtailment or abolition of traditional forms of government
and institutions. It can also designate a nation or any inhabited place that has no
system of government or central rule. Anarchy is primarily advocated by individual
anarchists who propose replacing government with voluntary institutions.
• Anglo-Saxon
o A term used historically to denote any member of the Germanic people who, from
the 5th century BC to the time of the Norman Conquest (1066), occupied and
controlled territories that are now part of England and Wales. Their subsequent
settlements in what is now England laid the groundwork for the later kingdoms of
Essex, Sussex, and Wessex (Saxons); East Anglia, Middle Anglia, Mercia, and
Northumbria (Angles); and Kent (Jutes). The inhabitants of each of the separate
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms spoke distinctive dialects, which developed over time and
became known as Old English. An unusually rich vernacular literature appeared in
this variety of dialects. Examples include the masterful epic poem Beowulf and the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a series of manuscripts covering events in the early history
of England.
• Aristocracy
o It is an identifiable element of a social structure that has characterized human
societies from ancient times and was more often than not directly associated with
land ownership. Different countries developed different forms of aristocracy,
sometimes encompassing a small noble class and sometimes an extensive group
of farmers on a small or large scale often labeled the gentry. As a form of
government aristocracy was associated with the rule of the wise and debates about
the extent to which this was actually the case and could be extended and given a
social and political role, characterized intellectual life in every society. It was only
toward the end of the 18th century that aristocracy began to be challenged as a
social form and visions put forward of societies without rank or hierarchy.
• Asymmetric conflict
o Asymmetrical warfare, unconventional strategies and tactics adopted by a force
when the military capabilities of belligerent powers are not simply unequal but are
so significantly different that they cannot make the same sorts of attacks on each
other. Asymmetric warfare emerged as a major theme in U.S. defense planning
with the end of the Cold War, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the shift in
focus from peer adversary wars to major theater wars and smaller scale
contingencies.
• Balance-of-Power
o Balance of power, in international relations, the posture and policy of a nation or
group of nations protecting itself against another nation or group of nations by
matching its power against the power of the other side. States can pursue a policy
of balance of power in two ways: by increasing their own power, as when engaging
in an armaments race or in the competitive acquisition of territory; or by adding to
their own power that of other states, as when embarking upon a policy of alliances.
The term balance of power came into use to denote the power relationships in the
European state system from the end of the Napoleonic Wars to World War I.
• Bilateral Relations
o Affecting or undertaken by two sides equally; binding on both parties. Bilateralism
is the conduct of political, economic, or cultural relations between two sovereign
states. It is in contrast to unilateralism or multilateralism, which is activity by a
single state or jointly by multiple states, respectively.
• Bipolar System
o Bipolarity can be defined as a system of world order in which the majority of global
economic, military and cultural influence is held between two states. The classic
case of a bipolar world is that of the Cold War between the United States and the
Soviet Union, which dominated the second half of the twentieth century.
• Bolshevik Revolution
o On 6 and 7 November 1917, leftist revolutionaries led by Vladimir Lenin launched
a coup d'état against the provisional government of the Duma. The Bolsheviks and
their allies also seized government buildings and other strategic positions in
Petrograd. Lenin became the dictator of the first communist state in the world.
• Bourgeoisie
o A socioeconomic order dominated by the so-called middle class. In social and
political philosophy, the notion of the bourgeoisie was essentially the construction
of Karl Marx (1818–83) and those who were inspired by it. In Marxist ideology, the
bourgeoisie plays a heroic role in revolutionizing business and modernizing
society. But it also aims to monopolize the advantages of this modernisation by
manipulating the proletariat without land. According to Marx, the end result would
be a final revolution in which the property of the bourgeoisie is expropriated.
• Boycott
o Boycott, collective and organized ostracism applied in labour, economic, political,
or social relations to protest practices that are regarded as unfair. The boycott was
popularized by Charles Stewart Parnell during the Irish land agitation of 1880 to
protest high rents and land evictions. The term boycott was coined after Irish
tenants followed Parnell’s suggested code of conduct and effectively ostracized a
British estate manager, Charles Cunningham Boycott.
• Bretton Woods
o The Bretton Woods Agreement and System Explained Approximately 730
delegates representing 44 countries met in Bretton Woods in July 1944 with the
principal goals of creating an efficient foreign exchange system, preventing
competitive devaluations of currencies, and promoting international economic
growth.
• Brotherhood
o ‘Brotherhood’ is a conventional relationship, but it has the same force and meaning
as one of blood. It is therefore one that is perfectly convenient for the expression
of a political alliance between peers, emphasizing (in comparison to other more
technical terms)2 the personal and voluntary involvement of the partners.
• Bundesbank
o The Deutsche Bundesbank, literally "German Federal Bank", is the central bank of
the Federal Republic of Germany and as such part of the European System of
Central Banks. Due to its strength and former size, the Bundesbank is the most
influential member of the ESCB.
• Bundespost
o The Deutsche Bundespost was a German state-run postal service and
telecommunications business founded in 1947. It was initially the second largest
federal employer during its time. After staff reductions in the 1980s, the staff was
reduced to roughly 543,200 employees in 1985.

• Capitalism
o It is an economic system in which private individuals or businesses own capital
goods. The production of goods and services is based on supply and demand in
the general market known as a market economy rather than through central
planning known as a planned economy or command economy.
• Cartels
o It is an organization created from a formal agreement between a group of
producers of a good or service to regulate supply in order to regulate or manipulate
prices. In other words, a cartel is a collection of otherwise independent businesses
or countries that act together as if they were a single producer and thus can fix
prices for the goods they produce and the services they render without
competition.
• Civil War
o It is a violent conflict between a state and one or more organized non-state actors
in the state's territory. Civil wars are thus distinguished from interstate conflicts,
violent conflicts or riots not involving states and state repression against individuals
who cannot be considered an organized or cohesive group, including genocides,
and similar violence by non-state actors, such as terrorism or violent crime.
• Clerics
o A religious official or member of the clergy is also known as a cleric. The priest in
an Episcopal church is a cleric, and so is a Muslim imam. The term cleric is less
common than clergyman and clergywoman, but when you're talking about a
Christian or Muslim religious leader, it's a great word to use. Cleric comes from the
Latin clericus, "priest," and its Greek root klēros, "inheritance or heritage." It shares
these roots with clerk, a word that was originally a synonym of cleric but today
more often means "a person working in an office."
• Climate change
o It is periodic modification of Earth’s climate brought about as a result of changes
in the atmosphere as well as interactions between the atmosphere and various
other geologic, chemical, biological and geographic factors within the Earth
system.
• Coercion
o It is the practice of forcing another party to act in an involuntary manner by use of
threats or force. These actions may include extortion, blackmail, torture, threats to
induce favors or even sexual assault. In law, coercion is codified as a duress crime.
Such actions are used as leverage to force the victim to act in a way contrary to
their own interests. Coercion may involve the actual infliction of physical pain/injury
or psychological harm in order to enhance the credibility of a threat. The threat of
further harm may lead to the cooperation or obedience of the person being
coerced.
• Cognizance
o The power, authority, and ability of a judge to determine a particular legal matter.
A judge's decision to take note of or deal with a cause. That which is cognizable to
a judge is within the scope of his or her jurisdiction.
• Cold War
o The Cold War was an ongoing diplomatic conflict between the U.S. and the Soviet
Union and their allies. George Orwell first identified it as a nuclear stalemate
between "super-states" capable of destroying each other. After the surrender of
Nazi Germany in 1945, the Cold War began. It was conducted primarily on political,
economic and propaganda fronts and lasted until 1991. There was very little use
of guns in battlefields during the Cold War.
• Collective Goods
o A still useful definition of a collective good as distinguished from an individual good
is that its 'consumption' by one individual does not reduce the possibility for other
individuals to 'consume' it (Samuelson, 1954). A few examples are a TV broadcast,
the police and a nation's highway system (excluding toll ways).
• Collective Security
o System by which states have attempted to prevent or stop wars. Under a collective
security arrangement, an aggressor against any one state is considered an
aggressor against all other states, which act together to repel the aggressor.
Collective security can be understood as a security arrangement, political,
regional, or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of
 one is the concern of all, and therefore commits to a collective response to threats
to, and breaches to peace.
• Comparative Advantage
o Comparative advantage is an economy's ability to produce a particular good or
service at a lower opportunity cost than its trading partners. A comparative
advantage gives a company the ability to sell goods and services at a lower price
than its competitors and realize stronger sales margins. The law of comparative
advantage describes how, under free trade, an agent will produce more of and
consume less of a good for which they have a comparative advantage.
• Compellence
o Is a set of actions or positions that force an opponent to take some action desired
by the initial actor. It is the opposite of deterrence, in which the actions are intended
to prevent an opponent from taking some action. Compellence, the ability of one
state to coerce another state into action, usually by threatening punishment.
• Complex Peacekeeping
o Complex multidimensional peacekeeping arose in response to the additional
demands of violent intra-state conflict and civil wars within weak or poorly
governed states suffering from identity, resource and power struggles.
• Conformist behavior
o It is acting like others – can be due to both an intrinsic preference to conform or to
the rational use of information implicit in other people's choices. The psy- chology
literature has traditionally focused on the former. Conformity encompasses
compliance and obedience because it refers to any behavior that occurs as a result
of others' influence - no matter what the nature of the influence. Conformity can be
defined as yielding to group pressures, something which nearly all of us do some
of the time.
• Congress of Vienna
o One of the most important international conferences in European history. It remade
Europe after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon I. It was a meeting of
ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von
Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815. The objective
of Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical
issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The
goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so
they could balance each other and remain at peace.
• Constructivism
o Constructivism is a theory in education that recognizes the learners' understanding
and knowledge based on their own experiences prior to entering school. It is
associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in epistemology as well
as ontology, politics, and ethics. Constructivism is the theory that says learners
construct knowledge rather than just passively take in information. As people
experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own
representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge
(schemas).
• Consumerism
o Consumerism is a social and economic order that encourages the acquisition of
goods and services in ever-increasing amounts. The definition of consumerism is
the protection of the rights and interests of the general pool of buyers, or an
obsession with buying material goods or items. Laws and rules that protect people
who shop and spend are examples of consumerism. An obsession with shopping
and acquiring stuff is an example of consumerism.
• Contemporary
o The definition of contemporary is existing at the same time or of the present time
period. An example of contemporary are the works of Fitzgerald and Hemingway
or a piece of furniture in the modern style.
• Conventional Warfare
o It is a form of war conducted by using conventional weapons and battlefield tactics
between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are
well-defined and fight using weapons that primarily target the opponent's military.
It is normally fought using conventional weapons, and not with chemical, biological
or nuclear weapons.
• Core Values
o Core values are the fundamental beliefs of a person or organization. These guiding
principles dictate behavior and can help people understand the difference between
right and wrong.
• Cultural Imperialism
o Also called cultural colonialism, comprises the cultural aspects of imperialism.
"Imperialism" here refers to the creation and maintenance of unequal relationships
between civilizations, favoring a more powerful civilization. Cultural imperialism, in
anthropology, sociology, and ethics, the imposition by one usually politically or
economically dominant community of various aspects of its own culture onto
another nondominant community.
• Currency
o It is a medium of exchange for goods and services, especially circulating
banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of
money in common use especially for people in a nation. Under this definition, U.S.
dollars (US$), euros (€), Japanese yen (¥), and pounds sterling (£) are examples
of currencies. These various currencies are recognized as stores of value and are
traded between nations in foreign exchange markets which determine the relative
values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by
governments and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance.
• Custom
o Custom, whose importance reflects the decentralized nature of the international
system, involves two fundamental elements: the actual practice of states and the
acceptance by states of that practice as law.
• Debate
o It is a process that involves formal discussion on a particular topic. In a debate,
opposing arguments are put forward to argue for opposing viewpoints. Debate
occurs in public meetings, academic institutions and legislative assemblies. It is a
formal type of discussion often with a moderator and an audience in addition to the
debate participants.
• Decolonization
o A process by which the colonies become independent of the colonizing territory.
Decolonization was gradual and peaceful for some British colonies, mostly settled
by expatriates, but violent for others, where native rebellions were fueled by
nationalism. After World War II, European countries lacked the resources and
political support needed to curb faraway revolts. They also faced resistance from
the emerging super-powers, the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Britain left India in
1947, Palestine in 1948, Egypt in 1956. The French left Vietnam in 1954 and gave
up the North African colonies in 1962. Portugal lost its African colonies in the
1970s; Macau was returned to the Chinese in 1999.
• Democracy
o It is, literally, ruled by the people. The term is derived from the Greek dēmokratiā
which was coined from dēmos 'people” and kratos “rule” in the middle of the 5th
century BCE to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-
states, notably Athens.
• Derivatives
o A derivative is a contract between two parties which derives its value/price from an
underlying asset. The most common types of derivatives are futures, options,
forwards and swaps.
• Deterrence
o Deterrence theory has proven difficult to validate, however, largely because the
presence of many intervening factors makes it difficult to prove unequivocally that
a certain penalty has prevented someone from committing a given crime.
Nevertheless, there have been occasional examples showing that some
sentences can have a strong deterrent effect. Laws designed to prevent driving
under the influence of alcohol (e.g., by setting a maximum legal level of blood
alcohol content) can have a temporary deterrent effect on a wide population,
especially when coupled with mandatory penalties and a high probability of
conviction.
• Diplomacy
o Diplomacy, the established method of influencing the decisions and behaviour of
foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other
measures short of war or violence. Modern diplomatic practices are a product of
the post-Renaissance European state system. Historically, diplomacy meant the
conduct of official (usually bilateral) relations between sovereign states. By the
 20th century, however, the diplomatic practices pioneered in Europe had been
adopted throughout the world, and diplomacy had expanded to cover summit
meetings and other international conferences, parliamentary diplomacy, the
international activities of supranational and subnational entities, unofficial
diplomacy by nongovernmental elements, and the work of international civil
servants.
• Diplomatic Bargaining
o Described as the conduct of international relations by sovereign partners to find a
joint and mutually acceptable solution to a dispute by peaceful means. It is clear
that this definition could be improved upon.
• Dispute Settlement Body
o The Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
makes decisions on trade disputes between governments that are adjudicated by
the Organization. Its decisions generally match those of the Dispute Panel.
• Diversionary War
o A diversionary war occurs when a state’s leaders begin a conflict to divert attention
from an ongoing domestic issue. The diversionary theory of war has been
considered one of the most contested theories that link domestic and external
conflicts. Thus far scholarship in this field has focused on one time single
diversionary attacks, which led to the temporary deflection of attention from
domestic problems to external ones.
• Domestic Law
o Domestic Law means each of the laws of (a) the Reference Entity, if such
Reference Entity is a Sovereign, or (b) the jurisdiction in which the Reference Entity
is organised, if such Reference Entity is not a Sovereign. Means the laws of the
jurisdiction of organization of the Reference Entity. Any applicable laws,
ordinances and other regulations or requirements in each Authority’s jurisdiction.
• Domestic Terrorism
o Violent, criminal acts committed by individuals and/or groups to further ideological
goals stemming from domestic influences, such as those of a political, religious,
social, racial, or environmental nature. Domestic terrorism describes domestic
terrorists as Americans who commit ideologically driven crimes in the United
States but lack foreign direction or influence.

• Economic and Social Council

o The Economic and Social Council is at the heart of the United Nations system to
advance the three dimensions of sustainable development – economic, social and
environmental. It is the central platform for fostering debate and innovative
thinking, forging consensus on ways forward, and coordinating efforts to achieve
internationally agreed goals. It is also responsible for the follow-up to major UN
conferences and summits. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
 coordinates the work of the 14 UN specialized agencies, ten functional
commissions and five regional commissions, receives reports from nine UN funds
and programmes (see reverse) and issues policy recommendations to the UN
system and to Member States.
• Economic Dimension
o The economic dimension handles all economic outputs/externalities of the event
firm and the individual event.Values measured range from the direct economic
impacts on the host community and the world- to the more complex indirect
impacts, both being of great interest to event researchers. In the case of the
Baseline Evaluation, it is the organisational processes that influence these values
that are scrutinized.
• Economic Instruments
o Economic instruments are fiscal and other economic incentives and disincentives
to incorporate environmental costs and benefits into the budgets of households
and enterprises.The objective is to encourage environmentally sound and efficient
production and consumption through full-cost pricing. Economic instruments
include effluent taxes or charges on pollutants and waste, deposit—refund
systems and tradable pollution permits.
• Embassy
o A body of diplomatic representatives specifically : one headed by an ambassador.
2a : the function or position of an ambassador. b : a mission abroad undertaken
officially especially by an ambassador. The official residence and offices of an
ambassador.
• Embargo
o An embargo is a government order that restricts commerce with a specified country
or the exchange of specific goods. An embargo is usually created as a result of
unfavorable political or economic circumstances between nations. It is designed to
isolate a country and create difficulties for its governing body, forcing it to act on
the issue that led to the embargo.
• Enlightenment
o Enlightenment, French siècle des Lumières (literally “century of the Enlightened”),
German Aufklärung, a European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th
centuries in which ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and humanity were
synthesized into a worldview that gained wide assent in the West and that
instigated revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics. Central to
Enlightenment thought were the use and celebration of reason, the power by which
humans understand the universe and improve their own condition. The goals of
rational humanity were considered to be knowledge, freedom, and happiness.
• Equality
o It is the state of being equal. It's one of the ideals of a democratic society and so
the fight to attain different kinds of equality like racial equality, gender equality or
equality of opportunity between rich and poor is often associated with progress
toward that ideal of everyone being truly equal. Equality doesn't have to be used
 only for social ideals, though. There can be equality in weight between two barrels
of apples or between two molecules.
• Ethnicity
o Ethnicity is a broader term than race. The term is used to categorize groups of
people according to their cultural expression and identification. Commonalities
such as racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural origin may be used to
describe someone's ethnicity. Commonalities such as racial, national, tribal,
religious, linguistic, or cultural origin may be used to describe someone’s ethnicity.
• Euro
o The euro is the national currency of the EU Member States that have adopted it.
The European Central Bank (ECB) has a dual mandate to preserve the value of
the euro and to maintain market stability in the European Union. The main
advantage of introducing the euro is that it removes the exchange rate risk of euro
area companies and financial institutions. Critics claim that its implementation has
had negative effects, such as granting the ECB the ability to determine monetary
policy for the entire euro region. The value of the euro is closely associated with
the German economy, and other smaller nations that are at various stages of the
economic cycle suffer from its value. The Member States of the EU cannot imitate
• European Economic Community
o Created in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome, the European Economic Community
pursued the European construction efforts undertaken by the European Coal and
Steel Community (ECSC). The EEC's goals included economic cooperation, the
gradual abolition of customs barriers between member countries and the
introduction of common customs tariffs with other countries. Having 6 countries in
1957 (France, Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands,
Luxembourg), the EEC expanded in 1973 with the entrance of the United Kingdom,
Ireland and Denmark; then in 1981 with that of Greece; and in 1986 with the
entrance of Spain and Portugal.
• European Union
o The EU was established by the Treaty of Maastricht, which entered into force on
1 November 1993. The Treaty was intended to deepen European political and
economic integration. The United Kingdom, which was a founding member of the
EU, left the group in 2020. In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize in
recognition of the organization's efforts to foster peace and democracy in Europe.
Originally limited to western Europe, the EU embarked on a vigorous expansion
into central and eastern Europe in the early 21st century.
• Export
o In international trade is a good or service produced in one country that is sold into
another country. The seller of such goods and services is an exporter. The foreign
buyer is an importer. Export of goods often requires the involvement of customers'
authorities.
• Expropriation
o Expropriation is the act of a government claiming privately owned property against
the wishes of the owners, ostensibly to be used for the benefit of the overall public.
 In the United States, properties are most often expropriated in order to build
highways, railroads, airports, or other infrastructure projects. The property owner
must be paid for the seizure since the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution states
that private property cannot be expropriated "for public use without just
compensation."
• Extraterritoriality
o The operation of laws upon persons existing beyond the limits of the enacting state
or nation but who are still amenable to its laws. Jurisdiction exercised by a nation
in other countries by treaty, or by its own ministers or consuls in foreign lands. In
International Law, extraterritoriality exempts certain diplomatic agencies and
persons operating in a foreign country from the jurisdiction of the host country.
Instead, the agency or individual remains accountable to the laws of the native
country. The effects of extraterritoriality extend to troops in passage, passengers
on war vessels, individuals on mission premises, and other agencies and persons.

• Feudalism
o Feudalism, also called feudal system or feudality, French féodalité, historiographic
construct designating the social, economic, and political conditions in western
Europe during the early Middle Ages, the long stretch of time between the 5th and
12th centuries. Feudalism and the related term feudal system are labels invented
long after the period to which they were applied. They refer to what those who
invented them perceived as the most significant and distinctive characteristics of
the early and central Middle Ages.
• Foreign Aid
o The international transfer of capital, goods or services from a country or
international organization for the benefit of the recipient country or its population.
Aid can be economic, military or emergency humanitarian.
• Foreign Direct Investment
o A foreign direct investment (FDI) is an investment made by a firm or individual in
one country into business interests located in another country. Generally, FDI
takes place when an investor establishes foreign business operations or acquires
foreign business assets in a foreign company. However, FDIs are distinguished
from portfolio investments in which an investor merely purchases equities of
foreign-based companies.
• Foreign Policy
o A country’s foreign policy includes all of the policies it develops to pursue its
national interests as it interacts with other countries. A state ‘s national interests
are its primary goals and ambitions (economic, military, or cultural). Foreign
policies are implemented to ensure that these national interests are met.In the
past, foreign policy was primarily military-related. Now, in a globalized world,
foreign policies involve other areas as well such as trade, finance, human rights,
environmental issues, etc.
• Free Flow of Capital
o The term ‘capital flows’ refers to the movement of capital, i.e., money for
investment, in out of countries. When money for investment goes from one country
to another, is a capital flow. All capital flows comprise just money that is a
consequence of investment flows. The term does not include money people and
businesses use to purchase each others’ goods and services. Capital flows
include, for example, the international movement of money into and out of the bond
and stock markets. Cross-border mergers and acquisitions are also in this
category.
• Full Employment Act
o The Employment Act of 1946 ch. 33, section 2, 60 Stat. 23, codified as 15 U.S.C.
§ 1021, is a United States federal law. Its main purpose was to lay the responsibility
of economic stability of inflation and unemployment onto the federal government.
The Act stated: it was the "continuing policy and responsibility" of the federal
government to: coordinate and utilize all its plans, functions, and resources . . . to
foster and promote free competitive enterprise and the general welfare; conditions
under which there will be afforded useful employment for those able, willing, and
seeking to work; and to promote maximum employment, production, and
purchasing power. The Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act (known
informally as the Humphrey–Hawkins Full Employment Act) is an act of legislation
by the United States government.

• General Assembly
o A general assembly or general meeting is a meeting of all the members of an
organization or shareholders of a company. For example, The United Nations
General Assembly is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, serving
as the main deliberative, policy-making, and representative organ of the UN. Its
powers, composition, functions, and procedures are set out in Chapter IV of the
United Nations Charter.
• Global Citizenship
o It is the idea that one's identity transcends geography or political borders and that
responsibilities or rights are derived from membership in a broader class of
humanity. This does not mean that such a person denounces or waives their
nationality or other, more local identities but that such identities are given second
place to their membership in a global community.
• Global “Virtual” World
o A virtual world is a computer-simulated representation of a world with specific
spatial and physical characteristics, and users of virtual worlds interact with each
other via representations of themselves called “avatars.” Modern virtual worlds
differ from traditional video games in their objective.
• Global warming
o Global warming, the phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near the
surface of Earth over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since
the mid-20th century gathered detailed observations of various weather
phenomena (such as temperatures, precipitation, and storms) and of related
influences on climate (such as ocean currents and the atmosphere’s chemical
composition).
• Globalization
o Globalization is the spread of products, technology, information, and jobs across
national borders and cultures. In economic terms, it describes an interdependence
of nations around the globe fostered through free trade. Developing countries also
benefit through globalization as they tend to be more cost-effective and therefore
attract jobs.
• Government
o It is the political system by which a country or community is administered and
regulated. Most of the key words commonly used to describe governments words
such as monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy are of Greek or Roman origin.
• Great Powers
o A nation that has exceptional military and economic strength, and consequently
plays a major, often decisive, role in international affairs. One of the nations that
figure most decisively in international affairs.
• Guerilla
o Referring to actions or activities performed in an impromptu way, often without
authorization. It is a small independent group taking part in irregular fighting,
typically against larger regular forces.
• Guerilla warfare
o An irregular military action such as harrassment, and sabotage carried out by small
usually independent forces. First used in April 1861 when the Civil War broke and
it emerged as a popular alternative enlistment to the Confederate army.
• Gulf War
o A war that began in 1990 when Iraq invaded Kuwait and ended in 1991 when a
coalition of countries led by the United States expelled the Iraqi army from Kuwait
and destroyed much of Iraq's military capability. The brief war fought in 1991
between Iraq and United Nations allies to free Kuwait from occupying Iraqi forces.
One of several wars fought at the Persian Gulf in the 90s.

• Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative

o The launch of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative in the fall of
1996 represented a major departure from past practice in dealing with debt
problems of developing countries; it focused on achieving overall external debt
sustainability with comprehensive participation by all external creditors for the most
heavily indebted countries with good track records.
• Hegemon
o A greek word which means leader. Leader, country, or group that is very strong
and powerful and therefore able to control others. A single state whose power is
powerful enough to influence events throughout the world.
• Hegemony
o Hegemony, the dominance of one group over another, often supported by
legitimating norms and ideas. The associated term hegemon is used to identify the
actor, group, class, or state that exercises hegemonic power or that is responsible
for the dissemination of hegemonic ideas.
• Human Rights
o Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the
world, from birth until death. These basic rights are based on shared values like
dignity, fairness, equality, respect and independence. They apply regardless of
where you are from, what you believe or how you choose to live your life. These
values are defined and protected by law.
• Hyper-globalists
o Hyper-globalists (sometimes referred to as global optimists) believe that
globalization is happening and that local cultures are being eroded primarily
because of the expansion of international capitalism and the emergence of a
homogeneous global culture; they (as the ‘optimist’ part of the label implies)
believe that globalization is a positive process characterised by economic growth,
increasing prosperity and the spread of democracy.

• Imperialism
o Imperialism, state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion,
especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic
control of other areas. Because it always involves the use of power, whether
military or economic or some subtler form, imperialism has often been considered
morally reprehensible, and the term is frequently employed in international
propaganda to denounce and discredit an opponent’s foreign policy.
• Incremental
o The definition of incremental is something increasing in a small series of steps. An
example of something incremental is an exercise that slowly gets more
difficult.Pertaining to an increment. Occurring over a series of gradual increments,
or small steps
• Inequality
o The quality of being unequal or uneven; such as social disparity, disparity of
contribution or opportunity, lack of evenness. It is the unequal opportunity or
treatment resulting from disparity. The term inequality may mean different things
to different people and in different contexts. This encompasses distinct yet
overlapping economic, social, and spatial dimensions.
• Industrialization
 o Industrialization is the process by which an economy is transformed from primarily
agricultural to one based on the manufacturing of goods. Individual manual labor
is often replaced by mechanized mass production, and craftsmen are replaced by
assembly lines. Characteristics of industrialization include economic growth, more
efficient division of labor, and the use of technological innovation to solve problems
as opposed to dependency on conditions outside human control.
• Intangible
o Intangible is something with no physical presence that can't be touched, or is
something that is vague and difficult to understand or value in concrete terms.
• Interdependence
o It is the mutual reliance between two or more groups. In relationships,
interdependence is the degree to which members of the group are mutually
dependent on the others. This concept differs from a dependent relationship,
where some members are dependent and some are not and from the notion of
pure independence, where members are wholly free from the consequences of
any other group member.
• Interest
o In finance and economics,It is the payment from a borrower or deposit-taking
financial institution to a lender or depositor of an amount above repayment of the
principal sum at a particular rate. It is distinct from a fee which the borrower may
pay the lender or some third party. It is also distinct from dividend which is paid by
a company to its shareholders from its profit or reserve but not at a particular rate
decided beforehand, rather on a pro rata basis as a share in the reward gained by
risk taking entrepreneurs when the revenue earned exceeds the total costs.
• International Court of Justice
o The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations (UN). It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations
and began work in April 1946.The seat of the Court is at the Peace Palace in The
Hague (Netherlands). Of the six principal organs of the United Nations, it is the
only one not located in New York (United States of America).
• International Criminal Court
o The International Criminal Court is not a substitute for national courts. According
to the Rome Statute, it is the duty of every State to exercise its criminal jurisdiction
over those responsible for international crimes. The International Criminal Court
can only intervene where a State is unable or unwilling genuinely to carry out the
investigation and prosecute the perpetrators. The primary mission of the
International Criminal Court is to help put an end to impunity for the perpetrators
of the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole,
and thus to contribute to the prevention of such crimes.
• International Development Association
o The International Development Association (IDA) is the part of the World Bank that
helps the world’s poorest countries. Overseen by 173 shareholder nations, IDA
aims to reduce poverty by providing zero to low-interest loans (called “credits”) and
 grants for programs that boost economic growth, reduce inequalities, and improve
people’s living conditions.
• International Finance Corporation
o The International Finance Corporation (IFC) is an organization established in 1956
by the World Bank Group with an aim of reducing poverty and creating jobs in
developing countries through the development of private enterprises. The IFC has
184 countries as its members and its headquarter is located in Washington, D.C.
• International Law
o Also called Public International law or law of nations, the body of legal rules, norms
and standards that apply between sovereign states and other entities that are
legally recognized as international actors. The term was coined by the English
philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832).
• International Political Economy
o International political economy studies problems that arise from or are affected by
the interaction of international politics, international economics, and different social
systems (e.g., capitalism and socialism) and societal groups (e.g., farmers at the
local level, different ethnic groups in a country, immigrants in a region such as the
European Union, and the poor who exist transnationally in all countries).
• International Organizations
o International organization, institution drawing membership from at least three
states, having activities in several states, and whose members are held together
by a formal agreement. The Union of International Associations, a coordinating
body, differentiates between the more than 250 international governmental
organizations (IGOs), which have been established by intergovernmental
agreements and whose members are states, and the approximately 6,000
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), whose members are associations or
individuals.
• International Regimes
o International regimes are defined as a ‘set of implicit or explicit principles, norms,
rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors' expectations
converge’ (Krasner 1983). The effectiveness of a regime rests on the operations
of institutions, organizations, governments, and international bodies that share a
set of principles, rules, and norms in a particular area of international action.
Although regimes include formal treaties and national law, they also rely on
informal norms and networks to develop and enforce standard behavior in an area
of global policy.
• International Studies
o International studies (or international relations) involves the study of the global
community. It takes a look at how societies and countries interact with one another.
Students will look at the political, social and economic issues dominating the global
agenda. Subjects like politics, law and economics will be examined on a global
level.
• International Trade
o It is the economic transactions that are made between countries. Among the items
commonly traded are consumer goods such as television sets and clothing capital
goods, such as machinery and raw materials and food. International trade
transactions are facilitated by international financial payments in which the private
banking system and the central banks of the trading nations play important roles.
• Interstate Wars
o Interstate wars are part of a process of "bargaining " between and among nation-
states that also involves voluntary and forced migrations, as well as the definition
and redrawing of boundaries. For instance, Iraq's Kuwait invasion in 1990 caused
an interstate conflict between the United States and Iraq. While nations usually
fight for the same purpose, in this conflict these developed states had opposing
interests.
• Intrastate Wars
o Extrastate conflict is between a state (member of the international system) and a
political entity which does not come in the form of a recognized state. This type of
conflict can take place outside the boundaries of the state recognized by the
international community. A variety of state-based and non-state groups engage in
organized military conflict primarily within the confines of a single state and employ
mainly light weapons and unconventional military strategies, and are now the
dominant form of military conflict in international politics.
• Isolationism
o Isolationism is a category of foreign policies institutionalized by leaders who assert
that nations' best interests are best served by keeping the affairs of other countries
at a distance. A policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other
groups, especially the political affairs of other countries.

• Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry

o The Ministry of International Trade and Industry was one of the most powerful
agencies of the Government of Japan. At the height of its influence, it effectively
ran much of Japanese industrial policy, funding research and directing investment.
• Jus ad bellum
o Jus ad bellum is a set of criteria that are to be consulted before engaging in war in
order to determine whether entering into war is permissible, that is, whether it is a
just war. Jus ad bellum refers to the conditions under which States may resort to
war or to the use of armed force in general.
• Jus in bello
o International humanitarian law, or jus in bello, is the law that governs the way in
which warfare is conducted. IHL is purely humanitarian, seeking to limit the
suffering caused. It is independent from questions about the justification or reasons
for war, or its prevention, covered by jus ad bellum.
• Keynesian Idea
o Keynesian economics is a macroeconomic economic theory of total spending in
the economy and its effects on output, employment, and inflation. Based on his
theory, Keynes advocated for increased government expenditures and lower taxes
to stimulate demand and pull the global economy out of the depression.
• Korean War
o The war began on June 25, 1950, between North Korea, aided by Communist
China, and South Korea, aided by the United States and other United Nations
members forming a United Nations armed force: truce signed July 27, 1953.
Korean War, conflict between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North
Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea) in which at least 2.5 million
persons lost their lives. The war reached international proportions in June 1950
when North Korea, supplied and advised by the Soviet Union, invaded the South.

• Laissez-faire
o Laissez-faire is an economic theory from the 18th century that opposed any
government intervention in business affairs. The driving principle behind laissez-
faire, a French term that translates as "leave alone" (literally, "let you do"), is that
the less the government is involved in the economy, the better off business will
be—and by extension, society as a whole. Laissez-faire economics are a key part
of free market capitalism.
• Law of Co-determination
o Co-determination is a structure of decision-making within an enterprise whereby
employees and their representatives exert influence on decisions, often at a senior
level and at a relatively early stage. Co-determination may operate in parallel to,
and complement, other industrial relations mechanisms of employee
representation and influence. It does not substitute for other instruments that
enable employee influence on management decision-making, such as collective
bargaining.
• League of Nations
o The League of Nations has its origins in the Fourteen Points speech of President
Woodrow Wilson, part of a presentation given in January 1918 outlining his ideas
for peace after the carnage of World War I. Wilson envisioned an organization that
was charged with resolving conflicts before they exploded into bloodshed and
warfare.
• Liberal Economics
o Economic liberalism is based on the principles of personal liberty, private property,
and limited government interference. The term ‘liberalism’ should be understood
in its historical context. Classical liberalism emphasized liberty from government
 regulation. In the economic context this would include the elimination of restriction
on the choice of occupations or transfers of land. Liberalism asserts that self-
interest is a basic component of human nature. In the economic arena, producers
provide us with goods, not out of concern for our well-being, but due to their desire
to make a profit.
• Liberty
o Liberty, a state of freedom, especially as opposed to political subjection,
imprisonment, or slavery. Its two most generally recognized divisions are political
and civil liberty.
• Liberalism
o It is a political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the
individual to be the central problem of politics. Liberals typically believe that
government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others but
they also recognize that government itself can pose a threat to liberty.
• Limited War
o A limited war is one in which the belligerents do not expend all of the resources at
their disposal whether human, industrial, agricultural, military, natural,
technologica or otherwise in a specific conflict.This may be to preserve those
resources for other purposes or because it might be more difficult for the
participants to use all of an areas resources rather than part of them. Limited war
is the opposite concept to total war.
• Litmus
o It is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens. It is often
adsorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the oldest forms of pH indicator used
to test materials for acidity.
• Loans
o The term loan refers to a type of credit vehicle in which a sum of money is lent to
another party in exchange for future repayment of the value or principal amount.
In many cases, the lender also adds interest and/or finance charges to the principal
value which the borrower must repay in addition to the principal balance. Loans
may be for a specific, one-time amount, or they may be available as an open-
ended line of credit up to a specified limit. Loans come in many different forms
including secured, unsecured, commercial, and personal loans.
• Lufthansa
o It is the largest German Airline which, when combined with its subsidiaries it is the
second largest airline in Europe in terms of passengers carried. The name of the
former flag carrier is derived from the German word Luft meaning air and Hansa
for the Hanseatic League. Lufthansa is one of the five founding members of Star
Alliance the world's largest airline alliance formed in 1997.
• Maastricht Treaty
o The Maastricht Treaty was signed on 7 February 1992 by the leaders of 12
Member States. The Treaty established a timetable for the establishment and
implementation of the EMU. The EMU was to entail a shared economic and
monetary union, a central banking system and a common currency. The European
Central Bank (ECB) was set up in 1998 and the exchange rate was fixed at the
end of the year as a prelude to the formation of the euro currency. The MaastRicht
Treaty came into force on 1 November 1993.
• Mafia
o Mafia, hierarchically organized criminal society predominantly of Italian or Sicilian
origin or extraction. The word refers both to the conventional criminal organization
in Sicily and to the criminal organization in the United States. The Mafia started as
a secret group committed to the overthrow of the rule of foreign conquerors of
Sicily, writes Flavio Brizante. Mafia has attracted representatives of private armies
employed by absentee landlords to defend estates from bandits, he says. Mafia
has survived and outlived successive foreign governments since they have
alienated the island's people, he writes. By around 1900, separate mafia families
and groups of families based in western Sicily had come together in a loose
confederation, Brizzante says. The Mafia dominated much of the economic
activities in their respective localities, he says, and had a code of silence to keep
its members quiet. The right to revenge wrongs has been reserved for victims and
their families, he says.
• Marginalization
o Marginalization is the treatment of a person, group, or concept as insignificant or
peripheral. History books are filled with various citations of discrimination against
the marginalized groups including the scheduled tribes, scheduled caste, the
disabled and women where they were explicitly denied hygienic water, nutritious
food and a safe place to sleep in.
• Manipulations
o The attempt or act to artificially change the price of a security or a market
movement with the intent to make a profit. One example is wash selling, in which
an investor both sells then quickly re-buys the same security, hoping to create the
impression of increased trading volume, and therefore raise the price. Another is
churning, in which an investor makes both buy and sell orders through different
brokers to create the impression of increased interest in the security and raise the
price. Manipulation can be used to both increase and decrease prices, depending
on the investor's perceived needs. Manipulation is illegal under the Securities
Exchange Act of 1934.
• Market
o Market, a means by which the exchange of goods and services takes place as a
result of buyers and sellers being in contact with one another, either directly or
 through mediating agents or institutions. Markets in the most literal and immediate
sense are places in which things are bought and sold. In the modern industrial
system, however, the market is not a place; it has expanded to include the whole
geographical area in which sellers compete with each other for customers.
• McDonaldization
o McDonaldization is a concept developed by American sociologist George Ritzer
which refers to the particular kind of rationalization of production, work, and
consumption that rose to prominence in the late twentieth century. The basic idea
is that these elements have been adapted based on the characteristics of a fast-
food restaurant—efficiency, calculability, predictability and standardization, and
control—and that this adaptation has ripple effects throughout all aspects of
society.
• Meiji Restoration
o Meiji Restoration, in Japanese history, the political revolution in 1868 that brought
about the final demise of the Tokugawa shogunate (military government)—thus
ending the Edo (Tokugawa) period (1603–1867)—and, at least nominally, returned
control of the country to direct imperial rule under Mutsuhito (the emperor Meiji).
• Micro-region
o An administrative system that is equivalent to a county or a prefecture and a
department. Microregion is a designation for territorial entities.
• Middle Powers
o A state that holds a position in the international power spectrum that is in the
“middle”below that of a superpower, which wields vastly superior influence over all
other states or of a great power but with sufficient ability to shape international
events.
• Migration
o It involves the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of
settling, permanently or temporarily at a new location (geographic region). People
may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups.
• Militarism
o Militarism is a belief that a nation should develop, maintain, and use a strong
military to expand its interests. A militaristic country has a large defense force on
which it spends a disproportionate share of its income. The society subordinates
all other national interests to support a strong military.
• Military Aid
o Its stated aim is usually to help allies or poor countries fight terrorism, counter-
insurgencies or to help fight drug wars. The aid may be in the form of training, or
even giving credits for foreign militaries to purchase weapons and equipment from
the donor country. It is argued that strengthening military relationships can
strengthen relationships between nations and military aid may be a way to achieve
that. Where the two nations are democracies, it is believed such relationships can
be strengthened even further when the militaries of the respective nations are fully
behind the principles of democracy.
• Modus Operandi
 o Distinct pattern or manner of working that comes to be associated with a particular
criminal. Criminologists have observed that, whatever the specialty—burglary,
auto theft, or embezzling—the professional criminal is very likely to adhere to their
particular way of operating.
• Moral and Legal Criteria
o Sometimes states are expected to act morally as this is equated with acting
honestly and making your public decision accordingly. Thus moral behavior, in
international politics involves keeping your promise –treaties, living and letting
others live (the poor and the disadvantaged), avoiding exploitation and uneven
development between the developing countries and the developed ones; and
generally standing up for the principles to which you are morally committed and
that are widely accepted in your culture. Acting legally means, abiding by the rules
of international law to the extent that such rules are identified and accepted. If there
are lacunas, areas where no international regimes have been developed, then you
act in a general spirit of equity and justice.
• Multilateral Forum
o In international relations, multilateralism refers to an alliance of multiple countries
pursuing a common goal. In the form of membership in international institutions, it
serves to bind powerful nations, discourage unilateralism, and give small powers
a voice and influence that they could not otherwise exercise.
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
o The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency is an international institution that
promotes investment in developing countries by offering political and economic
risk insurance. By promoting foreign direct investment into developing countries,
the agency aims to support economic growth, reduce poverty, and improve
people’s lives. The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) is a member
of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington, D.C. As of March
2020, 181 member governments make up MIGA—156 developing nations and
another 25 industrialized countries.
• Multipolar System
o A multipolar system is a system in which power is distributed at least among 3
significant poles concentrating wealth and/or military capabilities and able to block
or disrupt major political arrangements threatening their major interests.
• Mutual Defense Alliance
o These treaties meant that if one country was attacked, allied countries were bound
to defend them. Before World War 1, the following alliances existed: Russia and
Serbia, Germany and Austria-Hungary, France and Russia, Britain and France and
Belgium, Japan and Britain.
• Nation
o Historical entities that evolve organically out of more similar ethnic communities
and they reveal themselves in myths, legends, and songs. It constitutes a
community of people, have shared identity, and shares common social practices.
• Nationalism
o The masses identify with their common past, their language, customs, and
practices. Individuals who share such characteristics are motivated to participate
actively in the political process as a group.
• Nationalist terrorism
o Nationalist terrorism is a form of terrorism motivated by nationalism. Nationalist
terrorists seek to form self-determination in some form, which may range from
gaining greater autonomy to establishing a completely independent, sovereign
state. Military actions primarily directed against non-combatant targets have also
been referred to as state terrorism. For example, the bombing of Guernica has
been called an act of terrorism. Other examples of state terrorism may include the
World War II bombings of Pearl Harbor, London, Dresden, Chongqing, and
Hiroshima.
• Nation-state
o A nation state is a state in which a great majority shares the same culture and is
conscious of it. The nation state is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up
with political boundaries.According to one definition, "a nation state is a sovereign
state of which most of its subjects are united also by factors which define a nation
such as language or common descent." It is a more precise concept than "country",
since a country does not need to have a predominant ethnic group.
• Neoliberalism
o is an economic concept which promotes free trade and economy. This concept
came into being in the 20th century. The main idea connoted by this concept is
that free economic policies should be given prominence and government spending
should be reduced in order to increase the private sector intervention in the
economy. This was a massive change in the existing economic policies and
neoliberalism mainly focused on issues like privatization, cutting down the
economic regulations, free trade, etc.
• Neorealism
o Neorealism is an outgrowth of traditional balance-of-power (or “realist”) theories of
international relations and was first articulated by Kenneth Waltz in 1975 and 1979.
It is distinguished from the older theory primarily by its attempt to be more explicitly
theoretical, in a style akin to economics—especially by its self-conscious
comparisons of great-power politics to an oligopolistic market and its willfully
simple assumptions about the nature of international relations. Neorealism is also
termed “structural realism,” and a few neorealist writers sometimes refer to their
 theories simply as “realist” to emphasize the continuity between their own and
older views.
• Neutrality
o It is the tendency not to side in a conflict (physical or ideological), which may not
suggest neutral parties do not have a side or are not a side themselves. In
colloquial use neutral can be synonymous with unbiased. However, bias is a
favoritism for some side, distinct of the tendency to act on that favoritism.
• Nonalignment
o The political attitude of a state that does not associate or identify itself with the
political ideology or objective espoused by other states, groups of states, or
international causes, or with the foreign policies stemming therefrom. It does not
preclude involvement, but expresses the attitude of no precommitment to a
particular state (or block) or policy before a situation arises.
• Nongovernmental Organizations
o A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a non-profit group that functions
independently of any government. NGOs, sometimes called civil societies, are
organized on community, national and international levels to serve a social or
political goal such as humanitarian causes or the environment.
• Normative
o Normative economics is a perspective on economics that reflects normative, or
ideologically prescriptive judgments toward economic development, investment
projects, statements, and scenarios.

• Offshore Financial Centers

o Offshore can refer to a variety of foreign-based entities or accounts. In order to
qualify as offshore, the accounts or entity must be based in any country other than
the customer’s or investor’s home nation. Many countries, territories, and
jurisdictions have offshore financial centers (OFCs). These include well-known
centers such as Switzerland, Bermuda, or the Cayman Islands, and lesser-known
centers such as Mauritius, Dublin, and Belize. The level of regulatory standards
and transparency differs widely among OFCs.
• One World
o Oneworld is an airline alliance founded on February 1, 1999. The alliance's stated
objective is to be the first choice airline alliance for the world's frequent
international travelers. Its central alliance office is in New York City, and its
member airlines are American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific, Finnair,
Iberia, Japan Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Qantas, Qatar Airways, Royal Air Maroc,
Royal Jordanian, S7 Airlines and SriLankan Airlines, as well as Fiji Airways as a
connect partner and some 30 affiliated airlines. As of October 2017, Oneworld is
the third-largest global alliance in terms of passengers with more than 527.9 million
passengers carried, behind SkyTeam (630M) and Star Alliance (762M).
• Open Trade
o The economic case for an open trading system based on multilaterally agreed
rules is simple enough and rests largely on commercial common sense. But it is
also supported by evidence: the experience of world trade and economic growth
since the Second World War. Tariffs on industrial products have fallen steeply and
now average less than 5% in industrial countries. During the first 25 years after the
war, world economic growth averaged about 5% per year, a high rate that was
partly the result of lower trade barriers. World trade grew even faster, averaging
about 8% during the period.
• Organization of African Unity
o Organization of African Unity, an intergovernmental organization, established in
2002, to promote unity and solidarity of African states, to spur economic
development, and to promote international cooperation. The African Union (AU)
replaced the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The AU’s headquarters are in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
• Organization of American States
o The Organization of American States, or the OAS or OEA, is an international
organization that was founded on 30 April 1948, for the purposes of solidarity and
cooperation among its member states within the Western Hemisphere. During the
Cold War, the United States hoped the OAS would be a bulwark against the spread
of communism. Since the 1990s, the organization has focused on election
monitoring.
• Ottoman Empire
o The Ottoman Empire was founded by the Turkish tribes in Anatolia (Asia Minor)
and was one of the most powerful states in the world in the 15th and 16th centuries.
At its height, it reached much of south-eastern Europe to the gates of Vienna. The
Empire ended in 1922 when it was replaced by the Republic of Turkey and its
successor states. The word Ottoman is a dynastic name derived from Osman I,
the nomadic Turkmen chief who established the dynasty and empire around 1300.
• Oxfam
o It is a confederation of 20 independent charitable organizations focusing on the
alleviation of global poverty, founded in 1942 and led by Oxfam International. It is
a major nonprofit group with an extensive collection of operations.

• Partisan Criteria
o Equating the survival and the success of the political party, or ethnic or religious
origin with the survival and success of your country. In similar fashion, you may
use bureaucratic criteria to prioritize the policy issues. You may tend to equate the
interest of your organization (the army, the foreign office, and so forth) with the
national interest. Given limited budgetary resources, battles among different
offices for more budget allocation might be waged.
• Pax Britannica
o The word Pax Britannica refers to the time between the Napoleonic Wars of 1815
and the beginning of the First World War of 1914. This time was relatively free from
military confrontation between major powers. Britain was undeniably the strongest
nation, both militarily and economically. There is no consensus on the degree to
which British influence can be credited with a century-long "pax"
• Paradoxical
o Seemingly absurd or self-contradictory. Paradoxical is an adjective that describes
a paradox, something with two meanings that don't make sense together. Its Greek
roots translate to “contrary opinion,” and when two different opinions collide in one
statement or action, that's paradoxical.
• Peacebuilding
o Peacebuilding seeks to reduce the possibility of a lapse or relapse into conflict by
improving national capacities at all levels for conflict management and to lay the
foundations for sustainable peace and development. The process of establishing
the necessary conditions for lasting peace is complex and long-term.
Peacebuilding initiatives resolve key problems affecting the functioning of society
and the State and aim to improve the State's capacity to execute its core functions
efficiently and legitimately.
• Philosophy
o Philosophy, (from Greek, by way of Latin, philosophia, “love of wisdom”) the
rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of
fundamental dimensions of human existence and experience. Philosophical
inquiry is a central element in the intellectual history of many civilizations.
• Piracy
o Is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon
another ship or a coastal area typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other
valuable items or properties. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates
while the dedicated ships that pirates use are called pirate ships.
• Polarity
o Polarity is a relationship between two opposite characteristics or tendencies, like
the polarity of two sides of a debate, or of the superhero and villain in a comic
book. A relation between two opposite attributes or tendencies
• Political Dimension
o Use of the Internet for bringing the government’s political agenda closer to citizens
and the implementation of bias-free policies for the dissemination of information.
• Politico-economic Order
o Political economy is an interdisciplinary branch of the social sciences that focuses
on the interrelationships among individuals, governments, and public policy. The
field of political economy is the study of how economic theories such as capitalism
or communism play out in the real world.
• Population
o A population is the entire pool from which a statistical sample is drawn. A
population may refer to an entire group of people, objects, events, hospital visits
 or measurements. A population can thus be said to be an aggregate observation
of subjects grouped together by a common feature.
• Portfolio Investment
o Are investments in the form of a group of assets including transactions in equity,
securities such as common stock and debt securities such as banknotes, bonds,
and debentures.
• Poverty
o Poverty is a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial
resources and essentials for a minimum standard of living. Poverty means that the
income level from employment is so low that basic human needs can't be met.
• Power Transition Theory
o Power transition theory is a theory in international relations that examines the
relations between states in the international system. Power transition theory was
first argued in the late 1950s by Organski. This theory focuses on the hierarchical
nature of states in the international system.
• Pragmatism
o It is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology or
proposition is true if it works satisfactorily that the meaning of a proposition is to be
found in the practical consequences of accepting it and that unpractical ideas are
to be rejected. Pragmatism originated in the United States during the latter quarter
of the 19th century. Although it has significantly influenced non-philosophers
notably in the fields of law, education, politics, sociology, psychology and literary
criticism this article deals with it only as a movement within philosophy.
• Pragmatic Criteria
o Orientation is low key, matter of fact, not on emotions and professions. Looking at
issues and events around and the world with a sense of prudence and with sort of
rationality. On the basis of the scientific analysis of cost and benefit or merit and
demerit to the country interest, actions can be done. The decisions are made
without considering normative issues, issues that involve judgment, be it bad or
good.
• Prisoners’ Dilemma
o A prisoner’s dilemma is a decision-making and game theory paradox illustrating
that two rational individuals making decisions in their own self-interest cannot
result in an optimal solution. The paradox was developed by mathematicians M.
Flood and M. Dresher in 1950, and the modern interpretation was conceptualized
by Canadian mathematician A.W. Tucker. The prisoner’s dilemma shows that in a
non-cooperative situation, even a more attractive strategy can lead to worse
results.
• Proletariats
o The proletariat is the lowest or one of the lowest economic and social classes in
society. In Karl Marx's theory, the word proletariat refers to the class of wage
laborers engaged in industrial production and whose main source of income was
the selling of their labor power. In Marxian literature, it differentiated itself as an
economic group from the poor, the working classes, and the Lumpenproletariat.
 Because of its subordinate position in capitalist society and the effects of periodic
depression on wages and employment, the proletariat, as Marxists have described
it, continues to live in poverty.
• Propaganda
o It is the dissemination of information facts, arguments, rumours, half-truths or lies
to influence public opinion. Propaganda is the more or less systematic effort to
manipulate other people's beliefs, attitudes or actions by means of symbols
(words, gestures, banners, monuments, music, clothing, insignia, hairstyles,
designs on coins and postage stamps, and so forth). Deliberateness and a
relatively heavy emphasis on manipulation distinguish propaganda from casual
conversation or the free and easy exchange of ideas.
• Prudence
o The ability to govern and discipline oneself by the use of reason. It is classically
considered to be a virtue, and in particular one of the four Cardinal virtues.

• Quota
o To control imports of some commodities, governments may establish quotas rather
than tariffs (tariffs may of course be applied to the items entered under quota).
Under such an arrangement, the supplier usually sends his goods into the country
at a favorable price, but is allowed to sell only a certain amount in a given time
period.

• Radicalism
o Radicalism was a historical political movement within liberalism during the late 18th
and early 19th centuries and a precursor to social liberalism. Its identified radicals
were proponents of democratic reform in what subsequently became the
parliamentary Radicals in the United Kingdom.
• Raison d'etat
o The reason for the state, to justify its actions and policy towards other states at
international level.
• Rationale
o The rationale for something is the basic or underlying reason or explanation for it.
• Realism
o Based on a view of the individual as primarily selfish and power-seeking.
Individuals are organized in states, each of which acts in a unitary way, in pursuit
of their own national interest, defined in terms of power. States exist in an anarchic
international system, characterized by the absence of an authoritative hierarchy.
They can only rely on themselves. They rely on the balance of power and
deterrence to keep the international system intact and non-threatening as possible.
• Refugee
o A refugee is someone who has been forced to leave his country because of
persecution, war or abuse. A refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution on
grounds of race, faith, ethnicity, political opinion or membership of a specific social
group. Most likely, they will not be able to return home or are reluctant to do so.
War and national, tribal and religious abuse are the main causes of refugees
fleeing their countries.
• Regimes
o From French word régime. A form of government that establishes a systematic
way of doing things or setting rules, measures, or norms for attaining the goal and
decisions are made by the government.
• Region
o In the field of social sciences, a coherent area which is homogeneous in the chosen
description criteria and which is differentiated by those criteria from neighboring
areas or regions. It is an intellectual construct created by the collection of features
appropriate to a specific problem and the non-compliance with other features
considered irrelevant. A zone is distinct from an area that is typically a wider
definition of a portion of the Earth's surface. The boundaries of the region are
arbitrary, defined for convenience. The regional boundaries are defined by the
homogeneity and cohesion of the segment.
• Regional Integration
o Regional integration is a mechanism in which two or more nation states agree to
collaborate and work closely together to achieve peace, prosperity and resources.
Integration typically includes one or more formal agreements specifying the areas
of collaboration in detail. This partnership generally starts with economic
integration and, as it progresses, involves political integration.
• Regionalism
o In politics, regionalism is a political ideology focusing on the "development of a
political or social system based on one or more" regions and/or the national,
normative or economic interests of a specific region, group of regions or another
subnational entity, gaining strength from or aiming to strengthen the
"consciousness of and loyalty to a distinct region with a homogeneous population",
similarly to nationalism. More specifically, "regionalism refers to three distinct
elements: movements demanding territorial autonomy within unitary states; the
organization of the central state on a regional basis for the delivery of its policies
including regional development policies; political decentralization and regional
autonomy".
• Regionalization
o Can be defined as a politico- administrative process by which regions emerge as
relevant units of analysis for economic and political activity and welfare and service
provision. In many cases this notion of regionalization can be. equated to notions
of 'regionalization from above' or.
• Religious terrorism
o A type of religious violence where terrorism is used as a tactic to achieve religious
goals or which are influenced by religious identity. In the modern age, after the
decline of ideas such as the divine right of kings and with the rise of nationalism,
terrorism has more often been based on anarchism, and revolutionary politics.
Since 1980, however, there has been an increase in terrorist activity motivated by
religion.

• Sanctions
o In law and legal definition, are penalties or other means of enforcement used to
provide incentives for obedience with the law, or with rules and regulations.
Criminal sanctions can take the form of serious punishment, such as corporal or
capital punishment, incarceration, or severe fines.
• Scarce
o Scarcity as an economic concept that refers to the basic fact of life that there exists
only a finite amount of human and nonhuman resources which the best technical
knowledge is capable of using to produce only limited maximum amounts of each
economic good.
• Scope
o A second foreign policy dimension is the scope of a country’s activities and
interests. Some countries have extensive, far-reaching international contacts,
while other countries have more limited activities abroad. A country’s scope of
contact can affect the outcome of disputes and crises. With regards to the scope
of activities a state has in international relations, one can identify at least three
patterns of foreign policy behaviors. Some actors act in Global terms, others as
Regional terms, and those that follow policy of Isolationism.
• Scrutinize
o scan, inspect, examine or inspect closely and thoroughly.
• Secretariat
o A permanent administrative office or department, especially a governmental one.
For example, in the United Nations, the Secretariat carries out the substantive and
administrative work of the United Nations as directed by the General Assembly,
the Security Council and the other organs. At its head is the Secretary-General,
who provides overall administrative guidance.
• Security Council
o The Security Council is the primary instrument for establishing and maintaining
international peace. Its main purpose is to prevent war by settling disputes
between nations. Under the charter, the council is permitted to dispatch a UN force
to stop aggression. All member nations undertake to make available armed forces,
assistance, and facilities to maintain international peace and security. The Security
Council has 15 members. There are five permanent members: the United States,
the Russian Federation, Britain, France and China and ten temporary members
 elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms from five different regions of
the world.
• Security Dilemma
o It is a term used in international relations and refers to a situation in which under
anarchy actions by a state intended to heighten its security such as increasing its
military strength, committing to use weapons or making alliances that can lead
other states to respond with similar measures producing increased tensions that
create conflict even when no side really desires it.
• Self-abnegation
o The denial of one's own interests in favour of the interests of others. Self-denial is
an act of letting go of the self as with altruistic abstinence – the willingness to forgo
personal pleasures or undergo personal trials in the pursuit of the increased good
of another.
• Self-extension
o According to Gordon Allport, self-extension is seen when a child starts to
incorporate people and objects into the self-concept. It is an investment in ego
where things are brought from outside the self that a person feels an affinity with.
• Self-preservation
o Self-preservation is a behavior or set of behaviors that ensures the survival of an
organism. It is universal among all living organisms. Pain and fear are integral parts
of this mechanism.
• Single European Act
o The Single European Act (SEA) is the agreement enacted by the European
Economic Community (EEC) precursor to the European Community and later, the
European Union that committed its member countries to a timetable for their
economic merger and the establishment of a single European currency and
common foreign and domestic policies. It was signed in February 1986 in
Luxembourg and The Hague and entered into force on July 1, 1987. Several
significant provisions of the SEA brought important modifications to the
foundational treaties of the 1950s that had established the European Communities
the EEC, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European
Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).
• Skeptic
o Skepticism or scepticism is generally a questioning attitude or doubt towards one
or more putative instances of knowledge which are asserted to be mere belief or
dogma. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly
epistemology.
• Smaller Weaker States
o Also known as small power in the international system may never equal or surpass
the effect of larger powers, they can nevertheless influence the workings of the
international system together with others. The formalization of the division between
small and great powers came about with the signing of the Treaty of Chaumont in
1814.
• Socialism
o It is a populist economic and political system based on public ownership also
known as collective or common ownership of the means of production. Those
means include the machinery, tools and factories used to produce goods that aim
to directly satisfy human needs. Communism and socialism are umbrella terms
referring to two left-wing schools of economic thought both oppose capitalism but
socialism predates the "Communist Manifesto" in 1848 pamphlet by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels, by a few decades.
• Sovereignty
o Sovereignty is the power that a country has to govern itself or another country or
state. An independent state who has supreme and unrestricted power.
• Soviet Union
o Short for the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics of USSR, was a single-party
Marxist–Leninist state. It was the first country to declare itself socialist and build
towards a communist society. It was a union of 14 Soviet socialist republics and
one Soviet federative socialist republic (Russia).
• Stable Exchange Rates
o Also known as a fixed exchange rate, sometimes called a pegged exchange rate,
is a type of exchange rate regime in which a currency's value is fixed or pegged
by a monetary authority against the value of another currency, a basket of other
currencies, or another measure of value, such as gold.
• State
o The state is a form of human association distinguished from other social groups by
its purpose, the establishment of order and security; its methods, the laws and their
enforcement; its territory, the area of jurisdiction or geographic boundaries; and
finally by its sovereignty.
• State Terrorism
o Refers to acts of terrorism which a state conducts against another state or against
its own citizens.
• Strife
o Angry or bitter disagreement over fundamental issues; conflict. An act of
contention : fight, struggle. Exertion or contention for superiority.
• Structuralism
o The intellectual movement and philosophical orientation often associated initially
with the Western discourses of Levi-Strauss, Marx, and Althusser, for example,
who claimed to analyze and explain invariant structures in and constitutive of
nature, society, and the human psyche.
• Sub-region
o A subregion is a part of a larger region or continent and is usually based on
location. Cardinal directions, such as south or southern, are commonly used to
define a subregion.
• Surplus value
o In Marxian economics, surplus value is the difference between the amount raised
through a sale of a product and the amount it costs to the owner of the products to
manufacture it the amount raised through sale of the product minus the cost of the
materials, plant and labour power. The concept originated in Ricardian socialism
with the term "surplus value" itself being coined by William Thompson in 1824, it
was not consistently distinguished from the related concepts of surplus labor and
surplus product. The concept was subsequently developed and popularized by
Karl Marx.
• Synoptic
o Forming a general summary or synopsis. Affording a general view of a whole.
Manifesting or characterized by comprehensiveness or breadth of view.
Presenting or taking the same or common view specifically, often capitalized: of or
relating to the first three Gospels of the New Testament.

• Tangible
o Property that a phenomenon exhibits if it has and/or transports mass and/or energy
and/or momentum". A commonplace understanding of "tangibility" renders it as an
attribute allowing something to be perceptible to the senses.
• Tariff
o It is a tax imposed by a government on goods and services imported from other
countries that serves to increase the price and make imports less desirable or least
competitive. Tariffs are generally introduced as a means of restricting trade from
particular countries or reducing the importation of specific types of goods and
services.
• Taxation
o It is a term for when a taxing authority, usually a government, levies or imposes a
financial obligation on its citizen or residents and its based on the earnings and
properties. The money raised from taxation supports the government and allows it
to fund police and courts, have a military, build and maintain roads, along with
many other services. Taxation is the price of being a citizen, though politicians and
citizens often argue about how much taxation is too little or too much.
• Territory
o Is an administrative division usually an area that is under the jurisdiction of a
sovereign state. It is an organized division that is controlled by a country but is not
formally developed into a political unit of the country that is equal status to other
political units that may often be referred to such as provinces, regions or states.
• Terrorism
o Terrorism, the calculated use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a
population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective. Terrorism has
been practiced by political organizations with both rightist and leftist objectives, by
 nationalistic and religious groups, by revolutionaries, and even by state institutions
such as armies, intelligence services, and police.
• The Balkans
o It is also known Balkan Peninsula, are geographic area in Southeastern Europe.
The concept of the Balkan Peninsula was created by the German geographer
August Zeune in 1808 who mistakenly considered the Balkan Mountains the
dominant mountain system of Southeast Europe spanning from the Adriatic Sea
to the Black Sea. The term Balkan Peninsula was a synonym for Rumelia in the
19th century, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire in Southeast Europe. It had a
geopolitical rather than a geographical definition, which was further promoted
during the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the early 20th century.
• The Triple Alliance
o It was an agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. It was formed
on 20 May 1882 and renewed periodically until it expired in 1915 during World War
I. Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879. Italy was
looking for support against France shortly after it lost North African ambitions to
the French. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by
any other great power. The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary
were to assist Italy if it was attacked by France without provocation. In turn, Italy
would assist Germany if attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-
Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral. The existence and
membership of the treaty were well known but its exact provisions were kept secret
until 1919.
• The Triple Entente
o The Triple Entente describes the informal understanding between the Russian
Empire, the French Third Republic and Great Britain. It built upon the Franco-
Russian Alliance of 1894, the Entente Cordiale of 1904 between Paris and London,
and the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907.
• Theoretical Analysis
o Theoretical analysis focuses on the practical application of data and results
obtained via empirical methods.
• Trade Policy Review Mechanism
o The purpose of the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (“TPRM”) is to contribute to
improved adherence by all Members to rules, disciplines and commitments made
under the Multilateral Trade Agreements and, where applicable, the Plurilateral
Trade Agreements, and hence to the smoother functioning of the multilateral
trading system, by achieving greater transparency in, and understanding of, the
trade policies and practices of Members.
• Traditional Peacekeeping
o Interpositional Missions, also known as traditional peacekeeping, are larger
contingents of lightly armed troops meant to serve as a buffer between belligerent
factions in the aftermath of a conflict. ... The military force is substantial in size and
fairly well-equipped by UN Peacekeeping standards.
• Tragedy of the Commons
o A problem in economics that occurs when individuals neglect the well-being of
society in the pursuit of personal gain. This leads to over-consumption and
ultimately depletion of the common resource, to everybody's detriment.
• Transformationalist
o A theory which holds that globalisation is a complex process involving a number
of different two-way exchanges between global institutions and local cultures; it
can be reversed and controlled. Transformationalists argue that the flow of culture
is not one way, from the west to the developing world; it is a two-way exchange in
which Western culture is also influenced, changed and enriched by cultures in the
developing world.
• Transnational Corporations
o It is an enterprise that is involved with the international production of goods or
services, foreign investments or income and asset management in more than one
country. It sets up manufacturing factories in developing countries as land is
cheaper there.
• Treaties
o A binding formal agreement, contract or other written instrument that establishes
obligations between two or more subjects of international law. The rules
concerning treaties between states are contained in the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties (1969) and those between states and international organizations
appear in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties Between States and
International Organizations or Between International Organizations (1986).
• Treaty of Versailles
o The Treaty of Versailles was the primary treaty established by the Paris Peace
Conference at the end of the First World War. It was signed on 28 June 1919 by
the Allied and Associated Powers and by Germany. The Treaty gave some
German territories to neighboring countries and put other German territories under
international supervision. Germany has been deprived of its overseas colonies and
its military capabilities have been heavily limited. It also required Germany to pay
war reparations to the Allied countries and to set up the League of Nations. The
United States has not ratified the Treaty.
• Treaty of Westphalia
o This was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in
Osnabrück and Münster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy
Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic,
with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic.
• Trusteeship Council
o One of the six principal organs of the United Nations, established to help ensure
that trust territories were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and
of international peace and security. The trust territories—most of them former
mandates of the League of Nations or territories taken from nations defeated at
the end of World War II—have all now attained self-government or independence,
 either as separate nations or by joining neighbouring independent countries. The
last was Palau, formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, which
became a member state of the United Nations in December 1994.

• Unconventional warfare
o The support of a foreign insurgency or resistance movement against its
government or an occupying power. Whereas conventional warfare is used to
reduce the opponent's military capability directly through attacks and maneuvers,
unconventional warfare is an attempt to achieve victory indirectly through a proxy
force.UW contrasts with conventional warfare in that forces are often covert or not
well-defined and it relies heavily on subversion and guerrilla warfare.
• Unipolar System
o Unipolarity in international politics is a distribution of power in which one state
exercises most of the cultural, economic, and military influence. Unipolarity is an
interstate system and not an empire. Unipolar system is more stable than either
bipolarity or multipolarity.
• United Nations
o It is an intergovernmental organization that aims to maintain international peace
and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international
cooperation and be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations. And it is the
largest, most familiar, most internationally represented and most powerful
intergovernmental organization in the world.
• Universal Jurisdiction
o It is refers to the idea that a national court may prosecute individuals for serious
crimes against international law such as crimes against human, war crime,
genocide and torture. Allow state or international organizations to claim criminal
jurisdiction over an accused person regardless of where alleged crime was
committed. Crimes prosecuted under universal jurisdiction are considered crimes
against all, too serious to tolerate jurisdiction arbitrage.
• UN Charter
o The Charter of the United Nations was signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco,
at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organization,
and came into force on 24 October 1945. The Statute of the International Court of
Justice is an integral part of the Charter. The Charter of the United Nations is the
foundational treaty of the United Nations, an intergovernmental organization.
• UN Conference on the Environment and Development
o United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), byname
Earth Summit, conference held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 3–14, 1992), to
reconcile worldwide economic development with protection of the environment.
The Earth Summit was the largest gathering of world leaders as of 1992, with 117
heads of state and representatives of 178 nations in all attending. By means of
treaties and other documents signed at the conference, most of the world’s nations
 nominally committed themselves to the pursuit of economic development in ways
that would protect the Earth’s environment and nonrenewable resources.
• UN International Law Commission
o The International Law Commission is a body of experts responsible for helping
develop and codify international law. It is composed of 34 individuals recognized
for their expertise and qualifications in international law, who are elected by the
United Nations General Assembly every five years.
• Utopian Theory
o Utopianism is an umbrella term that refers to the dreams and nightmares that drive
much political action. Utopias are a manifestation of utopianism and they tend
either to be positive (utopian) or negative (dystopian). Some utopias contain both
utopian and dystopian visions of the future. All utopias share certain features. For
example, they stem from discontent with the present and identify key themes to be
wrong with their author's world.

• Veto power
o A veto is the power to unilaterally stop an official action, especially the enactment
of legislation. For instance, the United Nations Security Council "veto power" refers
to the power of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China,
France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States) to veto any
"substantive" resolution. However, a permanent member's abstention or absence
does not prevent a draft resolution from being adopted. This veto power does not
apply to "procedural" votes, as determined by the permanent members
themselves. A permanent member can also block the selection of a Secretary-
General, although a formal veto is unnecessary since the vote is taken behind
closed doors.
• Villagization
o It is the resettlement of people into designated villages by government or military
authorities. Villagization may be used as a tactic of government or military power
to facilitate control over a previously scattered rural population believed to harbour
disloyal or rebel elements.
• Vis-à-vis
o Vis-à-vis is a loanword from French and its literal meaning is face-to-face.

• War
o It is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies or
parliamentary groups. It is generally characterized by extreme violence,
aggression, destruction and mortality using regular and irregular military forces.
• Washington Consensus
o It refers to a set of free market economic policies supported by prominent financial
institutions such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the U.S
Treasury. A British economist named John Williamson coined the term Washington
Consensus in 1989.
• Weapons of mass destruction
o A weapon capable of causing death and destruction on such a large scale that its
very existence in the hands of hostile force can be considered a serious threat.
Modern weapons of mass destruction are nuclear, biological or chemical weapons.
During the Cold War, the U.S., the Soviet Union, and other major powers
developed a large array of nuclear missiles, rocket warheads, and artillery shells.
Proliferation has been the key concern, i.e. the ability for weaker forces, "rogue
states," or foreign terrorist organizations to obtain the means to manufacture and
distribute weapons of mass destruction. Efforts to monitor the spread of nuclear
weapons are enshrined in international agreements.
• World War I
o The First World War, also known as the Great War, began in 1914 after the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. By the time the war was
over, more than 16 million people had died. World War I killed more than 9 million
soldiers; 21 million more were injured. The two nations most affected were
Germany and France, both of whom sent some 80 per cent of their population to
fight. The Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919, would not have
accomplished the ambitious goal of creating a post-war world that would be
protected from war. Two decades later, when Germany felt pressured into signing
the treaty, it would be counted among the causes of World War II.
• World War II
o World War II affected nearly every part of the world between 1939 and 1945. The
war was, in many ways, a continuation of the conflicts left unsettled by the First
World War. It was the bloodiest conflict, as well as the greatest war in history.
400,000–50,000,000 deaths in the Second World War made it the bloodier conflict
and the greatest war in history in terms of the number of people killed. On 22 June
1941, the U.S.R. and Germany declared war on Germany with the German
invasion of the Soviet Union. The Allied landings in Normandy, on 6 June 1944,
opened a second front in Europe, and Germany's abortive offensive in the
Ardennes marked the final drive of the Third Reich in the West. The Red Army
marched from the east and essentially claimed all the territories under its control.
Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945, and the war in Europe ended on 8 May.
In August 1945, the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki brought Japan
out of the war.
• Xenocentrism
o Xenocentrism: A preference for the products, styles, or ideas of a different culture.
Cultures vary across various regions, both in material and non-material terms. The
process of globalization has made it possible for us to know about the other
cultures that exist around the world and further get in touch with the global markets,
this gives us access to the various products, styles, and lifestyles of the cultures
outside our own. The knowledge of other foreign cultures is what gives rise to
xenocentrism, which is the tendency to value others' culture, values, styles,
products, etc, more than our own.

• Yen
o an aluminum coin and monetary unit of Japan, equal to 100 sen or 1000 rin.
Symbol: ¥

• Zimmerman Telegram
o It is also called Zimmerman Note, which is a coded telegram sent January 16, 1917
by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann to the german minister in
Mexico. The note revealed a plan to renew unrestricted submarine warfare and to
form an alliance with Mexico and Japan if the United States declared war on
Germany. The message was intercepted by the British and passed on to the United
States and its publication caused outrage and contributed to the U.S. entry into
World War I.
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