1.

1 Defining Globalization
Globalization – it usually refers to the integration of the national market to a wider global market signified
by the increased free trade.
Manfred Steger – described the process of globalization as expansion and intensification of social
relation and consciousness across the globe.
Expansion- refers to both the creation of new social networks and the multiplication of existing
connections that cut across traditional political, economic, cultural and geographic boundaries.
Intensification- refers to the expansion, stretching and acceleration of these networks.
Globalization – identify as a national consciousness
Outsourcing – callcenters/ engaged in
Apple - china
The definition of Globalization is one of the greatest miracles or phenomena in this world since in this particular
event we see the so-called fusion of many continents, nations, nationalities from the different parts of the globe
to create a single international community connected by modern technology. It links multi-cultural people that
aims to promote the advancement of many essential field of specializations, professions and industries.  

The Global Experiences

        Gio and Latif's story is fictional but very plausible since it is, in fact, based on the real -life
experience of one of the authors. it was through such friendships that one was able to appreciate the
meaning and impact of globalization. 

       The story of Gio and Latif shows how globalization operates at multiple, intersecting levels through
mass media. For example, the spread of Filipino TV in Malaysia suggests how fast this Filipino popular
culture has proliferated and crisscrossed all over Asia.

        The Model UN activity that Gio and Latif participated in is an international competition about
international politics. Gio met Latif (a Malaysian involved in the model UN) in Sydney, a global city that
derives its wealth and influence from the global capital that flows through it. Sydney is also a metropolis
of families of international immigrants or foreigners working in the industries that also sell their
products abroad. After the two had gone back to their home countries, Gio and Latif kept in touch
through Facebook, a global social networking site that provides instantaneous communication across
countries and continents. They preserved their friendship online and then rekindled this face-to-face in
Singapore, another hub for global commerce, with 40 percent of the population being classified as
"foreign talents."

Some Descriptions
        Gio's story is a very privileged way of experiencing global flows, but for other people, the shrinking
of the world may not be as exciting and edifying. For example, it common for young women in
developing countries to be recruited in the internet as "mail-order brides" for foreign men living in other
countries. After being promised a good life once married to a kind husband in a rich city, they ended up
becoming sexual and domestic servants in foreign lands. Some were even sold off by their "husbands"
to gangs which run prostitute rings in these cities. Like Gio, they too have experienced the shrinking of
the world, albeit negatively.

        Governments that decide to welcome foreign investments on the belief that they provide jobs and
capital for the country offer public lands as factory or industrial sites. In the process, poor people living
in these land, also called "urban poor communities," are being evicted by the government. The irony is
that these people forcibly removed from their "slums" are also the labor force sought by foreign
companies. They had to be kicked out of their homes, and then told that they could take an hour or two
of bus travel from their relocated communities back to the "old home" for minimum-wage
work. Different people encounter globalization in a variety of ways. 

1.2 The Structures of Globalization

The structure of globalization talks about the wheels of social sciences such as Economics, Politics
creating a common  international community or society connected by modern technology to connect
the world's continents with more than seven billion population. In history, we noticed that nations  are
separated by different  types of boundaries. Now we are  in the new age where mankind's existence on
this planet  is confronted by many challenges and issues making the means of survival a little
complicated while challenging  people  around the globe. 
      People choose to cross seas, continents  just to support life and with the  help  of technology
mankind  was able  to create  devices  that  can make people one. There is now the normal norm of 
transporting finished goods and products from one place to  another. People  from different places of
the globe can now work and study from one place to another and the sharing of cultures best practices
from one place to another has become easy like passing a ball from one team mate to another. Indeed,
globalization has become the special connecting device of multi-culture and multi-practice of social
science in this modern world. 

Globalization: A Working Definition

 Most accounts view globalization as primarily an economic process.  When a newspaper reports that
nationalists are resisting "globalization," it usually refers to the integration of the national markets to a
wider global market signified by the increased free trade. When activists refer to the "anti-
globalization" movement of the 1990's they mean resisting the trade deals among countries facilitated
and promoted by global organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO).
     Globalization scholars do not necessarily disagree with people who criticize unfair international trade
deals or global economic organizations. In fact, many are sympathetic to the critique of economic
globalization. Academics differ from journalists and political activists, however, because they see
globalization in much broader terms.
      The best scholarly description of globalization is provided by Manfred Steger who described the
process as "the expansion and intensification of social relation and consciousness across world-time
and across-space. Expansion refers to both the creation of new social networks and the multiplication
of existing connections that cut across traditional political, economic, cultural and geographic
boundaries. Intensification refers to the expansion, stretching and acceleration of these networks.
       Steger posits that his definition of globalization must be differentiated with the ideology he
calls globalism. If globalization represents the many processes that allow for the expansion and
intensification of global connections, globalism is a widespread belief among powerful people that the
global integration of economic markets is beneficial for everyone, since it spreads freedom and
democracy across the world.
       For anthropologist Arjun Appadurai, different kinds of globalization occur on multiple and
intersecting dimensions of integration that he calls "scapes." An "ethnoscape" for example refers to the
global movement of people, while "mediascape" is about the flow of culture. A "technoscape" refers to
the circulation of mechanical goods and software; a "financescape" denotes the global circulation of
money; and the "ideoscape" is the realm where political ideas move around.
      Appadurai's argument is simple: there are multiple globalizations. Hence, even if one does not agree
that globalization can be divided into five "scapes," it is hard to deny Appadurai's central thrust of
viewing globalization through various lenses.

1.2.1 Structures of Globalization

Structure of Globalization:
1. Social structure - a measure of how easily information and ideas pass between people
in their own countries and between different countries.
2. Political - the amount of political cooperation between countries
3. Economic - Countries that trade with many other and few trade barriers are
economically globalized.
There is a free movement of goods, capital, services, technology and information, There
should be an Economic integration, reduced cost, monetary and Fiscal policy and
increase trade.
Process of Arrangement:
 Between regions to reduce, eliminate trade barriers and to coordinate Monetary and
Fiscal policy with the common purpose of increasing the trade to those countries
involved. 
a. Improve the allocation of Natural resources 
b. Promote technology 
c. enhance the standard oh living
This short film explores the rise of online platforms and their role in the ongoing process
of globalization. The model for globalization has transformed, the globalization of today
is no longer driven by increasing exchange of goods but instead information and
services.

1.3 The Globalization of World

Economics
International Trading System and the Bretton Woods System
Hi everyone! In this lesson, you will learn the historical background of international trading system. 

      The International Monetary Fund (IMF) regards "economic globalization" as a historical process
representing the result of human innovation and technological progress. It is characterized by the
increasing integration of economies around the world through the movement of goods, services, and
capital across borders. These changes are the products of people , organizations, institutions, and
technologies. As with all other processes of globalization, there is a qualitative and subjective element
to this definition.

       Even while the IMF and ordinary people grapple with the difficulty of arriving at precise definitions
of globalization, they usually agree that a drastic economic change is occurring throughout the world.
According to the IMF, the value of trade (goods and services) as percentage of world GDP increased
from 42.1 percent in 1980 to 62.1 percent in 2007. Increased trade also means that investments are
moving all over the world at faster speeds. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTD), the amount of foreign direct investments flowing across the world was $57
billion in 1982. By 2015, the number was $1.76 trillion. These figures represent a drastic increase in
global trade  in the span of just a few decades. It has happened not even after one lifespan.

     Apart from the  sheer magnitude of commerce, we should also note the increased speed and
frequency of trading. These days, supercomputers can execute millions of stock purchases and sales
between different cities in a matter of seconds through a process called high-frequency trading. 

International Trading Systems

International trading systems are not new.  
 1. Silk Road - the oldest known international trade route. It refers to a network of pathways in
the ancient world that spanned from China to Middle East and Europe. It was called as such
because one of the most profitable products traded through this network was silk, which was
highly prized especially in the area that is now the Middle East as well as in the West (today's
Europe) Traders used the Silk Road regularly from 130 BCE when the Chinese Han dynasty
opened trade to the West until 1453 BCE when the Ottoman Empire closed it.  
2. Galleon Trade - According to historians Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, the age of
globalization began when "all important populated continents began to exchange products
continuously - both with each other directly and indirectly via other continents - and in values
sufficient to generate crucial impact on all trading partners." Flynn and Giraldez trace this back to
1571 with the establishment of the galleon trade that connected Manila in the Philippines and
Acapulco in Mexico. This was the first time that the Americas were directly connected to Asian
trading routes. For Filipinos, it is crucial to note that economic globalization began on the
country's shore. The galleon trade was part of the age of mercantilism.

Mercantilism- economic practice by which governments used their economies to augment state power
at the expense of other countries

3. Gold Trade - A more open trade system emerged in 1867 when, following the lead of the
United Kingdom, the United states and other European nations adopted the gold standard at
an international monetary conference in Paris. Broadly, the goal was to create a common
system that would allow for more efficient trade and prevent the isolationism of the
mercantilist era. The countries thus established a common basis for currency prices and a
fixed exchange rate system -all based on the value of gold. 
4. Fiat currencies- These are currencies that are not backed by precious metals and whose value is
determined by their cost relative to other currencies. It also refers to a system in 20th century
that allows governments to freely and actively manage their economies by increasing or
decreasing the amount of money in circulation as they see fit.

The Bretton Woods System (BWS)

        After the two world wars, world leaders sought to create a global economic system that would
ensure a longer-lasting global peace. They believe that one of the ways to achieve this goal was to set
up a network of global financial institutions that would promote economic interdependence and
prosperity. The Bretton Woods system was inaugurated in 1944 during the United Nations Monetary
and Financial Conference to prevent the catastrophes of the early decades of the century from
recurring and affecting international ties.

       The Bretton Woods System was largely influenced by  the ideas of British Economist John Maynard
Keynes who believed that economic crises occur not  when a country does not have enough money,
but when money is not being spent and, thereby, not moving. When economies slow down, according
to Keynes, governments have to reinvigorate markets with infusion of capital. This active role of
governments in managing spending served as the anchor for what would be called a system of global
Keynesianism. 

Two Financial Institutions created during the Bretton Woods Conference:

 1. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD or World Bank) is responsible
for funding a reconstruction projects of countries affected by world wars.  
2. International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a lending institution that helps each country to recover
from financial crises.  

Neoliberalism  and its Discontents

Keynesianism is an economic theory that assumed three things 1) Economic crisis occur when a country
does not have enough money, but when money is not being spent and, thereby, not moving 2) If the
economies slow down then government should infuse money to reinvigorate the market 3) Proponent
argued that as prices increased, companies would earn more, and would have more money to hire
workers.
Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman challenged the Keynesian theory and argued that government
intervention in economies distort the proper functioning of the market.
The Washington consensus advocates for minimal government spending to reduce government debt.
They also called for the privatization of government-controlled services like water, power,
communications and transport, believing that the free market can produce the best result.
 
The Global Financial Crisis and the Challenge to Neoliberalism
Neo-liberalism came under significant strain during the global financial crisis 2007-2008 when the world
experienced the greatest economic downturn since the great depression. The crisis can be traced back to the
1980s when the United State systematically removed various banking and investment restrictions. Financial
experts wrongly assumed that even if many of the borrowers were individuals and families who would struggle
to pay, a majority would not default. The crisis spread beyond the United States since many investors were
foreign governments, corporations and individuals. The loss of their money spread like wildfire back to their
countries. 

Economic Globalization Today

"The world has become too integrated. Whatever one's opinion about the Washington Consensus is, it
is undeniable that some form of international trade remains essential for countries to develop in the
contemporary world." Export, not just the local selling of goods and services, make national economies
grow at present. In the past, those that benefited the most from free trade were the advanced nations
that were producing and selling industrial and agricultural products. 
In the recent decades, partly as a result of these increased export, economic globalization has ushered
in an unprecedented spike in global growth rates.
Economic globalization remains an uneven process, with some countries, corporations and individual
benefiting a lot more that others". (Claudio et al. 2018) The beneficiaries of global commerce have been
mainly transnational corporations (TNCs) and not government. 

1.3.1 Economic Globalization

1 SectionARCH31S1

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Economic Globalization
 
                  This topic will explain the historical  process representing the result of human
innovation and technological progress.
GLOBALIZATION? What does ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION mean? Economic
globalization is the increasing economic integration and interdependence of national,
regional, and local economies across the world through an intensification of cross-border
movement of goods, services, technologies and capital. Whereas globalization is a broad
set of processes concerning multiple networks of economic, political, and cultural
interchange, contemporary economic globalization is propelled by the rapid growing
significance of information in all types of productive activities and marketization, and by
developments in science and technology. Economic globalization primarily comprises the
globalization of production and finance, markets and technology, organizational regimes
and institutions, corporations and labour. While economic globalization has been
expanding since the emergence of trans-national trade, it has grown at an increased rate
over the last 20–30 years under the framework of General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade and World Trade Organization, which made countries gradually cut down trade
barriers and open up their current accounts and capital accounts. This recent boom has
been largely supported by developed economies integrating with majority world through
foreign direct investment and lowering costs of doing business, the reduction of trade
barriers, and in many cases cross border migration While globalization has radically
increased incomes and economic growth in developing countries and lowered consumer
prices in developed countries, it also changes the power balance between developing
and developed countries and affects the culture of each affected country. And the
shifting location of goods production has caused many jobs to cross borders, requiring
some workers in developed countries to change careers. Economic globalization is one
of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature,
with the two other being political globalization and cultural globalization.
 The following topic below are part of your understanding of Economic globalization.
1. Silk Road – the first international, but not global, trade route. Not global because the
Americas were not included. More than 2000 years ago, the people of Eurasia explored
and opened up several routes of trade and cultural exchanges, which were called "the
Silk Road" by later generations. The Silk Road helped unravel the mystery of the ancient
China. According to the history, this ink animation will bring you to the past time and
also the future of the Silk Road.
Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade – traced back to 1571. Eastern goods (spices, tea, silk,
etc.) were shipped by galleons via the Pacific Ocean to Acapulco. In turn, South
American silver is shipped to Manila as payment. The first true global trade route
because of ocean routes, and it included the Americas.
Mercantilism – from 16th to 18th centuries. Countries aimed to sell more goods than
other countries in order to boost their income. Processing of raw materials to finished
products and sell at a higher price.
This video give students an easy to understand overview of mercantilism as it relates to
the American Colonies. As a major cause of the American Revolution mercantilism is a
concept that the students need to understand.
Gold Standard – the financial system establishing a common basis for currency prices
and a fixed exchange rate system – all based on the value of gold. Because of World War
I, countries were forced to abandon the Gold Standard to increase their money supply. 
Great Depression – a global financial crisis that happened during the 1920s to 1930s.
Solved through Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “New Plan.”
Keynesian Economics – economic crises do not happen because countries do not have
money, but because money is not spent – meaning, it is not moving. Governments
should reinvigorate economies by infusing of capital (stimulus) to kickstart the economy
– increasing the purchasing power of people, and eventually demand.

Bretton Woods System – July 1944 at the United Nations Monetary and Financial
Conference (Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA). Led by Harry Dexter White and
John Maynard Keynes. Value of currencies shall be linked to US Dollar, and the US
Dollar shall be pegged to the value of gold ($35.00 per ounce fixed). Established two
financial institutions, namely IMF (International Monetary Fund) and IBRD (International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development), later renamed to WB (World Bank). Ended
on August 15, 1971.
IMF/international monetary fund – intended to be the lender of last resort to prevent
countries from spiraling into credit/economic crises.
IBRD/ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (WB) – responsible for
funding postwar reconstruction projects.
Neoliberalism – (Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman) answer to the problems caused
by the dependence on Keynesian Economics. According to them, Keynesian Economics
will cause inflation but not necessarily increases the supply/production. freemarket
1970s oil embargo – economic sanction by members of OAPEC (Arab members of
OPEC) against US and its allies due to American support on Israel during the Yom Kippur
War
Stagflation – a portmanteau of stagnation (decline in growth and employment) and
inflation (rise of prices of goods) Stagflation is an economic condition with persistent
high inflation combined with high unemployment and relatively stagnant demand for
product.
Washington Consensus – set of policies adopted centering on neoliberalism. Has two
parts – first, reduction of public spending to pay off debt and second, privatization of
government-owned and operated corporations. US President Ronald Reagan adopted
this (especially reduction of public spending), along with UK PM Margaret Thatcher.
Referred to as “shock therapy.” Also adopted in Russia after the fall of the USSR – led to
oligarchy.
It's been 10 years since the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy, considered the height of the 2008 Financial
Crisis. But what caused this behemoth to go under, and how did we find ourselves in a real estate
bubble? Please watch this video

2008 Financial crisis– September 2008, caused by the fall of Lehman Brothers
(investment bank). Seen as the result of the flaws of neoliberalism. Caused debt
problems in Europe (Greece, Portugal, and Iceland). The US recovered quickly by
reverting to Keynesian-style stimulus programs under Obama.
 
 

Economic Globalization Today – developed countries tend to be protectionist (US sugar,

Japan rice). Rise of nationalism (President Donald J. Trump of USA). Also, economies are
too integrated.
 

Race to the Bottom – countries deliberately lowering the labor standards and wages to
lure investors seeking cheap labor for a higher profit. Also includes issues with the
environment.
Summary
Economic globalization is a historical process representing the results of human
innovation and technological progress, it is characterized by increasing integration of
economy around the world through the movement of goods, services and capital across
boarder, how do we define increasing integration? it will be in the process international
trading. International economic integration is a central tenet of globalization, economic
globalization is a window into a phenomenon of globalization.
 

Module 1 Summary
International economic integration is a central tenet of globalization.  In fact, it is so crucial to the
process that many writers and commentators confuse this integration for the entirety of globalization. 
As a reminder, economics is just one window into the phenomenon of globalization; it is not the entire
thing.
Nevertheless, much of globalization is anchored on changes in the economy.  Global culture, for
example, is facilitated by trade.  Filipinos would not be aware of American culture if not for the trade
that allows locals to watch American movies, listen to American music and consume American
products.  The globalization of politics is likewise largely contingent on trade relations.  These days,
many events of foreign affairs are conducted to cement trading relations between and among states.
Depending on what is being globalized, a different dynamic (or dynamics) may emerge. So while it is
important to ask "What is globalization?" it is likewise important to ask "What is/are being globalized?" 
Depending on what is being globalized , the vista and conclusions change. 
The lessons in the next modules will reflect the multidimensional understanding of globalization. Each
of the lessons will focus on a particular kind of globalization.  Every one of them will be about different
networks and connections that are expanding and intensifying in the contemporary world.
Treat each lesson not as an end in itself but as window to the broader phenomenon of globalization.

Structure of Globalization 
GLOBALIZATION IN THE STORY
It was through such friendship that one was able to appreciate the
meaning and impact of globalization.
 The story of Gio and Latif shows how globalization operates at
multiple, intersecting levels through mass media. The spread of
Filipino TV into Malaysia suggests how fast this popular culture has
proliferated and crisscrossed all over Asia.
 The Model UN activity is an international competition about
international politics.
The competition was held in Sydney – a global city that derives in
wealth and influence from the global capital that flows through it.
Sydney is also a metropolis of families of international immigrants or
foreigners working in the industries that also sell their products
abroad.
After the competition, the two kept in touch through Facebook, a
global social networking site that provides instantaneous
communication across countries and continents.
They preserved their friendship online and then rekindled this face-
to-face in Singapore, another hub for global commerce.
Gio's story is a very privileged way of experiencing global
flows, but for other people, the shrinking of the world may
not be as exciting and edifying.
Example:
Governments that decide to welcome the foreign investments on the
belief that they provide jobs and capital for the country offer public
lands as factory or industrial sites. In the process, poor people living
in these lands, also called “urban poor communities,” are being
evicted by the government.

WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION?
• Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies,
and governments of different nations, a process driven by international
trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on
the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and
prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.
Globalization is the word used to describe the growing
interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations,
brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services,
technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.
Manfred Steger describes globalization as a process.
It refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations
and consciousness across world-time and world-space.
Expansion refers to both the creation of new social networks and
the multiplication of existing connections that cut across traditional,
political, economic, cultural, and geographic boundaries.
Connections occur at different levels.
Example:
1. Social media established new global connections between people.
2. International groups of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are networks
that connect a more specific group – social activists and workers form different
corners of the globe.

Intensification refers to the expansion, stretching and acceleration of

these networks. Not only are global connections multiplying, they also
become more closely-knit and expanding their reach.
Example:
There is a strong financial market connecting London and New York.
Manfred Steger notes that “globalization processes do not
occur merely at an objective, material level but they also
involve the subjective plane of human consciousness.”

Manfred Steger posits that his definition of globalization must be

differentiated with an ideology he calls globalism.
Globalization represents the many processes that allow for the
expansion and intensification of global connections.
Globalism is a widespread belief among powerful people that the
global integration of economic markets is beneficial for everyone ,
since it spreads freedom and democracy across the world.

Arjun Appadurai describes globalization as 'scapes" manifests into"

different kinds of globalization occur on multiple and intersecting
dimensions of integration .
There are different kinds of scapes – ethnoscape, technoscape,
mediascape, financescape and ideoscape.
1. Ethnoscape refers to the global movement of people.
2. Technoscape refers to the circulation of mechanical goods and
software.
3. Mediascape refers to the flow of culture.
4. Financescape denotes the global circulation of money.
5. Ideoscape refers to the realm where political ideas move around.
These various scapes are thus distinct windows into the broader phenomenon of
globalization.
Appadurai’s argument is simple: there are multiple globalizations.

What is Economic Globalization?

Economic globalization is an Irreversible Trend

Economic globalization refers to the increasing

interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing
scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of
international capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies.
Economic Globalization
 International Monetary Fund (IMF) regards it as a historical process
representing the result of human innovation and technological progress.
 It is characterized by the increasing integration of economies around the
world through the movement of goods, services, and capital across
borders.
 There is a drastic economic change that is occurring throughout the world.
 IMF – the value of trade (goods and service) increased as percentage of
world GDP.

Economic GlobalizationExample:
World’s GDP in 1980 is 42.1%. In 2007, 62.1%
What does it mean?
1. There is an increase in trading system.
2. It means investments are moving all over the world at faster speeds.
 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
- Foreign investments increased
- 57 Billion US Dollars in 1982. In 2015, the number increased to 1.76
Trillion Dollars

Economic Globalization
 There is also an increased in speed and frequency of
trading. At present, supercomputers execute millions
of stock purchases and sales between different cities
in a matter of seconds through a process called high
frequency trading.

Historical Background of Economic Globalization

To trace the historical background of economic globalization would start with the earliest
known international trading system.
International Trading System
The oldest known international trade route was the Silk Road – a network
of pathways in the ancient world that spanned from China to Middle East
and Europe".
The most profitable products traded through this network was Silk.

Traders used the Silk Road regularly from 130 BCE when the Chinese Han
dynasty opened trade to the West until 153 BCE when the Ottoman Empire
closed it.

International Trading System

Galleon Trade
Historians Dennis Flynn and Arturo Giraldez claimed that the "age of
globalization began when all important populated continents began to
exchange products continuously -both with each other directly and
indirectly via other continents and in values sufficient to generate crucial
impact on all trading partners

International Trading System

1571 – Galleon was established. It connected Manila,
Philippines and Acapulco, Mexico. That was the first time that
the Americans were directly connected to Asian trading routes.
Galleon Trade is considered as the first trading system that
connects Asian countries to America in general and the
Philippines and Mexico in particular.
The Galleon trade was part of the age of mercantilism.
International Trading System
16th-18th Century
 Period of Mercantilism – a system of global trade with multiple
restrictions.
 Countries in Europe with one another to sell more goods as a
means to boost their country’s income called monetary
reserves.
 To defend their products, regimes (mainly monarchies) imposed
high tariffs, forbade colonies to trade with other nations,
restricted trade routes, and subsidized exports.
International Trading System
19th Century
 1867 – an open trade system emerged.
 United States and United Kingdom adopted the gold standard at international
monetary
conference in Paris.
Gold Trade - The United Kingdom, United states and other
European nations adopted the gold standard as a common
basis for currency prices and fixed exchange-rate system -all
based on the value of gold.  The goal was to create a common system that would
allow for more efficient trade and prevent
the isolationism of the mercantilist era.
 This compelled countries to back their currencies with fixed gold reserves.
International Trading System  Many countries abandon the gold standard system
when countries depleted their gold
reserves to fund their armies during World War 1.
 The global economic crisis called the Great Depression started in 1920 up to 1930
was considered the worst and longest recession ever experienced by the Western
world. Economist blamed the gold standard system as the caused of depression since
it limited the amount of circulating money and therefore reduced demand and
consumption.
 The US recovered from economic crisis when it abandoned gold standard system
according to Economist historian Barry Eichengreen.
20th Century
The world economy operates based on what are called fiat currencies – currencies that
are not backed by precious metals and whose value is determined by their cost relative
to
other countries.
International Trading System
Fiat currencies – a system in 20th
century that "allows governments to
freely and actively manage their
economies by increasing or
decreasing the amount of money in
circulation as they see fit.
The Bretton Woods System
 The Bretton Woods system was inaugurated in 1944 during the United
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference.
 The Bretton Woods System was "largely influenced by the ideas of
British Economist John Maynard Keynes who assumed three things:

1) Economic crisis occurs when a country does not have enough

money, but when money is not being spent and, thereby, not moving.
2) If the economies slow down then government should infuse money
to reinvigorate the market.
3) As prices of commodities increased, companies would earn more,
and would have more money to hire workers.
The Bretton Woods System
2 Financial Institutions created by delegates of Bretton Woods Conference:
1. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBRD or World Bank) –
responsible for funding postwar reconstruction projects.
2. International Monetary Fund (IMF) – the global lender of last resort to prevent
individual
countries from spiraling into credit crises.
To this day, both institutions remain key players in economic globalization
Shortly after Bretton Woods, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was
created in 1947. The main purpose was to reduce tariffs and other hindrances to free
trade.
Neoliberalism and Its Discontents
 Keynesianism is an economic theory that assumed three things 1) Economic crisis
occur when a country does not have enough money, but when money is not being spent
and, thereby, not moving 2) If the economies slow down then government should infuse
money to reinvigorate the market 3) Proponent argued that as prices increased,
companies would earn more, and would have more money to hire workers.
 In early 1970s, the “oil embargo” by OAPEC and the crashed of the stock markets
affected the Western economies.
 The result was phenomenon that Keynesian economic predicted a phenomenon
called
stagflation in which a decline in economic growth and employment (stagnation) takes
place alongside a sharp increase in prices (inflation).
Neoliberalism and Its Discontents
 Neoliberalism emerged as a new form of economic thinking. The policies forwarded
came
to be called Washington Consensus
 Economists Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman challenged the Keynesian theory
and
argued that government intervention in economies distort the proper functioning of the
market.
 The Washington consensus advocates for minimal government spending to reduce
government debt. They also called for the privatization of government-controlled
services
like water, power, communications and transport, believing that the free market can
produce the best result.
 The appeal of Neoliberalism was in its simplicity. Its advocates like US President
Ronald
Reagan and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher justified reduction of government
spending by comparing national economies to households.
The Global Financial Crisis and the Challenge to Neoliberalism
 Neo-liberalism came under significant strain during the global financial crisis 2007-
2008 when the
world experienced the greatest economic downturn since the great depression. The
crisis can be
traced back to the 1980s when the United State systematically removed various
banking and
investment restrictions.
 Financial experts wrongly assumed that even if many of the borrowers were
individuals and
families who would struggle to pay, a majority would not default.
 The crisis spread beyond the United States since many investors were foreign
governments,
corporations and individuals. The loss of their money spread like wildfire back to their
countries.
 The challenges are countries like Spain and Greece are heavily indebted (almost like
Third World
countries). (1) Learn from Greece has been forced by Germany to and the IMF to cut
back their
social and public spending.
 The reduction in government spending has showed down growth and ensured high
levels of
unemployment.
 In Europe, the continuing economic crisis has sparked a political upheaval.
Economic Globalization Today
 The world has become too integrated. Whatever one's opinion about the Washington
Consensus is, it is undeniable that some form of international trade remains essential
for
countries to develop in the contemporary world...
 Export, not just the local selling of goods and services, make national economies
grow at
present. In the past, those that benefited the most from free trade were the advanced
nations that were producing and selling industrial and agricultural products...
 In the recent decades, partly as a result of these increased export, economic
globalization has ushered in an unprecedented spike in global growth rates...
 Economic globalization remains an uneven process, with some countries,
corporations
and individual benefiting a lot more that others". (Claudio et al. 2018)
 The beneficiaries of global commerce have been mainly transnational corporations
(TNCs) and not government

2.1 A History of Global Politics

 The world is composed of many countries or states, all of them having different forms of government.
Some scholars of politics are interested in individual states and examine the international politics of
these countries. For example, a scholar is studying politics of Japan may write about the history of its
bureaucracy. Other scholars are more interested in the interactions between states rather than their
internal politics. These scholars look at trade between  deals between states. They also study political,
military and other diplomatic engagements between two or more countries. These scholars are
studying  international relations. Moreover when they explore  the deepening  of interactions between
states, they refer to  the phenomenon  of internationalization.   
How does internationalization differ from globalization of politics?
Internationalization refers to the deepening of interactions between states. Globalization of politics
refers to the multiple interactions or relations between states. 
According to Claudio et al. (2018, p. 27), there are four attributes of today's global system.

1. There are countries or states that are independent and govern themselves.
2. Countries interact with each other through diplomacy.
3. There are international organizations, like the United Nations (UN) that facilitate the
interactions.
4. International organizations also take on lives of their own.

How did global system originate?

1. Village/Tribe- people in various regions of the world were identified according to respective
units.
2. Christian world - started by apostles of Jesus Christ until Christianity became a state religion.
3. Nation-State - refers to state governing a nation.

What is the difference between nation and state?

       State refers to a country and its government. It has four attributes: 1) It exercises authority over a
specific population (citizens). 2) It governs a specific territory 3) It has  a structure of government 4) It
has sovereignty over its territory.  
       Nation is defined as an "imagined community" or group of people who shared a common culture,
language, history etc. (Benedict Anderson)
The Interstate System
       The origins of the present-day concept of sovereignty can be traced back to the Treaty of
Westphalia, which was a set of agreements signed in 1648 to end the Thirty Years' War between the
major continental powers of Europe. After the brutal religious war between Catholics and Protestants,
the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic designed a system that would
avert wars in the future by recognizing that the treaty signers exercise complete control over their
domestic affairs and swear not to meddle in each other's affairs.

1.  Westphalian system - a system that gives stability to European nations through direct
control of their domestic activities - free from interference of other nations.
2. Napoleonic Code - a principle that spread "liberty", "equality" and "fraternity" as themes for
creation of new form of government in France.   
3.  Metternich system-  an alliance of "great powers" - United Kingdoms, Austria, and Prussia
that restored monarchical, hereditary, and religious privileges of rulers.

Internationalism
Internationalism is an imagined system of heightened interaction between various sovereign states
particularly the desire for greater cooperation and unity among states and people. It comes in different
forms, but the principle may be divided into two broad categories: liberal internationalism and socialist
internationalism.
Liberal internationalism
Achievement: Foundation of United Nation
Proponents:

1. Immanuel Kant - argues that citizens in the state must give up some freedom and establish a
continuously growing state consisting of various nations which will ultimately include the
nations of the world".   Since, if there is no form of world government then international
system will be chaotic. 
2. Jeremy Bentham- says that the objectives of the global legislators should aim to propose
legislation that would create " the greatest happiness of all nations taken together".
3. Giuseppe Mazzini- believes that free, unified nation-state should be the basis of global
cooperation.
4. Woodrow Wilson- forwarded the principle of self-determination and advocate for the
creation of League of Nations to prevent a world war II. 

Socialist internationalism
Achievement:  Declaration of International women's Day and Labor Day

1. Karl Marx -claimed a premium economic equality among the classes of citizens in the world. 
2. Friedrich Engels and  Karl Marx established a socialist revolution through a battle cry
"Workers of the world, Unite! you have nothing to lose but your chains."     
3. Vladimir Lenin - established the communist international (Comintern) in 1919 to serve as
central body for directing communist parties all over the world. 
 4. Stalin re-stablished the Comintern as Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) in order to
direct the various communist parties that had taken power in Eastern Europe.

     This lesson examined the roots of the international system.  In tracing these roots, a short history of
internationalism was provided.  Moreover, internationalism is but one window into the broader
phenomenon of globalization.  Nevertheless, it is a very crucial aspect of globalization since global
interactions are heightened by the increased interdependence of states. This increased
interdependence manifests itself not just through state-to-state relations. Increasingly, international
relations are also facilitated by international organizations that promote global norms and policies.  The
most prominent example of this organization, of course, is the United Nations.  

2.1.2 Political Globalization

Political globalization - refers to the amount of political co-operation that exists between
different countries. This ties in with the belief that “umbrella” global organizations are
better placed than individual states to prevent conflict. The League of Nations
established after WW1 was certainly one of the pioneers in this. Since then, global
organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), United Nations (UN), and
more regional organizations such as the EU have helped to increase the degree of
political globalization.
Internationalization – the phenomenon characterized by the deepening of interactions
between states.
International Organization - international intergovernmental groups primarily made up
of nation-states or member-states
Attributes of the Global System

1. Countries/states are independent and

govern
themselves.
2. The countries interact with each other
through
diplomacy.
3. International Organizations (like UN)
facilitates the interactions of states.
4. International Organizations take on lives
of
their own.
The difference of a Nation from a State:
Nation – focuses on the “imagined community” that is focused on culture, language,
beliefs, etc.
State – a political entity.

 A state could be composed of multiple nations

(ex. United Kingdom – English, Welsh, Scotts, and Northern Irish)
 Also, a nation could be distributed to multiple
states (ex. Korean Nation – North Korea (DPRK) and South Korea (ROK))
Attributes/ Elements of a State:

1. Population – the citizens

2. Territory
3. Government
4. Sovereignty (both internal and external)

Treaty of Westphalia– a set of agreements to end the Thirty Years’ War between major
continental powers of Europe. Parties to the Treaty recognized that countries should
have complete control over their domestic affairs and swore not to meddle in each
other’s’ affairs (concept of sovereignty).
Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 in France. He revolutionized military organization
and training, sponsored Napoleonic Code, reorganized education and established the
long-lived Concordat with the papacy. He died in 1821 in St. Helena.
His  first major challenge of the Westphalia system. Believes in the principles of French
Revolution (liberty, equality, fraternity). Launched the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815).
Defeated by Anglo (UK) and Prussian armies in the Battle of Waterloo, 1815.
Napoleonic Code – implemented on the occupied countries of Napoleon. Forbade the
birth privileges, encouraged freedom of religion, and promoted meritocracy in
government service. 
Concert of Europe/ Metternich System (after Klemens von Metternich) – after the
defeat of Napoleon, royal powers created a system that, in effect, reinstated the
Westphalian System. Restored
the monarchical, hereditary, and religious privileges. Lasted from 1815-1914 (dawn of
World War I).
Liberal Internationalism:
  Liberal internationalism is a foreign policy doctrine that argues that liberal states should
intervene in other sovereign states in order to pursue liberal objectives. Such intervention can
include both military invasion and humanitarian aid. This view is contrasted to isolationist,
realist, or non-interventionist foreign policy doctrines; these critics characterize it as liberal
interventionism. 
Immanuel Kant – he likened the states in a global system to people living in a given
territory. Advocated for a World Government.
Jeremy Bentham – coined the word “international.” Promoted the creation of
international law.
 This Video of Jeremy Bentham tells his theory of utilitarianism covers a simple history of
the basics of Bentham's philosophy. It includes, among others, a discussion of the
greatest happiness principle and the principle of utility,
Giuseppe Mazzini – an Italian patriot, advocated for the unification of Italian-speaking
mini-states. Believed in the Republican system and proposed a system of free nations
that cooperated with each other to create an international system. Highly influenced the
thinking of President Woodrow Wilson.
 

President Woodrow Wilson – lead advocate for the creation of the League of Nations

 Principle of Self-determination – the belief that

states had a right to a free, sovereign government.
League of Nations – the predecessor of the UN. The US did not participate due to the
fierce opposition of the US Senate. Helpless during the onset of World War II. Gave
birth to task-specific international organizations like the World Health Organization
(WHO) and the International Labor Organization (ILO).

Socialist Internationalism:
 

Karl Marx – German philosopher, a critic of Mazzini. Believed that the true form of
internationalism should reject nationalism, and give focus instead on economic equality.
He divided the world into classes, not by states. Bourgeois (capitalist owner of means of
production) and Proletariat (laborers, those who do not own the means of production).
Socialist International (SI) – a union of European socialist and labor parties established in
Paris in 1889. Achieved the declaration of May 1st as Labor Day, 8-hour workday, and
the International Women’s Day. Collapsed during World War I.
Czar/ Tsar Nicholas II – Russian leader ousted during the Russian Revolution of 1917.
Bolshevik Party – led by Vladimir Lenin. Replaced the government of Tsar Nicholas II
with a revolutionary government, and called the new government as the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR). 
 

Communist International – (Comintern)

Communist Information Bureau – (Cominform)

2.2 The Roles and Functions of the

United Nations
What is an International Organization?
   When scholars refer to the groups like the UN or institutions like the IMF and the World Bank, they
usually call them international organization. International Organization (IO) refers to international
intergovernmental organization or groups that are primarily made up of member-states. International
relations scholars Michael N. Barnett and Martha Finnemore listed the following powers of IOs.

1. IOs have the power of classification.

2. IOs have the power to fix meanings.
3. IOs have the power to diffuse norms.

The United Nations

  After the collapse of the League of Nations at the end of World War II, countries that worried about
another global war began  to push for the formation of a more lasting international league. The result
was the creation of the United Nations on October 24,1945. Although  the organization is far from
perfect, it should  be emphasized  that it has so far achieved  its primary  goal  of averting another
global war.  And because of this reason the United Nations should be considered as a success. 
Five active Organs of the United Nations:
1. General Assembly (GA)
2. Security Council (SC)
3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
4. International Court of Justice (ICJ)
5. Secretariat -UN Admin
          The General Assembly (GA) is the United Nations' main deliberative policy making  and
representative organ. According  to the its  charter,  the decisions  on important  questions such as
those on peace  and security, admission  of new members  and budgetary  matters. require a two thirds
majority  of the General Assembly. Decisions  on other questions  are done by a simple majority.
Annually, the General assembly elects  a GA  president  to serve  a one year  term of office.  All
member-states, currently  at 193,  have seats in the GA. The  Philippines played  a prominent  role in
the GA's early years when a Filipino diplomat named  Carlos P. Romulo was elected GA President  from
1949-1950. 
          Although  the GA is  the most  representative  organization  in the United Nations,  many
commentators  consider  the U.N. Security Council (SC)  as the most powerful.  According to the U.N., 
this body  consists  of 15 member states. the G.A. elects ten of these 15 to  two-year terms.     
The  Five Permanent  Members of the U.N. Security Council are -
1. The United States of America
2. China
3. Russia
4. France
5. The United Kingdom
      The above-mentioned states  are permanent members since the founding  of the United Nations
and cannot  be replaced  through  election. The SC  takes  the lead in determining  the existence of a
threat  to the peace or an act of aggression. It calls  upon the parties  to a dispute to settle  the act by
peaceful means and recommends methods of adjustment or terms of settlement. In some cases, it can
resort to imposing  sanctions or even authorizing the use of force to maintain or restore international
peace and security. Because of these powers, states that seek to intervene militarily in another state
need to obtain  the approval  of the SC. With the SC'S approval,  a military  intervention  may be
deemed legal. This is an immense power.
      The third UN organ is the  Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) which is the "principal body  for
coordination, policy review, policy dialogue, and recommendations on social  and environmental issues,
as well as the implementation of internationally  agreed development goals." It has 54 members elected
for three-year terms. Currently  it is the UN's central platform for discussion on sustainable
development.
     The fourth is the International Court of Justice whose task "is to settle, in accordance with
international law, legal disputes submitted to it by states and to give advisory opinions referred to it by
authorized United Nations' organs and specialized agencies.
    Finally, the secretariat consists of the "Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN
staff who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly and the
organization's other principal organs."
 
Challenges  of the United Nations
      The United  Nations  is not  a world government  and it functions  primarily because  of voluntary 
cooperation  from states. If states refuse to cooperate, the influence of the UN can be severely
circumscribed. Perhaps, the biggest challenge of the United Nations is related to the issues of security.
       The UN Security Council is tasked  with authorizing  international acts of military intervention.
Because of the P5's veto power, it is tough  for the Council  to release a formal  resolution, much more 
implement it. This became an issue, for example,  in the late 1990s  when the United States sought to intervene
in the Kosovo  war.
   On  September 2005,  the Philippines  was part of the powerful U.N Security  council as one of the 10 non-
permanent members. The Philippines served as the chair/head of the UN Security Council.  In the file photo, then
Philippine President Gloria Arroyo was presiding the UN Security Council meeting - one of the shining moments
in our nation's history.  

2.2.3 United Nations

International Organizations (IO) – refers to the international intergovernmental organizations
or groups primarily made up of member-states or nation-states. 
Powers of International Organizations
1. IOs have the power of classification
2. IOs have the power to fix meanings
3. IOs have the power to diffuse norms
The United Nations has five Organs:
The United Nations is a display of what true intergovernmental cooperation looks like.
But how does this complex system of foreign policy work? What are the core
functioning branches of the UN that keep it running and stable? Here, we answer those
questions. Looking at all five of the current, working organs of the UN.
 

1. The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ

of the UN. All 193 Member states of the UN are represented in the General Assembly,
making it the only UN body with universal representation. 
2. Security Council has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the
maintenance of international peace and security.  It has 15 Members (5 Permanent
Members and 10 Non permanent Members ). Each Member has one vote. Under the
Charter, all Member States are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Security
Council takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or act of
aggression. 
3. Economic and social council is the principal body for coordination, policy review,
policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as
well as implementation of internationally agreed development goals. It serves as the
central mechanism for activities of the UN system and its specialized agencies in the
economic, social and environmental fields, supervising subsidiary and expert bodies.  It
has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. It is
the United Nations’ central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking
on sustainable development.
4. International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. Its
seat is at the Peace Palace in the Hague (Netherlands). It is the only one of the six
principal organs of the United Nations not located in New York (United States of
America). The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes
submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it
by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.
5.  Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international
UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the
General Assembly and the Organization's other principal organs.
 

2.2.4 World of Regions

Governments, associations, societies, and groups form regional organizations and/or
networks as a way of coping with the challenges of globalization. Globalization has made
people aware of the world in general, but it has also made Filipinos more cognizant of
specific areas such as Southeast Asia. How, for instance, did the Philippines come to
identify itself with the Southeast Asian region? Why is it a part of a regional grouping
known as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)?
Regions – a group of countries located in the same geographically specified area, or an
amalgamation of region to regulate and oversee flows and policy choices.
Regionalization – regional concentration of economic flows
Regionalism– political process characterized by economic policy cooperation and
coordination among countries
NATO – (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) – formed during the Cold War between
Western European countries and the US against the threat of the Soviet Union. USSR
(Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) responded with the creation of its own alliance –
the Warsaw Pact. The members of the Warsaw Pact are the USSR and its satellite states
in Eastern Europe.
OPEC – (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) established in 1960 to regulate
the production and sale of oil.
NAM– established in 1961 to pursue world peace and international cooperation, human
rights, national sovereignty, equality, nonintervention, and peaceful conflict resolution.
Did not side on either the First World (Western Europe and the US) or Second World
(USSR and allies).

Module 2 Summary
   This lesson examined the roots of the international system.  In tracing these roots, a short history of
internationalism was provided.  Moreover, internationalism is but one window into the broader
phenomenon of globalization.  Nevertheless, it is a very crucial aspect of globalization since global
interactions are heightened by the increased interdependence of states. This increased
interdependence manifests itself not just through state-to-state relations. Increasingly, international
relations are also facilitated by international organizations that promote global norms and policies.  The
most prominent example of this organization, of course, is the United Nations.  
       Global governance is such a complex issue that one can actually teach an entire course in itself. 
This lesson has focused on the IOs and the United Nations in particular.  International organizations are
highlighted because they are the most visible symbols of global governance.  The UN, in particular, is
the closest to a world government.  What is important to remember is that international institutions like
the UN are always in a precarious position. On the one hand, they are groups of sovereign states. On
the other, they are organizations with their own rationalities and agendas.  It is this tension that will
continue to inform the evolution of these organizations. However, note that there are many
institutions, groups, and ideas that hold international and global politics together.  In your own time,
you may want to explore these topics on your own.
3.1 The Media and Globalization
Globalization entails the spread of various cultures. When a film is made in Hollywood, it is shown not
only in the United States, but also in other cities across the globe.  Globalization also involves the
spread of ideas. For example, the notion of the rights of lesbian, gay bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)
communities is spreading across the world and becoming more widely accepted. Similarly, the
conservative Christian Church that opposes these rights moves from places like South America to
Korea and to Burundi in Africa. People who travel the globe teaching and preaching their beliefs in
universities, churches, public forums, classrooms, or even as guests of a family play a major role in the
spread of culture and ideas. But today, television programs, social media groups, books, movies,
magazines, and the like have made it easier for advocates to reach larger audiences. Globalization relies
on media as its main conduit for the spread of global culture and ideas. There is an intimate relationship
between globalization and media which must be unraveled to further understand the contemporary
world.

Media and Its Functions

        Jack Lule describes media as "a means of conveying something such as a channel of
communication." Technically speaking, a person's voice is a medium. However, when commentators
refer to "media" (the plural of medium) they mean the technologies of mass communication. Print media
include books, magazines, and newspapers. Broadcast media involve radio, film, and television. Finally,
digital media cover the internet and mobile mass communication. Within the category of internet
media, there are e-mail, internet sites, social media, and internet-based video and audio.

       Media theorist Marshall McLuhan once declared that "the medium is the message." He did not
mean that ideas ("messages") are useless and do not affect people. Rather, his statement was an
attempt to draw attention to how media, as a form of technology, reshape societies. Thus, television is
not a simple bearer of messages, it also shapes the social behavior of users and reorient family
behavior. Today, the smart phones allows users to keep in touch instantly with multiple people at the
same time. Consider the effect of the internet on relationship. Prior to the cellphone, there was no way
for couples to keep constantly in touch, or to be updated on what the other does all the time. The
technology (medium) and not the message, makes for this social change possible. Cellphones, on one
hand, expand people's senses because they provide the capability to talk to more people
instantaneously and simultaneously. On the other hand, they also limit the senses because they make
users easily distractible and more prone to multitasking. This is not necessarily a bad thing; it is merely
change with a trade-off. 

      Marshall McLuhan asked whether how media, as a form of communication, reshape the society.
Media has both positive and negatives effects. On one hand, one of the positives effects of media is to
expand the reach of communication. On the other hand, one of the negative effects of media is to
amputate and limit  human senses.

The Global Village and Cultural Imperialism

      McLuhan used his analysis of technology to examine the impact of electronic media.  He declared
that television was turning the world into a "global village." By this, he meant that as more and more
people sat down in front of their television sets and listened to the same stories, their perception of the
world would contract. If tribal villages once sat in front of fires to listen to collective stories, the
members of the new global village would sit in front of bright boxes in their living rooms.

      In the years after McLuhan, media scholars grappled with the challenges of a global media
culture.  A lot of these early thinkers assumed that global media had a tendency to homogenize culture.
They argued that as global media spread, people from all over the world would begin to watch, listen to,
and read the same things. Commentators believed that media globalization  coupled with American
hegemony would create a form of cultural imperialism whereby American values and culture would
overwhelm all others. Herbert Schiller argued that not only was the world being Americanized, but this
process also led to the spread of "American" capitalist values like consumerism.

Critiques of Cultural Imperialism

      Proponents of the idea of cultural imperialism ignored the fact that media messages are not just
made by producers, they are also consumed by audiences. Media scholars began to pay attention to the
ways in which audiences understood and interpreted media messages. The field of audience studies
emphasizes that ,media consumers are active participants in the meaning-making process, who view
media "texts" (in media studies, a "text" simply refers to the content of any medium) through their own
cultural lenses.

Apart from the challenge of audience studies, the cultural imperialism thesis has been belied by the
renewed strength of regional trends in the globalization process. Asian culture, for example, has
proliferated worldwide through the globalization of media. Japanese brands- from hello kitty to the
Mario Brothers to Pokémon- are now an indelible part of global popular culture. The same can be said
for Korean Pop (K-pop_ and Korean telenovelas, which are widely successful regionally and globally. 
The observation eve applies to culinary taste. The most obvious case of globalized Asian cuisine is
sushi. And while it is true that McDonald's has continued to spread across Asia, it is also the case that
Asian brands have provided stiff competition. The Philippines' Jollibee claims to be the number one
choice for fast food in Brunei.  

Social Media and the Creation of Cyber Ghettoes

  As with all new media, social media have both beneficial and negative effects. These form of
communication have democratized access. Anyone with an internet connection or a smart phone can
use Facebook and Twitter for free. These media have enabled users to be consumers and producers of
information simultaneously.
        The dark side of social media shows that even a seemingly open and democratic media may be co-
opted towards undemocratic means. Global online propaganda will be the biggest threat to face a the
globalization of media deepens. As consumers of media, users must remain vigilant and learn how to
distinguish fact from falsehood. People must be critical of mainstream media and traditional journalism
that may also operate based on vested interest.
3.1.1 Media and Globalization
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Media and Globalization 

Globalization entails the spread of various cultures. When a film is made in Hollywood, it is
shown not only in the United States but also in other cities across the globe. South Korean
rapper Psy's song "Gangnam Style" may have been about a wealthy suburb in Seoul, but its
listeners included millions who have never been or may never go to Gangnam. Some of them
may not even know what Gangnam is. Globalization also involves the spread of ideas. For
example, the notion of the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)
communities is spreading across the world and becoming more widely accepted. 
Globalization relies on media as its main conduit for the spread of global culture and ideas. 
There is an intimate relationship between globalization and media which must be unraveled
to further understand the contemporary world. 

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):

Analyze how various media drive various forms of global integration


 Explain the dynamic between local and global cultural production
 Evaluate how globalization affects religious practices and belief
 Distinguish the relationship between religion and global conflict, and conversely,
global peace
Teaching and Learning Activities (TLAs

1. Online Discussion/Lecture
2. Group Discussion/Brainstorming
3. Video/Multimedia Presentation
Media – a means of conveying something, such as a channel of communication.
Technically, a person’s voice is a medium.
Types of Media:

1. Print Media – books, magazines, newspapers

2. Broadcast Media – radio, film, television
3. Digital Media – mobile mass communication, electronic books (e-books)
4. internet Media – Email, Social Media, Internet Sites, VOIP (e.g. Viber, WeChat,
etc).
According to Marshall McLuhan (Media Theorist):

 “The medium is the message” - television in the 1960s USA, it changed the
lifestyle of Americans. Technology makes social change possible.
 “Media simultaneously extend and amputate human senses” - media expand the
reach of communication, but it also dulls the users’ communicative capacities.
 “Television helped create a global village” - as more people sit down in front of
their television sets and listened to the same stories, their perception of the
world contract.

Cultural Imperialism – created through the partnership of media globalization and the
American hegemony. This led to the spread of American values like consumerism.
Hegemony – the military, political, economic, and cultural might (power), or clout, of a
particular State.
John Tomlinson - “cultural imperialism” promotes “homogenized, Westernized,
consumer culture.”
Social Media – a tool used to communicate and socialize with people online. Led to the
creation of “digital citizenship.” It is democratized, which means people have free access.

The dark side of social media

 Herd Mentality
 Fake information
 Global online propaganda
Conclusion
This topic showed that different media have diverse effects on globalization processes.
Despite numerous advantages that media can bring, disadvantages are inevitable.
Instead of fearing these changes or entering a state of moral panic, everyone must
collectively discover ways of dealing with them responsibly and ethically.

3.2 The Globalization of Religion

Religion, much more with the culture, has the most difficult  relationship with globalism. The two  are
entirely contrasting  belief systems. Religion is always  concerned with  with the sacred while the
globalism  places value on material wealth. Religion follows  divine commandments, while globalism 
abides by human -made laws. Religion assumes  that there is the possibility  of communication between
humans  and the transcendent. This link between  the human and  the divine  confers  some social 
power on the latter. Furthermore "God,"  "Allah," or "Yahweh"  defines  and judges  human action  in
moral terms (good vs bad). Globalism's yardstick, however, is how much of human action can  lead  to
the highest  material  satisfaction  and subsequent  wisdom that this new  status produces.
      Religious people are  less concerned  with wealth  and all that comes  along  with it like (higher
social status, a standard of living similar with that of the rest of the community, exposure to "culture,"
top-of-the-line education for the children). They are ascetics precisely because they shun anything
material for complete simplicity - from their domain to the clothes they wear, to the food they eat, and
even to the manner in which they talk (lots of parables and allegories that are supposedly the language
of the divine)
     A religious person's main duty  is to live  a virtuous, sinless life  such that  when she/he  dies  he/she
is assured  of a place in heaven. On the  other hand, globalist  are less  worried about whether  they will 
end up in heaven  or hell. Finally  religion  and globalism  clash over  the fact  that religious 
evangelization  is in  itself  a form  of globalization. The globalist idea is largely  focused  on the realm 
of markets. The religious  is always concerned  with spreading  holy ideas  globally, while the globalist 
wishes to spread  goods and services.  
    Religion regard identities associated with with globalism (citizenship, language, and race) as inferior
and narrow because they are earthly categories. In contrast, membership to a religious group,
organization, or cult represents a superior affiliation that connects human directly to the divine and the
supernatural. Being a Christian, a Muslim, or as Buddhist places one in a higher plane than just being a
Filipino, a Spanish speaker, or an Anglo-Saxon. These philosophical differences explain why certain
groups "flee" their communities and create impenetrable sanctuaries where they can practice their
religions without the meddling ang control of state authorities.

Realities    
     In actuality, the relationship between religion and globalization is much more complicated. Peter
Burger argues that far from being secularized, the "contemporary world is... furiously religious. In most
of the world, there are veritable explosions of religious fervor, occurring in one form of another in all
the major religious traditions - Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and even
Confucianism- and in may places in imaginative syntheses of one or more world religions with
indigenous faith. 
     Religions are the foundations of modern republics.  The Malaysian government places religion at the
center of the political system. Its constitution explicitly states that "Islam is the religion of the
Federation," and the rulers of each state was also the "Head of the religion of Islam."
     The late Iranian religious leader, Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, bragged about the superiority of Islamic
rule over its secular counterparts and pointed out that "there is no fundamental distinction among
constitutional, despotic, dictatorial, democratic, and communistic regimes." To Khomeini, all secular
ideologies were the same- they were all flawed - and Islamic rule was the superior form of government
because it was spiritual. Yet, Iran calls itself a republic, a term that is associated with the secular.
     Religious movements do not hesitate to appropriate secular themes and practices. In other cases,
religion was the result of a shift in state policy.
  Religion has entered the “information age” and has globalized at accelerating rates, in the methods
religions use for teaching and in belief systems.
Religion for and against Globalization
       There is hardly a religious movement today that does not use religion to oppose "profane"
globalization. Yet, two of the so-called "old world religions" - Christianity and Islam - see globalization
less as an obstacle and more as an opportunity to expand their reach all over the world. Globalization
has "freed" communities from the "constraints of the nation-state," but in the process, also threatened
to destroy the cultural system that bind them together. Religion seeks to take the place of these broken
"traditional ties" to either help the community cope with their new situation or organize them to
oppose this major transformation of their lives.
       Religion is thus not the "regressive force" that stops or slows down globalization; it is "pro-active
force" that give communities a new and powerful basis of identity. Religious fundamentalism may
dislike globalization's materialism, but it continues to use "the full range of modern means of
communication and organization" that is associated with this economic transformation.

3. 2.1 The Globalization of Religion

The Globalization of Religion

 

This topic will show the complicated relationship between Globalization and Religion, as
religion is concerned with the sacred while globalism places value on material wealth. The
two are entirely contrasting belief systems. 
Globalization has played a tremendous role in providing a context for the current revival
and the resurgence of religion. Today, most religions are not relegated to the countries
where they began. Religions have, in fact, spread and scattered on a global scale.
Globalization provided religions a fertile milieu to spread and thrive. As Scholte (2005)
made clear: "Accelerated globalization of recent times has enabled co-religionists across
the planet to have greater direct contact with one another. Global communications,
global organizations, global finance, and the like have allowed ideas of the Muslims and
the universal Christian church to be given concrete shape as ever before. 
Information technologies, transportation means, and the media are deemed important
means on which religionists rely on the dissemination of their religious ideas.
Furthermore, media also play an important role in the dissemination of religious ideas. In
this respect. a lot of television channels, radio stations, and print media are founded
solely for advocating religions. Modern technology, therefore, has helped religions of
different forms, such as fundamentalist, orthodox, or modernist to cross geographical
boundaries and be present everywhere. 
What is religion? The answer might not be as simple as you thought. So Watch this
video below.
1. Concerned with the sacred
 2. Follows divine commandments (Bible for Christians, Koran for Muslims, and Torah for
Jews)
 3. Assumes that there is “the possibility of communication between humans and the
transcendent” (God for Christians, Allah for Muslims, Yahweh for Jews)
 4. Less concerned with wealth
 5. Live a virtuous, sinless life (Learning to cultivate virtues)
Globalization: 
 1. Places value on material wealth
 2. Abides by human-made laws (laws, policies, and principles that make Globalization
possible)
 3. How much human action leads to the highest material satisfaction
 4. Less worried about whether they will end up in heaven or hell.
Globalization of Religion: Find out the relationship of religion to Globalization by
watching this video.
Religious Evangelization – the various ways on which religious organizations spread out
their religion and dogma. This could be in the form of door-to-door evangelization,
through word of mouth
or through the use of mass media.
This Video Dr. Mary Healy discusses the meaning of evangelization and the basic
message of the Gospel. 
Is Religious Evangelization a form of Globalization? and what are the new platform of
evangelization?
Evangelization has new Platform; social media is now a tool for religious evangelization.
Different religious group uses different media platform to spread the gospel or to deliver
religious beliefs to their believers. Can you name social media platform that commonly
used for religious evangelization? How? What is the process?
Is Religious Evangelization a form of Globalization?

Yes No
It does
expand and
intensify
It has
the flow of
nothing to
information
do with
, and to
the
some
accumulatio
extent,
n and
even
spending of
people and
wealth.
goods.
(Steger’s
Definition)

Realities:

1. Peter Berger - “The Contemporary World is... furiously religious.” In most parts
of the world, there is a veritable explosion of religious fervor (ex. Religious
Holidays, etc.)
2. Religions served as a foundation of the modern-day republic. Example: Malaysia
and Islamic Republic of Iran (Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini started the Islamic
Revolution in Iran during the 1970s).
3. Religious Organizations recognize the importance of Secularism. Example:
Nahdlatul Ulama of Indonesia where they have Pesantren (Islamic Schools)
teaching modern science, banking, social sciences, etc.
 4. Religion came as a result of shift in state policy. Example: Church of England
was established by King Henry VIII when he broke off with the Roman Catholic
Church after the Pope declined to recognize/allow his divorce.
5. Religion and Law fused together to create the “Modern Secular Society.”
Example: the United State of America, as observed by Alexis de Tocqueville in
the 1800s, where Americans practice Religion out of self-interest.

Jose Casanova – religion has always been at the center of all great political conflicts and
movements of social reform.
Religion For and Against Globalization:

 Religious institutions are generally divided over the spread of Globalization –

some dislike it as it promotes materialism, while the rest embrace Globalization
and its forces to help spread their teachings or dogma.
 The two largest religions (based on following), also called the two “old-world
religions” – Christianity and Islam – have viewed Globalization less as an
obstacle and more as an opportunity to expand their reach.
Religion For Globalization:

 Globalization has “freed” communities from the “constraints of the nation-

state,” and religion seeks to take the place (fill the gap) of these “broken ties” to
either help the communities cope up, or organize to oppose. Religion is then
seen not as a regressive force against Globalization, but as a pro-active force.
Religion Against Globalization:

 Some denominations (like Shiite Muslims) see Globalization as a “Trojan Horse,”

filled with ideas of secularism, liberalism, and even communism
THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION
Globalization and Religion has a complicated relationship as religion is concerned with the sacred while globalism
places value on material wealth.

Globalization led to the spread of religious ideas

Spread of religious ideas, in itself, is a form of Globalization

RELIGION
concerned with the sacred

follows divine commandments (Bible for Christians, Koran for Muslims, and Torah for Jews)

assumes that there is “the possibility of communication between humans and the transcendent”
(God for Christians, Allah for Muslims, Yahweh for Jews)

less concerned with wealth live a virtuous, sin-less life

GLOBALIZATION
PLACES VALUE ON MATERIAL WEALTH

ABIDES BY HUMAN-MADE LAWS (LAWS, POLICIES, AND PRINCIPLES THAT MAKE GLOBALIZATION POSSIBLE)

HOW MUCH HUMAN ACTION LEADS TO THE HIGHEST MATERIAL SATISFACTION

LESS WORRIED ON WHETHER THEY WILL END UP IN HEAVEN OR HELL.

RELIGIOUS EVANGELIZATION
the various ways on which religious organizations spread out their religion and
dogma. This could be in the form of door-to-door evangelization, through word of
mouth or through the use of mass media.
IS RELIGIOUS EVANGELIZATION A FORM OF
GLOBALIZATION?
YES NO
It does expand and intensify the
flow of information, and to some
extent, even people and goods.
(Steger’s Definition)
NO
It has nothing to do with the
accumulation and spending of
wealth.

Peter Berger - “The Contemporary World is... furiously religious.” In most parts of the world, there
is a veritable explosion of religious fervor (ex. Religious Holidays, etc.)
Religions served as a foundation of the modern-day republic.
Religious Organizations recognize the importance of Secularism. Example: Nahdlatul Ulama of
Indonesia where they have Pesantren (Islamic Schools) teaching modern science, banking, social
sciences, etc.
Religion came as a result of shift in state policy
Religion and Law fused together to create the “Modern Secular Society.”

REALITIES
RELIGION FOR AND AGAINST GLOBALIZATION:
Religious institutions are generally divide over the spread of Globalization – some dislike it as it
promotes materialism, while the rest embrace Globalization and its forces to help spread their
teachings or dogma.
The two largest religions (based on following), also called as the two “old-world religions” –
Christianity and Islam – has viewed Globalization less as an obstacle and more as an opportunity
to expand their reach.

RELIGION FOR GLOBALIZATION

Globalization has “freed” communities from the “constraints of the nation-state,” and religion seeks
to take the place (fill the gap) of these “broken ties” to either help the communities cope up, or
organize to oppose. Religion is then seen not as a regressive force against Globalization, but as a
pro-active force.

RELIGION AGAINST GLOBALIZATION

Some denominations (like Shiite Muslims) see Globalization as a “Trojan Horse,” filled with ideas
of secularism, liberalism, and even communism.
What do you think is the important role of Media in
Globalization?
Media and Globalization
Globalization entails the spread of various cultures.
Example: A film made in Hollywood is shown in cities across the globe
Globalization also involves the spread of ideas.
Example: The notion on the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender
(LGBT) is spreading across the globe and becoming more widely accepted.
Today, TV programs, social media groups, books, movies, magazines, and the
like have made easier for advocates to reach larger audiences.
Globalization relies on media as its main conduit for the spread of global culture
and ideas.

Media and its functions

Jack Lule describes media as "a means of conveying something such as a channel of
communication." When commentators refer to "media" they mean the technologies of mass
communication.
Marshall McLuhan once declared that "the medium is the message." His statement was an
attempt to draw attention to how media, as a form of technology, reshape societies.
Example:
1. Television is not only a simple bearer of messages; it also shapes the social behavior of users
and reorient family behavior
2. Smart phones allows users to keep in touch instantly with multiple people at the same time.
Marshall McLuhan asked whether how media, as a form of communication, reshape the society.
Media has both positive and negatives effects. On one hand, one of the positive effects of media is
to expand the reach of communication. On the other hand, one of the negative effects of media is
to amputate and limit human senses.
Example: The medium of writing – before people wrote things on parchment, they had to have
retentive memories. When papyrus introduced after the fourth BCE, storytellers no longer had to
rely completely on their memories.
Three types media;
1. Print media – books, magazines, and newspapers
2. Broadcast media – radio, film, and television
3. Digital media – internet and mobile mass communication. In internet media, there are e-mail,
internet sites, social media, and internet-based video and audio.
The Global Village and Cultural Imperialism
McLuhan used his analysis of technology to examine the impact of electronic media. He analyzed
the social changes brought about by television.
• He declared that TV was turning the world into a “global village.” It means the perception of the
world would be the same.
• In the years after McLuhan, media scholars grappled with the challenges of a global media
culture. They assumed that global media had a tendency to homogenize culture.
Commentators believed that media globalization coupled with American hegemony would create a
form of cultural imperialism whereby American values and culture would overwhelm all others.
• In 1976, media critic Herbert Schiller argued that not only was the world being Americanized, but
this process also led to the spread of "American" capitalist values like consumerism.

Cultural Imperialism
Cultural Imperialism is a process by which one country dominates other countries’ media
consumption and consequently dominates their values and ideologies. Consider the number of
television programs and films produced in the USA that are shown throughout the world.
A political-economy perspective argues that the homogenisation of culture and communication
leads to shared values and ideologies. The USA dominates world media with 85% of the global
film market and 68 % of the television market. A cultural imperialism perspective argues therefore
that American values and ideologies are imposed upon the rest of the world, through media texts

Critiques of Cultural Imperialism

• Proponents of the idea of cultural imperialism ignored the fact that media messages are not just
made by producers, they are also consumed by audiences.
• Apart from the challenge of audience studies, the cultural imperialism thesis has been belied by
the renewed strength of regional trends in the globalization process.
Example: Asian culture proliferated worldwide through the globalization of media.
• Japanese brands – hello kitty, Mario Brothers, Pokémon are now indelible part of global popular
culture.
• Korean pop (K-pop) and Korean telenovelas are widely successful regionally and globally.
• Sushi - the most obvious case of globalized Asian cuisine
• McDonalds – continued to spread across Asia
• Philippine Jollibee – the number choice for fast food in Brunie
Social Media and the Creation of Cyber Ghettoes
• As with all new media, social media have both beneficial and negative effects. These forms of
communication have democratized access. Anyone with an internet connection or a smart phone
can use Facebook and Twitter for free. These media have enabled users to be consumers and
producers of information simultaneously.
• The dark side of social media shows that even a seemingly open and democratic media may be
co-opted towards undemocratic means. Global online propaganda will be the biggest threat to face
the globalization of media deepens.
• As consumers of media, users must remain vigilant and learn how to distinguish fact from
falsehood in a global media landscape that allows politicians to peddle what President Trump’s
senior advisers now call “alternative facts.”
• Though people must be critical of mainstream media and traditional journalism that may also
operate based on vested interest, we must also insist that some sources are more credible than
others.

The Globalization of Religion

Religion
the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal
God or gods.
a particular system of faith and worship.
a pursuit or interest to which someone ascribes supreme importance
Much more than culture, it has the most difficult relationship with globalism.
It is more concerned with the sacred; globalism places value on material wealth.
It follows divine commandments; globalism abides by human-made laws.
In religion, God, Allah, or Yahweh defines and judges’ human actions in moral terms.
In globalism, human actions will lead to the highest material satisfaction.

It regards identities associated with globalism (citizenship, language, and race) as
inferior and narrow because they are earthly categories.
Membership to a religious group, organizations, or cult represents a superior
affiliation that connects humans directly to the divine and the supernatural.
Religious person
Someone less concern with wealth and all that comes along with it.
Someone who shuns anything material for complete simplicity.
His main duty is to live a virtuous life, sin-less life such that when he dies, he is
assured of a place in the other world (i.e., heaven).
He is someone who aspires to become a saint.
He detests politics and the quest for power for they are evidence of humanity’s weakness.

He is concerned with spreading holy ideas globally.

Example:
American Born-Again Christians, Sufi and Shiite Muslim order, Buddhist
monasteries, Catholic, Protestant, and Mormon churches – they are into spreading
the word of God.

Religious groups
The religious and philosophical differences explain why certain groups flee their communities to
create sanctuaries where they can practice their religion without the meddling and control of state
authorities.
Example:
1. Followers of Dalai Lama – established Tibet
2. Buddhist monasteries – located away from civilization so that hermits can devote themselves to
prayer and contemplation.
3. Rizalistas in Mount Banahaw – isolated themselves
4. Israel – believers in One God
5. Mormons in Utah

Realities about Religion

In actuality, the relationship between religion and globalization is much more
complicated.
Peter Burger argues that far from being secularized, the "contemporary world
is...furiously religious.
In most of the world, there are veritable explosions of religious fervor, occurring in one
form of another in all major religious traditions – Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism,
Buddhism and even Confucianism.
Religions become the foundations of modern republics.
Example:
1. Malaysian government – places religion at the center of political system.
2. Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini – “there is no fundamental distinction among constitutional,
despotic, dictatorial, and communistic regimes. All secular ideologies were the same – they were
flawed – and Islamic rule was the superior form of government because it was spiritual.

Religious movements do not hesitate to appropriate secular themes and practices.

Example:
Muslim association Nahdlatul Ulama in Indonesia – it has Islamic school; students were also taught modern
science, banking, education, democracy, etc.
In other cases, religion was the result of a shift in state policy.
Example:
Church in England – shaped by the rationality of democratic and bureaucratic culture. King Henry VIII
broke away from Catholicism, established his own church to bolster his power.

Example:
In the US, religion and law fused to help build modern secular society

Jose Casanova – “historically, religion has always been the center of all
great political conflicts and movements of social reforms.”

Religion for and against Globalization

There is hardly a religious movement today that does not use religion to oppose "profane"
globalization. Yet, two of the so-called "old world religions" - Christianity and Islam – see
globalization less as an obstacle and more as an opportunity to expand their reach all
over the world.
Religious fundamentalism may dislike globalization's materialism, but it continues to use "the full
range of modern means of communication and organization" that is associated with this
economic transformation.

 Some Muslims view globalization as a Trojan horse hiding supporters of Western Values like
secularism, liberalism, or even communism ready to spread these ideas in their areas to
eventually displace Islam.
The World Council of Churches – an association of different
Protestant congregations – criticized economic globalization’s negative effects.
The Catholic church and its leader, Pope Francis, condemned globalization’s “throw-away
culture” that is fatally destined to suffocate hope and increase risks and threats.