RESEARCH IN

INTERNATIONAL
STUDIES
RESEARCH REPORT

FINAL EXAM
BY DONALY M. PINKIHAN 1/23/22
INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
 INTRODUCTION
International studies are an increasingly common major, not only in liberal arts colleges
but also in public institutions. What unites all of these programs is that they try to interpret major
global trends in manner that is multidisciplinary; that is, they draw on faculty and ways of looking
at the world that come from many different areas (Ishiyama and Breuning 2004; Hey 2004). A
scholar in international studies might utilize the writing of political philosophers to describe the
global economy or consider how films reflect new trends in cultural globalization. This cross-
pollination among multiple disciplines is central to the field. International studies programs also
share certain common characteristics, such as an emphasis on language competence and various
dimensions of globalization.

The related term “global studies” is preferred by some scholars because it removes the
focus on the nation-state and places it instead on the transnational processes and issues that are
key in an era defined by globalization. Global studies programs also often stress the importance
of race, class, and gender in international affairs, as well as the importance of social responsibility.
Both international studies and global studies programs share a commitment to interdisciplinary
work, a focus on globalization and change, and an emphasis on how global trends impact
humanity. They both also differ from international relations, an older discipline within political
science that emphasizes ties between nations and topics with clear importance to nation-states,
such as war, economics, and diplomacy. Finally, both international and global studies share a
concern with global citizenship.

Why Study International Studies?

The International Studies major is an interdisciplinary program designed to give students

an awareness of the diversity, complexity and interdependence of the world community, and to
provide them with the necessary background to understand and analyze the political, economic,
social, and cultural aspects of current world problems and issues. The International Studies major
offers students the cultural competency necessary to be successful in an increasingly complex and
global job market. It prepares students for careers in government, international organizations,
journalism, international consulting, business, education, community development, and human
rights work with non-government organizations. It also provides a foundation for graduate work
in such disciplines and programs of study as law, international studies, international relations, area
studies, public policy and public administration.
 SCOPE/PARTS OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

HISTORY

History is the study of change over time, and it covers all aspects of human society.
Political, social, economic, scientific, technological, medical, cultural, intellectual, religious and
military developments are all part of history. Usually professional historians specialize in a
particular aspect of history, a specific time period, a certain approach to history or a specific
geographic region.

History can take the form of a tremendous story, a rolling narrative filled with great personalities
and tales of turmoil and triumph. Each generation adds its own chapters to history while
reinterpreting and finding new things in those chapters already written.

History provides us with a sense of identity. By understanding where we have come from, we can
better understand who we are. History provides a sense of context for our lives and our existence.
It helps us understand the way things are and how we might approach the future.

History teaches us what it means to be human, highlighting the great achievements and disastrous
errors of the human race. History also teaches us through example, offering hints about how we
can better organise and manage our societies for the benefit of all.

Those new to studying history often think history and the past are the same thing. This is
not the case. The past refers to an earlier time, the people and societies who inhabited it and the
events that took place there. History describes our attempts to research, study and explain the
past. This is a subtle difference but an important one. What happened in the past is fixed in time
and cannot be changed. In contrast, history changes regularly. The past is concrete and
unchangeable but history is an ongoing conversation about the past and its meaning.
The word “history” and the English word “story” both originate from the Latin historia,
meaning a narrative or account of past events. History is itself a collection of thousands of stories
about the past, told by many different people.
GLOBALIZATION

Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s
economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services,
technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. Countries have built economic
partnerships to facilitate these movements over many centuries. But the term gained popularity
after the Cold War in the early 1990s, as these cooperative arrangements shaped modern everyday
life. This guide uses the term more narrowly to refer to international trade and some of the
investment flows among advanced economies, mostly focusing on the United States.

The wide-ranging effects of globalization are complex and politically charged. As with
major technological advances, globalization benefits society as a whole, while harming certain
groups. Understanding the relative costs and benefits can pave the way for alleviating problems
while sustaining the wider payoffs.

THE HISTORY OF GLOBALIZATION IS DRIVEN BY TECHNOLOGY, TRANSPORTATION, AND

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Since ancient times, humans have sought distant places to settle, produce, and exchange goods
enabled by improvements in technology and transportation. But not until the 19th century did
global integration take off. Following centuries of European colonization and trade activity, that
first “wave” of globalization was propelled by steamships, railroads, the telegraph, and other
breakthroughs, and also by increasing economic cooperation among countries. The globalization
trend eventually waned and crashed in the catastrophe of World War I, followed by
postwar protectionism, the Great Depression, and World War II. After World War II in the mid-
1940s, the United States led efforts to revive international trade and investment under negotiated
ground rules, starting a second wave of globalization, which remains ongoing, though buffeted
by periodic downturns and mounting political scrutiny.

TYPES OF GLOBALIZATION

1. ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION

Economic globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a

result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international
capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual
integration of market frontiers, and is an irreversible trend for the economic development in the
whole world at the turn of the millennium.
 Whereas once McDonald’s only existed in the USA and HSBC only existed in the UK, now
these companies are all over the world in a ‘globalized economy’. You will also notice the
movement of manufacturing industries to developing nations to make the most of low wages and
lowers the price of goods. This can help developing nations increase overall employment but can
be considered exploitation of nations with poor working conditions. It also takes good paying
jobs away from developed nations.

2. POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

Political Globalization refers to the diplomatic negotiations between nation-states. It

includes the standardization of global rules around trade, criminality, and the rules of law.

International bodies including the United Nations, European Union and World Trade
Organization are key multinational organizations designed to facilitate increasing political
globalization. This includes growing free trade and multilateral agreements on investment.

One of the biggest positives of political globalization is that it creates international rule of
law. It helps prevent war crimes and polices bad actors on the international stage. It can also help
speed up other forms of globalization, like economic globalization, because standardized rules
around food and trade standards makes it easier for companies to sell their goods overseas.

An argument against political globalization is that it involves countries meddling in each

other’s business. Many people think we shouldn’t interfere in the decisions of other nations.
Another criticism is that it led to the spread of the political ideology of neoliberalism that increases
the gap between the rich and the poor.

3. SOCIAL GLOBALIZATION

It is also known as sociological globalization; social globalization refers to the integration

of our societies.

Sociological globalization refers to the idea that we now live in a shared society. (There are
many different cultures within a society. But a society is a group of people who all live together).

And now more than ever, it feels as if we all live in one society instead of a group of different
societies. For example:

➢ What happens in Afghanistan can affect what happens in the United States.
➢ A contagion in China spreads to all corners of the world.
➢ A nuclear weapon in North Korea can threaten lives in New Zealand.
 So, it appears, we are now all a common society who need to learn to get along despite
our different cultures and beliefs because what we do affects people all around the world.

Another aspect of social globalization is the movement of people. People can go from one
country to another easily, and those who are most highly educated can get jobs in different
nations with more ease than ever.

4. TECHNOLOGICAL GLOBALIZATION

Technological Globalization refers to the spread of technology around the world. Examples
of this include the spread of the internet, solar panel technology and medical technologies – which
can all help improve the lives of people around the world. The spread of technologies can be
interpreted as the ‘rising tide lifts all boats’ argument. Globalization means we can make the most
of the best technologies from all around the world to make everyone’s lives better and improve
everyone’s economies.

Technological globalization is closely connected to the anthropological “scapes of

globalization” theory by Arjun Appadurai. He came up with the term “technoscapes” to explain
how technology spreads around the world.

5. FINANCIAL GLOBALIZATION

Financial globalization refers to the ease at which money can be spread around the world.
The growth of stock exchanges like the NYSE and FTSE as well as internationalization of financial
markets has made it easier for people to transfer money internationally.

The benefit of this is that it’s easy and cheap to get investments for new business ventures.
You can find a Chinese, French or Canadian investor to wire you some money to start your
business instead of just relying on local investors! But many nations also face backlash because of
the sense that overseas companies buy out too much of their businesses, real estate and farming
land – which could be a threat to a nation’s sovereignty.

6. CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION

Cultural globalization refers to the spread and mixing of cultures around the world. Arjun
Appadurai talks about the possible effect of ‘homogenization’ of culture, where dominant nations
like the United States spread their cultures through television and movies, which leads to the
dilution and loss of local and indigenous cultures. One example is the spread of punk music from
the UK and USA around the world in the 1970s. Other examples include the spread of Disney
music, secularism and consumer culture. Concepts related to cultural globalization include cultural
adaptation, cultural diffusion, and hierarchical diffusion.
 Cultural globalization, phenomenon by which the experience of everyday life, as influenced
by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, reflects a standardization of cultural expressions
around the world. Propelled by the efficiency or appeal of wireless communications, electronic
commerce, popular culture, and international travel, globalization has been seen as a trend
toward homogeneity that will eventually make human experience everywhere essentially the
same. This appears, however, to be an overstatement of the phenomenon. Although
homogenizing influences do indeed exist, they are far from creating anything akin to a single
world culture.

7. ECOLOGICAL GLOBALIZATION

Ecological globalization refers to the idea that the world needs to be considered one
interconnected ecosystem. This means that the world needs to work together to address
ecological issues that cross the borders of nation-states.

Examples include:

• The hole in the Ozone layer, which required the world to ban CFCs.
• Climate Change, which will affect the poorest nations (particularly low-lying nations in the
Pacific and South-East Asia) even though much of the damage is caused by developed
nations like the United States.

To address these issues, climate accords like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate
Agreement have been put into place, where each nation agrees to invest in lowering its carbon
emissions.

8. GEOGRAPHICAL GLOBALIZATION

Geographical globalization refers to the idea that the world is no longer seen as groups of
distinct nations as much as it once was. We now work in multinational blocs to make decisions,
and nations work together to solve problems.

It also refers to the fact that we’re now able to travel between nations with increasing ease.
You can go from the United States to Europe within a day, for example. Furthermore, people can
identify as belonging to multiple geographic regions, especially if they hold multiple passports.
Heritage and familial ownership of territory is getting weaker and weaker.
SECURITY

The first task of every government is to ensure the security of its citizens from outside
threats. Any government that fails in this task faces not only the risk of external takeover but also
the loss of legitimacy among its people. But which threats are so important that they are security
issues? In France in 1938 or Kuwait in the 1990s, it was easy to define the threat. In other periods,
however, nations might define the danger differently. People in Angola might be extremely
concerned about the threat of land mines, while someone in rural Colombia might fear guerrillas
or paramilitaries. A pandemic might endanger a nation with losses larger than those likely in any
conventional conflict. How people define security is defined by the historical and national context.
At the current moment, the key U.S. security threat is terrorism, not only because of the attacks of
September 11 and the real threat the country continues to face but also because there is no peer
military competitor that could challenge the nation by conventional means.

Security from the Emergence of the Nation-State to Realism

Security represents the most basic international issue. It was the central theme of the Greek
historian Thucydides, who sought to understand the Peloponnesian War, the greatest conflict of
his era. He argued that the war began because of the rising power of Athens, which caused Sparta
to act before it could be overwhelmed. His account shaped Western interpretations of
international relations for 2,400 years (Monten 2006). In the millennia that followed, a series of
thinkers, such as Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes, wrestled with the same
issues, and their work continues to underpin modern scholarship on international affairs (Sobek
2005). When Renaissance and Enlightenment thinkers in Europe tried to understand the origins
of the state, they concluded that its most fundamental reason for existence was to provide security
for its citizens from outside threats. People came together and gave up certain freedoms in order
to have security from both internal threats, such as criminals, and external threats, such as invasion
(Hobbes 1982). At the same time, these European thinkers lived in a world in which the nation-
state system was relatively new. Their work represented an effort to understand an emerging
kind of state.

❖ REALISM

Realism is set of related theories of international relations that emphasizes the role
of the state, national interest, and power in world politics. Realism has dominated the
academic study of international relations since the end of World War II. Realists claim to offer both
the most accurate explanation of state behavior and a set of policy prescriptions (notably
the balance of power between states) for ameliorating the inherent destabilizing elements of
international affairs. Realism (including neorealism) focuses on abiding patterns of interaction in
an international system lacking a centralized political authority. That condition of anarchy means
that the logic of international politics often differs from that of domestic politics, which is
regulated by a sovereign power. Realists are generally pessimistic about the possibility of radical
systemic reform. Realism is a broad tradition of thought that comprises a variety of different
strands, the most distinctive of which are classical realism and neorealism .

❖ HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights are rights we have simply because we exist as human beings - they are not
granted by any state. These universal rights are inherent to us all, regardless of nationality, sex,
national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They range from the most
fundamental - the right to life - to those that make life worth living, such as the rights to food,
education, work, health, and liberty.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General Assembly
in 1948, was the first legal document to set out the fundamental human rights to be universally
protected. The UDHR, which turned 70 in 2018, continues to be the foundation of all international
human rights law. Its 30 articles provide the principles and building blocks of current and future
human rights conventions, treaties and other legal instruments.

The UDHR, together with the 2 covenants - the International Covenant for Civil and
Political Rights, and the International Covenant for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - make
up the International Bill of Rights.

Universal and inalienable

The principle of universality of human rights is the cornerstone of international human

rights law. This means that we are all equally entitled to our human rights. This principle, as first
emphasized in the UDHR, is repeated in many international human rights conventions,
declarations, and resolutions.

Human rights are inalienable. They should not be taken away, except in specific situations
and according to due process. For example, the right to liberty may be restricted if a person is
found guilty of a crime by a court of law.

Indivisible and interdependent

All human rights are indivisible and interdependent. This means that one set of rights
cannot be enjoyed fully without the other. For example, making progress in civil and political rights
makes it easier to exercise economic, social and cultural rights. Similarly, violating economic, social
and cultural rights can negatively affect many other rights.

Equal and non-discriminatory

 Article 1 of the UDHR states: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights." Freedom from discrimination, set out in Article 2, is what ensures this equality.

Non-discrimination cuts across all international human rights law. This principle is present
in all major human rights treaties. It also provides the central theme of 2 core instruments: The
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

Both rights and obligations

All States have ratified at least 1 of the 9 core human rights treaties, as well as 1 of the 9
optional protocols. 80% of States have ratified 4 or more. This means that States have obligations
and duties under international law to respect, protect and fulfill human rights.

• The obligation to respect means that States must refrain from interfering with or curtailing
the enjoyment of human rights.

• The obligation to protect requires States to protect individuals and groups against human
rights abuses.

• The obligation to fulfill means that States must take positive action to facilitate the
enjoyment of basic human rights.

Meanwhile, as individuals, while we are entitled to our human rights - but, we should also
respect and stand up for the human rights of others.

ENVIRONMENT

An Environment is everything that is around us, which includes both living and nonliving
things such as soil, water, animals and plants, which adapt themselves to their surroundings. It is
nature’s gift that helps in nourishing life on the earth.

The environment plays an important role in the existence of life on the planet earth. The
word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which meaning “surrounding.” An
ecosystem refers to all the living and the non-living things present in the environment and it is a
foundation of the Biosphere, which determines the health of the entire planet earth.

Ecology and Environmental science are the branches of life science, which mainly deal with
the study of organisms and their interactions among organisms and their environment.

• Types of Ecosystem

There are two main types of ecosystem. Listed below are the types and examples of the
ecosystem.
 1. Natural ecosystem – It is a naturally produced biological environment found in nature. It
includes deserts, forests, grasslands, lakes, mountains, ponds, rivers, oceans, etc.
2. Artificial ecosystem – It is an artificial environment which is created and maintained by
man. It includes an aquarium, crop fields, gardens, parks, zoo, etc.

The components of the environment are mainly divided into two categories.

1) Biotic environment–It includes all living organisms such as animals, birds, forests, insects,
reptiles and microorganisms like algae, bacteria, fungus, viruses, etc.
2) Abiotic environment– It includes all non-living components such as air, cloud, dust, land,
mountains, rivers, temperature, humidity, water, water vapour, sand, etc.

• Importance of Environment

Environment plays an important role in healthy living and the existence of life on planet earth. Earth is
a home for different living species and we all are dependent on the environment for food, air, water,
and other needs. Therefore, it is important for every individual to save and protect our environment.

• Environmental Issues and Solutions

An environment is generally defined as the surrounding or conditions in which a person,

animal or plant survives or operates. From this, it must be relatively easy for one to comprehend
its importance in the famed cycle of life.

Our environment is constantly changing, and as our environment changes so does the
need to become increasingly aware of the environmental issues that are causing these changes.
With a massive increase in natural disasters, warming and cooling periods, and different types of
weather patterns, people need to be a lot more cautious with the way they lead their lives in
conjunction with the types of environmental issues our planet is facing.

• Environmental Issues

Environmental issues are the harmful effects of human activities on the environment. These
include pollution, over-population, waste disposal, climate change, global warming, greenhouse
effect, etc.

Various environment protection programs are being practised at the individual,

organizational and government levels with the aim of establishing a balance between man and
environment.

Some of the current environmental issues that require urgent attention are:

❖ Climate Change - is a great concern in today’s scenario. This problem has surfaced in the last
few decades. Greenhouse gases are the major cause of climate change. Environmental
 changes have several destructive impacts such as the melting of glaciers, change in seasons,
epidemics, etc.

❖ Global Warming - The burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the automobiles and
chlorofluorocarbons add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This has led to an
increase in earth’s temperature causing environmental changes. This increase in temperature
across the globe is known as global warming.

❖ Ozone Layer Depletion - is a layer of concentrated ozone gas. It protects us from the sun’s
harmful ultraviolet rays. This very important layer is being destroyed by CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), which are used in industries and everyday life (e.g. aerosol cans). The
chlorine in these compounds destroys the ozone layer. The hole in the ozone layer leaves
humans and wildlife exposed to the harmful UV rays resulting in several skin diseases including
cancer.

❖ Water Pollution - The introduction of harmful substances into rivers, oceans, lakes and ponds,
which changes the physical, chemical or biological condition of the water is called water
pollution. The polluted water lacks oxygen and therefore the organisms die. Water is the main
source of life and therefore it is our prime duty to prevent it from any kind of pollution.

❖ Air Pollution - is the result of emissions from the industries, automobiles, and increasing use
of fossil fuels. The gaseous emissions have added to an increase in the temperature of the
earth. Not only this, but it had also increased the risk of diseases among individuals.

❖ Solid Waste Management - is defined as the discipline associated with the generation, storage,
collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid waste in a manner that it
does not have a harmful effect on the environment.

❖ Deforestation - is the depletion of trees and forests at an alarming rate. The trees provide us
with oxygen, several raw materials and also maintain the temperature of the earth. Due to the
depletion of trees for commercial purposes, there has been a drastic change in the earth’s
climate. Forests are an abode to a large number of wild animals and plants. Destruction of
forests has led to the elimination of a large number of plants and animal species affecting the
biodiversity.
❖ Overpopulation - The earth’s population is increasing drastically. It is estimated to be more than
seven billion. The increasing population has led to a shortage of resources. If this continues, it will
be very difficult to sustain such a huge population. The other environmental issues including
pollution, waste management, deforestation, climate change and global warming are all associated
with over-population.
 • Solutions to Environmental Issues

Following are some of the most common solutions to the environmental issue:

1. Replace disposal items with reusable items.

2. The use of paper should be avoided.
3. Conserve water and electricity.
4. Support environmentally friendly practices.
5. Recycle the waste to conserve natural resources.

Environmental issues are a warning of the upcoming disaster. If these issues are not
controlled, there will soon be no life on earth.

• Impact of Human Activities on the Environment

There are different types of human activities which are directly attributed to the
environmental disasters, which include- acid rain, acidification of oceans, change in the climate,
deforestation, depletion of an ozone layer, disposal of hazardous wastes, global warming,
overpopulation, pollution, etc.

REASON FOR STUDYING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Studying international relations is a great way to gain a deeper understanding of global
issues. It’s an intriguing and important subject which places great emphasis on economics, culture,
education, and political science and examines the impact they have on society. You’ll also learn
how and why nations, governments and individuals respond accordingly to such issues.

• Here are the 5 Reasons Why You Should Study an International Relations

1. You enjoy debating and engaging in challenging issues

Having the conscious ability to hold a strong and balanced argument, especially in the
working world of international relations is critical. Deliberately misleading information and fake
news is breaking up communities and strengthening potentially dangerous agendas. This is why
we need people who can speak out against it and speak up for the ones who can’t.

2. You want to make a difference in the world

It’s important to remember that international relations is not just about politics either.
International relations are about having a cross-cultural understanding and awareness of what’s
happening beyond borders. At IE University, the Master in International Relations program
highlights the role that globalization is playing and the importance of getting ahead of the
evolving complexities that come with it.

The program was designed and created in partnership with the Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD), meaning students are exposed to the inner workings of
the organization and how they come up with a range of social, environment and economic
solutions.

Those who study international relations tend to be individuals who are passionate about
wanting to combat injustices, as well as learn from history regarding what works, and what doesn’t
work when it comes to living in a single global society.

3. It’s a great starting point for your career

Depending on your experiences, interests and aspirations, career opportunities related to

international relations in the private, public and not-for-profit sectors are in abundance. If you’re
specifically looking for a career in government, you may want to reach out and consider a role in
security or intelligence. Working in government doesn’t always have to be bureaucratic – it can
be a great way to get involved with international relations projects.

While working for a non-governmental organization tends to offer more flexibility and
hands-on work, salaries can be lower. Whatever role you pursue, you’ll have the skills and
knowledge ready to implement positive change.

4. The unique skillset you develop will be in high demand

A master’s in international relations will help develop your understanding of how society
and people work – something highly valued by employers and organizations.

Working within an international relations setting means your interpersonal, analytical,

decision-making and negotiation skills must be unparalleled. A master’s in international relations
will help develop this transferable skillset as well as your understanding of how society and people
work – something that is highly valued by employers and organizations.

5. You want to gain real-world experience

International experience is key so you’re able to see and understand where and how
policies, strategies, conflicts and laws have an impact around the world. Many higher education
institutions are now integrating compulsory study and work experiences into their curricula to
ensure students have a practical application of what is learnt in class.

At IE University, Master in International Relations students spend one week in Brussels and
visit the European Union as well as other international organizations. Students also have the
opportunity to take part in the exchange program where they will spend a semester studying at
one of the university’s renowned partner institutions – Sciences Po in France, University of St.
Gallen in Switzerland, or University of Pittsburgh in the United States.

REFERENCES
https://www.butler.edu/international-studies/why

https://www.piie.com/microsites/globalization/what-is-globalization

https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/cdp/cdp_background_papers/bp2000_1.pdf

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02604020701402707

https://www.britannica.com/science/cultural-globalization

https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/pages/whatarehumanrights.aspx

https://helpfulprofessor.com/types-of-globalization/

https://byjus.com/biology/environmental-issues-solutions/

https://www.topuniversities.com/courses/international-relationsstudiesaffairs/5-reasons-why-you-
should-study-international-relations-
masters#:~:text=Studying%20international%20relations%20is%20a,impact%20they%20have%20on%20s
ociety.
 DONALY M. PINKIHAN

EXPERIENCE

December 10,2021–Present
OVPAA-Secretary • PLT College, Inc.

FORMAL EDUCATION

2018-Present COLLEGE LEVEL

KASIBU, 3703 PLT College, Inc.
[City, ST ZIP Code]
BS in Office Administration

09752256416 2016-2018 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

PLT College, Inc.
Accountancy and Business Management (ABM)
donalypinkihan129@gma
il.com 2012-2016 JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL
Kongkong Valley National High School

2006-2012 PRIMARY SCHOOL

Kasibu Central School

HOBBIES

None
✈︎ 🏋️