Prelims 2017

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Day 59

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Environment

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Threat to biodiversity stems mainly from: habitat fragmentation, degradation and loss; shrinking genetic diversity;
invasive alien species; declining forest resource base; climate change and desertification; over exploitation of
resources; impact of development projects; and impact of pollution.
The table below summarize the main threats occurring:
Threats in terrestrial areas Some underlying causes
Degradation, destruction and Spread of the urbanised areas, road network and industrial areas and
fragmentation of natural habitats associated problems (noise, pollution); abandon of former agricultural
practices that were favourable to biodiversity
Decrease in the capacity of the Intensification of agricultural practices (yielding pollution and disturbance)
agricultural areas to host wildlife and disappearance of landscape elements that provide food and shelter
that are exploitable by wildlife (such as hedges, trees, ponds, etc.)
Pollution of soils, air and water Excess of heavy metals (industry, roads), manure and pesticides
(agriculture) and other pollutants
Invasions by alien species International trade and transport (roads, railways, rivers), gardening
practices, exotic trees in forestry, exotic pests released in the wild, climate
change, etc.
Epidemics affecting wildlife Arrivals of pathogens that are favoured by the introduction of exotic
species, pollution and the destruction of habitats
Climate change Carbon emissions, deforestation and other land use changes due to human
activities
Dessication of soils and wetlands Excess pumping of underground water tables
Recreation and leisure Overuse of green open spaces and wild areas, little respect for nature,
mountain biking and motor sports in fragile areas, dogs not on leash
Threats in marine areas
Overfishing and decline of species Industrial fishing, overexploitation of target species, by-catch species
Pollution and eutrophication Land-based activities (river run-off), atmospheric deposition, maritime
traffic
Degradation and destruction of Beam trawling, dredging, sand and gravel extraction
the sea floor
Alien species introductions Maritime trade (ballast waters, fouling), leisure navigation, mariculture,
climate change
Leisure and tourism Coastal development, water quality in summer (high population),
mechanical beach cleaning, noise and other perturbations due to the
high population
 Environment www.iasscore.in

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Biodiversity is the occurrence of different types of ecosystems, different species of organisms with the whole
range of their variants and genes adapted to different climates, environments along with their interactions and
processes.
Biodiversity is being depleted by the loss of habitat, fragmentation of habitat, over exploitation of resources,
human sponsored ecosystems, climatic changes, pollution invasive exotic spices, diseases, shifting cultivation,
poaching of wild life etc.
Effects of loss of biodiversity are:
• The loss of biodiversity leads to depletion of genetic diversity.
• The loss of both genetic and ecosystem diversities result in a loss of cultural diversity.

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• The alteration of the habitat results in mass extinction of particularly the endemic species.
OR
• The loss of a species can have deleterious effects on the remaining species in an ecosystem which lead
to breakdown of biodiversity.
• Reduced biodiversity means millions of people face a future where food supplies are more vulnerable to
pests and disease and where water is in irregular or short supply.
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• The loss of plant species also means the loss of unknown economic potential, as extinct plants can hardly
be harvested for food crops, fibers, medicines, and other products that forests, especially rainforests,
provide.
Thus biodiversity conservation has become important.
The biodiversity conservation methodology is divided as In-situ and Ex-situ.
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In-situ methods of conservation of biodiversity

The in-situ strategy emphasizes protection of total ecosystems. The in-situ approach includes protection of a
group of typical ecosystems through a network of protected areas.
a) Protected areas:
These are areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological
diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources. These are managed through legal or other effective
means. Examples of protected areas are National Parks, and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Some of the main benefits of protected areas are: (1) maintaining viable populations of all native species and
subspecies; (2) maintaining the number and distribution of communities and habitats, and conserving the
genetic diversity of all the present species; (3) preventing human-caused introductions of alien species; and (4)
making it possible for species/habitats to shift in response to environmental changes.
b) Biosphere reserves:

E
Biosphere reserves are internationally recognized, nominated by national governments and remain under sovereign
jurisdiction of the states where they are located.

Biosphere reserves are organized into 3 interrelated zones:

o
OR
Core Areas: These areas are securely protected sites for conserving biological diversity, monitoring minimally
disturbed ecosystems, and undertaking non-destructive research and other low-impact uses (such as
education).
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o Buffer Zones: These areas must be clearly identified, and usually surround or adjoin the Core Areas.
Buffer Zones may be used for cooperative activities compatible with sound ecological practices, including
environmental education, recreation, ecotourism and applied and basic research.
o Transition, or Cooperation, Zones: These areas may contain towns, farms, fisheries, and other human
activities and are the areas where local communities, management agencies, scientists, non-governmental
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organizations, cultural groups, economic interests, and other stakeholders work together to manage and
sustainably develop the area’s resources.
Each biosphere reserve is intended to contribute to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and
genetic variation; to foster economic and human development which is socio culturally and ecologically
sustainable; to provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local,
national and global issues of conservation and development.
c) National parks:
A national park is a reserve of natural or semi-natural land, declared or owned by a government, which is
restricted from most development and is set aside for human recreation and environmental protection. Visitors
are allowed to enter, under special conditions, for inspirational, educative, cultural, and recreative purposes.
d) Wildlife sanctuaries:  
An area, usually in natural condition, which is reserved (set aside) by a governmental or private agency for the
protection of particular species of animals during part or all of the year. An area designated for the protection
of wild animals, within which hunting and fishing is either prohibited or strictly controlled. It is maintained by
the state government.
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e) Sacred forests and sacred lakes:

A traditional strategy for the protection of biodiversity has been in practice in India and some other Asian
countries in the form of sacred forests. These are forest patches of varying dimensions protected by tribal
communities due to religious sanctity accorded to these forest patches. In India sacred forests are located in
several parts, e.g. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Meghalaya, etc., and are serving as refugia for a number of
rare, endangered and endemic taxa. Similarly, several water bodies (e.g. Khecheopalri Lake in Sikkim) have
been declared sacred by the people leading to protection of aquatic flora and fauna.
Ex-situ methods of conservation of biodiversity
Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats. 
This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse
body of techniques and facilities.  Some of these include:
a) Botanic Gardens
Botanic gardens can be defined as “public gardens which maintain collections of live plants mainly for study,
scientific research, conservation and education. 

E
Botanic gardens are able
OR
• to rehabilitate indigenous and threatened species and restore them to  protected portions of their former
habitats;
• to exploit commercially those species which are plentiful; and
• to promote wildlife education to a broad range of target groups such as politicians, school and college
students, and communities living in and around wildlife areas.
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b) Translocations
Sometimes conservation of faunal species involves or necessitates translocation of animals. This means the
movement of individuals from its natural habitat, or from captivity, to another habitat. Translocations are
carried out in connection with introductions or reintroductions, and should be handled with extreme caution. 
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These operations are carried out often with support from international captive breeding programs and receive
the cooperation of zoos, aquaria, etc.
c) Artificial Insemination:
Artificial insemination, or AI, is the process by which sperm is placed into the reproductive tract of a female
for the purpose of impregnating the female by using means other than sexual intercourse or natural insemination.
d) Somatic Cell Cloning
Somatic Cell Cloning holds some promise for propagating from one or a few survivors of an almost extinct
species. The nucleus of a somatic cell is removed and kept, and the host’s egg cell is kept and nucleus removed
and discarded. The lone nucleus is then fused with the ‘deprogrammed’ egg cell. After being inserted into the
egg, the lone (somatic-cell) nucleus is reprogrammed by the host egg cell. The egg, now containing the somatic
cell’s nucleus, is stimulated with a shock and will begin to divide.
e) Seed bank 
The preservation of plant germplasm in seedbanks, (or genebanks), is one of the techniques of ex-situ conservation
of plant species.
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Storing germplasm in seedbanks is both inexpensive and space efficient. It allows preservation of large populations
with little genetic erosion. Seedbanks also offer good sources of plant material for biological research, and
avoid disturbance or damage of natural populations.
f) Reintroduction
Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the habitat from where it has become extinct is another form of
ex situ conservation. For example, the Gangetic gharial has been reintroduced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan where it had become extinct.
Species based programmes for conservation of biodiversity
The species based conservation programmes in India are:
a) Project Tiger
Tigers are terminal consumers in the ecological food pyramid, and their conservation results in the conservation
of all trophic levels in an ecosystem.  

E
Project Tiger is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Government of India which was launched on the 1st of April,
1973 for in-situ conservation of wild tigers in designated tiger reserves.

OR
The project aims at ensuring a viable population of Bengal tigers
 in their natural habitats and also to protect them from extinction, and preserving areas of biological importance
as a natural heritage forever represented as close as possible the diversity of ecosystems across the tiger’s
distribution in the country. 
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b) Project Elephant
Elephant was launched in February, 1992 to assist states having free ranging populations of wild elephants to
ensure long-term survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitats. The project is
being implemented in twelve states viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu Uttaranchal and West Bengal.
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c) Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project 

The Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project is an effort to save the Asiatic lion
 from extinction in the wild. The last wild population in the Gir Forest region of the Indian state of Gujarat is
threatened by epidemics, natural disasters and anthropogenic factors. The project aims to establish a second
independent population of Asiatic Lions at the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.
d) Snow Leopard Project
Snow leopards live in the mountain regions of central Asia. In India their geographical cover encompasses a
large part of the Western Himalaya including the states of Himachal Pradesh, J&K and Uttarakhand with a
sizable population in Ladakh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh in Eastern Himalaya. They are found at high
elevations of 3000-4500 meters (9800 ft to 14800 ft.), and even higher in the Himalayas. 
The Snow Leopard is listed as endangered on the IUCN-World Conservation Union’s Red List of the Threatened
Species.
Keeping this in view, WWF-India initiated the project, “snow leopard conservation: An initiative”, in the states
of Uttarakhand (UK) and some of the areas of Himachal Pradesh (HP) to conserve biodiversity with community
participation.
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Other Initiatives
Biodiversity conservation To develop and promote new models of conservation at the landscape scale
and r ural livelihood through enhanced capacity and institution building for mainstreaming biodiversity
improvement project conservation outcomes. It is in link with World bank
Saving Asia’s Vultures created to oversee and co-ordinate conservation, campaigning and fundraising
from Extinction (SAVE) activities to help the plight of south Asia’s vultures
Indian Rhino Vision (IRV) To protect and increase the population of the one-horned rhinoceros. IRV 2020
2020 is a partnership between the Assam Forest Department, the Bodoland Territorial
Council, WWF, IRF, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Monitoring the Illegal To provide information needed for elephant range States to make appropriate
Killing of Elephants management and enforcement decisions, and to build institutional capacity within
(MIKE) the range States for the long-term management of their elephant populations.
It is launched by CITES.

E
OR
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Notes

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 History www.iasscore.in

POST-MAURYAN INDIA
• With the downfall of the Mauryan Empire, the political disintegration of India set in and in second
century BC the sub-continent divided into a number of political regions, each with its own ambition.
• The northwest India slipped out of the control of the Mauryas and a series of foreign invasions affected
this region.
• Kalinga declared its independence and in the further south, the Satavahanas established their independent
rule.
• The Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic valley and it was soon replaced by the Sunga dynasty.
• For the period immediately succeeding the overthrow of the Mauryas, scraps of information are found in

E
texts such as the GargiSamhita, the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, the Divyavadana, the Malavikagnimitra of
Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Bana.
SUNGAS
• OR
The founder of the Sunga dynasty was PushyamitraSunga, who was the commander-in-chief under the
Mauryas. He assassinated the last Mauryan ruler and usurped the throne.
• The most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect north India against the invasions of the
SC
Bactrian Greeks from the northwest who advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for some time.
• Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining the lost territory.
• Pushyamitra also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded north India.
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• Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two asvamedha sacrifices.

• Buddhist sources refer him as a persecutor of Buddhism, but there is enough evidence to show that
Pushyamitrapatronised Buddhist art.
• During his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved.
• After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler.
• The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister VasudevaKanva, the founder of
the Kanva dynasty.
• The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years. After the fall of the Kanvas, the history of Magatha was a blank
until the establishment of the Gupta dynasty.
• The rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the Gangetic valley from foreign invasions.
• In the cultural sphere, the Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice.
• They also promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language.

E
• It can be assumed that the Sunga rule was a brilliant anticipation of the golden age of the Guptas.
OR
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SATAVAHANAS
• In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas and
their rule lasted for about 450 years.
• They were also known as the Andhras.
• The Puranas and inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahanas.
• Among the inscriptions, the Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the reign of Gautamiputra
Satakarni.
• The coins issued by the Satavahanas are also helpful in knowing the economic conditions of that period.

E
• The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka and was succeeded by Krishna, who extended the
kingdom up to Nasik in the west.
•

•
sacrifices.
OR
The third king was Sri Satakarni. He conquered western Malwa and Berar. He also performed asvamedha

The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned for a period of five years. Hala
became famous for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit language.
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• The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni. He ruled for a period of 24
years from 106 to 130 A.D. His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother
Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan and expanded his empire. His
victory over Nagapana, the ruler of Malwa was remarkable. He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave
donations to Buddhists.
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• Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He extended the Satavahana
power up to the mouth of the Krishna river. He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed.
They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas.
• The last great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna Sri Satakarni.
Administration
• Administration under the Satavahanas was much simpler than under the Mauryas.
• Inscriptions refer to ministers who were in charge of various functions. Among other things, they served
as treasury officers and maintained land records. The exact number of ministers is not known.
• These ministers were appointed directly by the king and the post of a minister does not seem to have been
hereditary. They were perhaps paid in money from the revenue collected by the state.
• The state collected taxes both from agriculture and trade.
• An important beginning under the Satavahanas in the first century AD was the donation of revenue of

E
a village to either a Brahmana or the Buddhist sangha, which became much more widespread under the
Gupta rulers.
OR
• The importance of land revenue for the king can be judged from the elaborate procedure that was used
to record donations of land. These donations were first proclaimed in an assembly or nigama-sabha. It was
then written down either on a copper-plate or cloth by an officer or minister and thus, detailed account
of these donations were maintained.
• The social structure of the Deccan under the Satavahanas shows many features which are different from
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those prescribed in the Sanskrit texts such as the Manurmriti.

• Many inscriptions of the Satavahana rulers mention the names of their mothers rather than those of their
fathers, such as Gautamiputra Satakarni or Satakarni, son of Gautami. This is not in keeping with the
Dharmasastras which state that in the approved forms of marriage, the bride acquires the gotra of her
husband and loses that of the father.
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• In the inscriptions the Satavahanas refer to themselves as unique Brahmanas who crushed the pride of the
Kshatriyas (according to the Brahmanical texts it was only the Kshatriyas who had the right to rule).
• The inscriptions are also useful as they record donations by a cross-section of the population and from
this the prosperity of certain sections of the society can be judged.
• Traders and merchants figure prominently as donors, but also important are blacksmiths, gardeners and
fishermen.
• The artisans and craftsmen benefited from the increased long-distance trade.
• The artisans mention their occupations with their names and not their castes.
• Buddhist texts of the period prescribe a somewhat different division of society as compared to the
Brahmanical texts. Here, the distinction was based on work and craft and in most case people were known
by their occupations rather than their castes.
• Another important development of the period was the frequent mention of the yavanas or foreigners as
the donors.
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• The terms yavana originally denoted an Ionian Greek, but around the Christian era it was used
indiscriminately for any foreigner.
• Many of the yavanas adopted Prakrit names and made donations to Buddhist monasteries.
• Women frequently made gifts either on their own or sometimes with their husbands or sons.
• One of the Satavahana queens named Nayanika also performed Vedic sacrifices and made large donations
to the Brahmana and Buddhist monks.
• It is clear from various sources that the society was not governed by rules laid down by the Brahmanical
texts and Buddhist traditions might have had some sway on society.
• Gradually, the influence and membership of the Buddhist sangha increased.
• The Satavahana kings donated large sums of money and land to the Buddhist monasteries and this added
to the wealth of the sangha.
• It is also at this time that references to donations made by Buddhist monks and nuns themselves are

E
found.

OR
Economic Condition
• There was a remarkable progress in the fields of trade and industry during the Satavahana rule. Merchants
organized guilds to increase their activities.
• The craft guilds organized by different craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into
existence.
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• Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.

• The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity.
• Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan.
• The greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan.
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• Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.
Cultural Contributions
• The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism and built chaityas and viharas.
• The Satavahanas also made grants of villages and lands to Buddhist monks.
• Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa.
• Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya
sacrifices.
• The Satavahanas also patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an excellent piece
of Prakrit literature.
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FOREIGN INVASIONS FROM NORTHWEST INDIA

Bactrians
• Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian empire in the middle of the third century B.C.
Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria invaded Afghanistan and Punjab and occupied them.
• From Taxila, Demetrius sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander for further conquests.
• Appolodotus conquered the Sindh and marched up to Ujjain.
• Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and from there he made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But
he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra.
• Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his kingdom was Sakala (Sialcot). He evinced

E
much interest in Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena was compiled in the Pali
work, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda). He also embraced Buddhism.
OR
• A Greek ambassador Heliodorus became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar. The
Greek influence in India lasted for more than a century after the death Menander.
Sakas
• The Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured them from the Greek rulers.
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• Following the footsteps of the Greeks, the Sakas gradually extended their rule over northwestern India.
• There were two different groups of Sakas the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the Western satraps
ruling over Maharashtra.
• The founder the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C. was Maues.
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• Son and successor of Maueswas Azes I, who was considered to be the founder of the Vikrama era.
• Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians.
The Kushanas
• The Kushanas succeeded the Parthians in the extreme north- west and spread themselves in successive
stages in the regions of northern India.
• The Kushanas are also referred to as Yueh-chis or Tocharians.
• The Kushanasbelonged to one of the five clans’of the Yueh-chi nomadic tribe living in the vicinity of
China.
• The Kushanaswere responsible for ousting the Sakas in Bactria and also the Parthians in the Gandhara
region.
• The Kushanas first consolidated their territories beyond the Indian border on the north- west frontier and
gradually, their authority in India expanded and came to extend to over the lower Indus basin and most
of the Gangetic plain down to Varanasi.
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• Like the Sakas and Pahlawas, the Kushanastoo are mentioned in Epic, Puranic and other lilterature.
• The Kushana rule is particularly significant because under them, civilisations of the Mediterranean world,
Western Asia, Central Asia, China and India got assimilated.
• The coins, inscriptions and other sources provide evidence about two successive dynasties of the Kushanas.
• The first line was started by KujulaKadphises in 45, who is believed to have united the five tribes of the
Yueh-chi and made successful inroads into India, establishing himself in Kabul and Kashmir.
• KujulaKadphises minted different types of coins in copper and one type of his coins has a Roman-style
male bust on it. Kujula
• Kadphises was succeeded by VimaKadphises who introduced a new phase of coinage in India.
• The practice of issuing gold coins by Indian rulers regularly started with VimaKadphises who minted
different types of gold coins which broadly followed the weight system of Roman gold coins.

E
OR
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Kanishka
• The Kadphises rulers were succeeded by Kanishka.
• The relationship between the first two kings (Kadphises) and Kanishka is shrouded in mystery, but it is
for sure that he too was of central Asian origin, although he may not have teen directly related to the first
two kings.
• Kanishka is the most popular Kushana ruler, particularly because of his association with Buddhism. The
Kushanas reached the zenith of their power under Kanishka.
• The accession of Kanishka to the throne has been dated to 78 AD which is popularly known as the Saka
era.
• This period is historically significant for general cultural development in northern India as well as the
intermingling of peoples of different geographical regions.
• The first capital of Kanishka was at Purushapura near modern Peshawar, where he erected a monastery’
and a huge stupa. Mathura appears to have been the second capital.

E
• The successors of Kanishka continued to rule for over a century, but Kushana power gradually declined.
• Some of the rulers used very Indian names such as Vasudeva.
OR
• The Kushanaempire in Afghanistan and in the region west of the Indus was superseded in the mid-third
century AD by the Sassanian power which began in Iran.
• Peshwar and Taxila were lost to the Sassanians and the Kushanas were reduced to the position of subordinates
of these rulers.
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Kanishka’s Conquests
• At the time of his accession his empire included Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and Punjab.
• Subsequently Kanishka conquered Magadha and extended his power as far as Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya.
• According to Kalhana, Kanishka invaded Kashmir and occupied it.
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• Kanishka coins are found in many places like Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and Benares and therefore, he
must have conquered the greater part of the Gangetic plain.
• Kanishka also fought against the Chinese and acquired some territories from them.
• During the first expedition Kanishka was defeated by the Chinese general Pancho. Kanishka undertook a
second expedition in which he was successful and he scored a victory over Panyang, the son of Pancho.
• Kanishka annexed the territories of Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan into his empire.
• The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending from Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and
from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in the south.
• His capital was Purushapura or modern day Peshawar. Mathura was another important city in his empire
Kanishka and Buddhism
• Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign.
• However, Kanishka’s coins exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods. It
reflects the Kanishka’s toleration towards other religions.
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• In the age of Kanishka the Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue. It is different in many respects from
the religion taught by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka. The Buddha came to be worshipped with
flowers, garments, perfumes and lamps. Thus image worship and rituals developed in Mahayana Buddhism.
Kanishka was also a patron of art and Sanskrit literature.
• Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and China for the propagation of the new faith. Buddhist
chaityas and viharas were built in different places.
• Kanishkapatronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna.
• Kanishka also convened the Fourth Buddhist Council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and
doctrine. It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir under the presidentship of
Vasumitra. About 500 monks attended the Council.
• The Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was
given final shape.
• Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist. He was the author of Buddhacharita.

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• Nagarjuna from south India adorned the court of Kanishka.
•
Trade and Urbanisations
•
OR
The famous physician of ancient India Charaka was also patronized by Kanishka.

The process of urbanization which began in the pre-Mauryan period (came to be known as the “second
urbanisation”) got accelerated in the post-Mauryan period.
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• The number of cities increased and these now combined with political and commercial functions.
• There was a greater use of brick, both for residential structures as well as for fortifications and public
buildings.
• It is also at this time that imposing religious monuments were built and embellished.
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• Similary, trade activities were carried out primarily in essential commodities such as salt, metals, etc. The
early trade routes gained more importance.
• There were many reasons for this increase:
– Firstly, agriculture was now generating enough surplus. It had created such social classes which required
varieties of items that could be acquired only through trade. Agricultural produce was itself now an
item of trade because the majority of people living in cities did not produce their own food.
– Secondly, both Buddhism and Jainism which had a large following by now encouraged the accumulation
and reinvestment of wealth and trade was one of the occupations held in high regard. Hence, a close
relationship between the traders and the Buddhist sangha and Buddhist monastic establishments located
at important points along trade routes is found.
– Thirdly, the expansion of urban centres meant that there was a growing class of qonsumers for subsistence
as well as luxury goods.
• Together with these internal factors there was an increased demand from outside for various Indian goods.
Two major empires that arose at this time were the Roman Empire in the west and the later Han empire
in China.
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• Within the Roman empire there was greater demand for products of the east such as spices, aromatic
woods, etc.
• Similarly the rulers of the later Han empire adopted an encouraging approach towards merchants and this
resulted in an acceleration of contacts between India, Central Asia and China.
• A large number of inscriptions have been found at Buddhist sites all over the country. These inscriptions
record donations and gifts made to the Buddhist sangha but at the same time, they also indicate the
prosperity of certain professions and occupational groups.
• Traders were organised into guilds; others traded with their own money; while still others were only
financiers and provided the money to trade with.
• The terms used for these different type of merchants also varied. A vanik was primarily a general trader,
while a sethi was a financier and a sarthavaha was a leader of a caravan which transported good over long
distances.
• A good indicator of trade transactions is the coinage system. In the Mauryan period, silver punch-marked
coins were in use together with uninscribed cast copper coins. In the post-Mauryan period, the variety,

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number and types of coins being minted increased rapidly.
• Inscriptions were introduced on coins and the technique of minting coins showed great improvement.
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• The Indo-Greek kings in the north- west introduced a splendid series of portrait-coinage-a type that was
followed in India for several centuries.
• These coins in silver and copper carried bilingual inscriptions, written on one side in the Greek language
and script and on the other in Prakrit and generally in Kharosti script.
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• In west India, the coins of the Kshatrapas are important because these show the earliest use of the Saka
era which henceforth, provides a firm basis for dating. Another remarkable coin series of the early
centuries AD is that of the Kushanas.
• In addition to those in copper, the Kushanas minted a large number of gold coins and these depict a
variety of Indian, Greek and Iranian deities.
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• This abundance of coin types and coinage systems indicates the extensive use of money.
• Together with the indigenous coins, foreign coins, especially Roman coins also came into the country by
way of trade.
• Very few Roman coins have been found in the north, though imitations of these in clay known as ‘bullae’
occur widely at the excavated sites.
External Trade
• Maritime trade started in India during the Mauryan period and the early links flourished and expanded in
the early centuries of the Christian era.
• One reasons for this was the demand from the two major empires that arose at the beginning of the
Christian era. In the west was the mighty Roman empire while in the east, was the Han empire in China.
Information about the period is thus available in many foreign sources.
• One of the works that tells a great deal about early maritime trade is the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
This Greek text was written by an anonymous sailor in the first century and contains an account of the
ports that he visited during his. travels between the Red Sea and India.
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• The two major ports to which trade goods were sent from the centres of north India were those of
Barbarikon at the mouth of the Indus and Bharuch at the mouth of the Narmada.
• The Indus connected Barbarikon with Punjab and Gandhara. Bharuch or Barygaza as the Greeks called
it was linked to Ujjain, Mathura and the Ganga plains. In the east, Tamluk was an important outlet for
coastal trade with Andhra and Tamil coasts.
• The Periplus tells us that the imports in the north included brocades, coral, frankincense, glass vessels,
money and some wine.
• The Romans were famous for the technological improvements that they made in the manufacture of glass.
As a result, the different varieties of glass objects made by them were highly valued in many countries
including India and China.
• Grankincense, a gum-resin produced by a tree indigenous to Arabia. It was used as an incense and also
for medicinal purposes.
• So far, very few gold and silver Roman coins have been found in north India, although, as you will read

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in the next block, a large number of them have been found in peninsular India. This led some scholars
to suggest that these imported coins were melted and re-used by the Kushanas and the Kshatrapas to mint

•
their own currency.

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In exchange for these, the exports from India were spices, precious stones like turquoise, lapis lazuli and
carnelian and Chinese silk and yarn.
• The reason for Chinese silk traded through India rather than being sent directly was the political situation.
The Parthians were powerful rulers along the north- western boundary of the Indian subcontinent. There
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was constant hostility between them and the Roman Empire and as a result, overland routes between
China and the west were disrupted. Many of the products from China were hence traded along the land
route to India.
• Information about early contacts between India, central Asia and China is to be found in Chinese histories
written at this time.
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• It is generally accepted that together with merchants, Buddhism also spread to central Asia and China
around the first century first century A.D. A series of Buddhist caves were made along the northern route
to central Asia from the first century AD onwards and from the third century AD many Buddhist texts
were translated into Chinese.
• Bactria in the Oxtri valley in north Afghanistan was the main centre for international trade with central
Asia and China. From this city, a route ran through Kapisa and the Kabul valley to the core region of
the Kushanaempire.
• Within the Indian sub-continent, there were two major routes mentioned in the different sources. The
uttarapatha or northern route connected the major centres of the north while the Dakshinapatha linked
the centres of peninsular India.
• The uttarapatha originated at Pushkalavati or modern Charsada and went via Taxila, Mathura, Kausambi
and Varanasi to Pataliputra and from there onwards to Champa and Chandraketugarh. This ancient route
was already in existence under the Mauryas and references to it occur in Greek writings.
• From Mathura, another route branched off westward to Sindh and Awes along this route that horses were
brought to the north.
• Mathura was also connected to Ujjain and the port of Bharuch at the mouth of the Narmada.
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• A third route ran to the river Indus and connected Taxila to Patiala at the mouth of the river.
• The major route followed the channel of the Ganges and there are many references to the transportation
of commodities by boat along the river. This major route was linked to several minor routes, one of them
going past Vaisali and Sravasti to Nepal.
Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushana Rule
• The successors of Kanishka ruled for another one hundred and fifty years.
• Huvishka was the son of Kanishka and he kept the empire intact.
• Mathura became an important city under his rule. Like Kanishka he was also a patron of Buddhism.
• The last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva. The Kushanaempire was very much reduced in his rule.
Most of his inscriptions are found in and around Mathura. Vasudeva wasworshipper of Siva.
• After Vasudeva, petty Kushan princes ruled for sometime in northwestern India and later the rule declined
by the rise of the Gupta empire.

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INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ALLIANCE

• The International Solar Alliance was inaugurated by the Indian Prime Minister and French President in
National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) in Gwalpahari, Gurgaon along with the interim Secretariat of
the ISA. It has been set up with UN as strategic partner.
• It is the India’s first international and inter-governmental organization of 121 Countries to have headquarters
in India with United Nations as Strategic Partner.
• It creates a collaborative platform for increased deployment of solar energy technologies to enhance
energy security and sustainable development.

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• It improves access to energy and opportunities for better livelihoods in rural and remote areas and to
increase the standard of living.
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It will work with partner countries to formulate projects and programmes to accelerate development and
deployment of existing clean solar energy technologies, the potential for which largely remaining untapped.
It develops innovative financial mechanisms to reduce cost of capital and builds a common knowledge
e-Portal.
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• It also facilitates capacity building for promotion and absorption of solar technologies and Research and
Development among member countries.
• It will encourage multilateral bodies like IRENA, REEEP, IEA, REN21, UN bodies, bilateral organizations,
corporates, industry, and other stakeholders to contribute towards the goal of increasing utilization of solar
energy in the member countries.
• To achieve the objectives, ISA will have five key focus areas:-
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a) It will encourage member countries to promote investment in solar technologies/applications to

promote income and welfare of the poor and make global environment more climate friendly;
b) Formulate projects and programmes to promote solar applications together and with partnership of
member countries and with cooperation from international organizations to ensure solar light for
energy deprived households by the year 2022;
c) Develop innovative Financial Mechanisms through long tenure financial resources from bilateral,
multilateral agencies and other sources to reduce cost of capital;
d) Build a knowledge platform, including a 24×7 e-portal for sharing of policy development experiences
and best practices in member countries; and
e) To promote partnerships among R&D centres of member countries for application oriented research
& development and delivering technologies to people as well as capacity building through training &
educational programmes and exchange of officials/ entrepreneurs/sector experts/ students/interns/
apprentices, user groups etc.
• These focus areas will cater to not just grid connected solar power (Solar parks, Solar thermal projects,
Rooftop solar projects, Canal top projects, Solar on water bodies, Farmers and unemployed youths as
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generators) but also off-grid and decentralised applications (Village electrification and mini-grids, Solar
lanterns, Mobile chargers, Solar powered telecom towers, Milk chilling centres, Potters wheels, Solar
spinner for weavers, street lights, Solar pumps, Solar heating/cooling, etc.). These activities will contribute
significantly in employment generation in a decentralized manner at the local levels, and also in spurring
economic activities.
• Hence with this initiative solar energy will be utilized for economic development.

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CLIMATE ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS

• The term geo-engineering or climate engineering refers to deliberate, large-scale manipulations of the Earth’s
environment designed to offset some of the harmful consequences of GHG-induced climate change.
Climate engineering has two categories of technologies - carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation
management.
• Some of the techniques are:
a) Solar radiation management (SRM):
• These projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global

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warming. They reflect some amount of incoming solar radiation back into space, or that would more
readily enable heat radiated from the earth’s surface to escape, reducing global warming.
•

•
OR
For example, whitening clouds, injecting particles into the stratosphere, or putting sunshades in space could
increase Earth’s reflectivity, thereby reducing incoming solar radiation and offsetting some of the warming
associated with increasing GHG concentrations. 
There are four main classes of SRM proposals:
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a) Stratospheric or mesospheric aerosols
b) Whitening marine clouds
c) Satellites in space
d) Whitening the surface
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• Significance:
• Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing Earth to absorb less
solar radiation. Its cost is lower than the cost of methods that achieve the same cooling by reducing
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Geoengineering could be the affordable and fast-acting option to avoid a global catastrophe. It addresses
the control of greenhouse gases and reduce the risks of climate change.
b) Carbon dioxide removal
• Carbon dioxide removal projects seek to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• Proposed methods include those that directly remove such gases from the atmosphere, as well as indirect
methods that seek to promote natural processes that draw down and sequester CO2 (e.g. tree planting).
• Techniques in this category include:
a) Creating biochar, which can be mixed with soil to create terra preta
b) Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage to sequester carbon and simultaneously provide energy
c) Carbon air capture to remove carbon dioxide from ambient air
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d) Afforestation, reforestation and forest restoration to absorb carbon dioxide

e) Ocean fertilization including iron fertilisation of the oceans
Biochar: Biochar is made from biomass via pyrolysis. Biochar has the potential to help mitigate climate
change via carbon sequestration. Independently, biochar can increase soil fertility of acidic soils (low pH
soils), increase agricultural productivity, and provide protection against some foliar and soil-borne
diseases.
Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment is a type of climate engineering based on the purposeful
introduction of nutrients to the upper ocean to increase marine food production and to remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere.
Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron to the upper ocean to stimulate a phytoplankton
bloom. This is intended to enhance biological productivity, which can benefit the marine food chain and
is under investigation in hopes of increasing carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere.

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CARBON TAX
Carbon tax is a form of pollution tax. It levies a fee on the production, distribution or use of fossil fuels based
on how much carbon their combustion emits. The government sets a price per ton on carbon, and then
translates it into a tax on electricity, natural gas or oil. Because the tax makes using dirty fuels more­ expensive,
it encourages utilities, businesses and individuals to reduce consumption and increase energy efficiency. Carbon
tax also makes alternative energy more cost-competitive with cheaper, polluting fuels like coal, natural gas and
oil.
Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits. It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering
the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy. The carbon tax is the most

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practical method to reduce the fossil fuel consumption. It checks the use of fossil fuel.
• It helps India to reach the committed INDC of 33% by 2030.
•

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Delhi and Kanpur. OR
This will benefited to protect the environment and ensure good quality of air in cities especially cities like

A carbon tax is a step towards helping India meets their voluntary target to reduce the amount of carbon
dioxide released per unit of gross domestic product by 25% from 2005 levels by 2020.
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• The clean energy tax will help to finance a National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF). Industry bodies have
not favored the levy and fear that the resultant higher price of coal could trigger inflation.
• The carbon tax charges a fee based on the carbon emission. So, to reduce the fee, users try to use less
of the fossil fuel.
• The alternative energy such as solar, hydro and wind energy are costlier than the fossil fuel energy. The
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carbon tax on fossil fuel makes the alternative energy competitive to the fossil fuel. It results in more use
of alternative and clean energy. Perhaps, that will help India to promote the flagship programmes like
International solar Alliance, start up India and Make in India by reducing use of non renewable fossil fuels.
• All the money raised by the tax. It can help subsidize environmental programs and clean energy. Instead
of investing more amount on importing the energy bill from outside the country.
• Can make the correct and more use of fund availability for the programmes like afforestation and ISA.
Problems related to Carbon Tax are: Production may shift to countries with no or lower carbon taxes. (so
called ‘pollution havens’); the cost of administrating the tax may be quite expensive reducing its efficiency;
Higher taxes may encourage firms to hide carbon emissions.
Further a global carbon tax may curtail economic activity in the poor developing world because they can’t
afford the small increase in energy costs, but the developed world may simply be able to pay.
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