Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Neoliberalism:
a Foucauldian Perspective
Călin COTOI•
University of Bucharest
There is no alternative.
Margaret Thatcher
new theory or paradigm as much state reason principle and on the older
as a new perspective, a new area of knowledge and ordering techniques
research. The starting point consists embodied in the police sciences
of a basic set of questions: how is it (Polizeiwissenschaften) and the state
possible to utter true statements about sciences (Staatswissenschaften)
persons, their behaviour and ways of (Foucault, 2007: 291).
intervening on these? How were the ddThe French author uses a nominalist
truths put into practice and by whom, methodology, which presupposes
through which conflicts, alliances, that there are no such things as the
blackmails, violences, seductions universals usually employed by social
and subordinations, as alternative sciences and historiography: ‘state’,
to what other truths? The area that ‘civil society’, ‘people’, ‘sovereign’
is thus opened by the analytics of and ‘subjects’. By dissolving these,
governmentality is that part of the Foucault tries to understand how
‘history of the present’ created by practices, discourses and events are
the invention, contestation and formed around that ‘something’, that
operationalization of various rational empty place, where ‘state’, ‘politics’
programmes and techniques that try or ‘economy’ used to reside.
to conduct behaviours so that specific ddFrom this point of view, ‘economy’
results can be obtained (Rose, 1999: does not appear as a kind of
20). The main focus is not so much organization or an organizing process
on the significance of fundamental outside or against the state. Foucault
texts and concepts but on bringing to considers that the emergence of
light the possible ‘enunciation fields’, ‘economy’ means the appearance
the practices that connect and make of new forms of knowledge and
visible the relationship between words power that are best understood
and concepts, the emotions that are as transformations of the former
mobilized, the conditions of possibility disciplinary regimes. The liberal art of
for enouncing ‘serious statements’ government shows the „reason of least
(Foucault, 1996b; Dreyfus and government as the principle organizing
Rabinow, 1983). Raison d’État itself’ (Foucault 2008:
28). When the bourgeois Le Gendre
answers Colbert’s question: ‘What
Back to Foucault can I do for you?’ by saying: ‘What
can you do for us? Leave us alone’
Foucault’s research on neoliberal (Laissez-nous faire) (Argensson apud
governmentality does not take Foucault, 2008: 19) this does not
liberalism as a political theory, ideology mean he was placing himself outside
or theoretical standpoint on modernity. of government. It is just that the state
Liberalism and neoliberalism are reason was articulated on a new truth
seen as practices, reflexive modes regime: the political economy. The
of action, and special ways of government was, for the first time,
rationalizing the governance. (Neo)li- being confronted, from the inside, with
beralism differs from the disciplinary a place of its truth: the market, which
governmental pattern, based on the became a natural mechanism through
CĂLIN COTOI Neoliberalism: a Foucauldian Perspective | 113
which the practice of governing could society, based on social bonds created
be, rationally, designed. If, beforehand, by the pure exteriority of exchange
during the regime of cameralist Raison value, where the nefarious inversion
d’État, the market functioned as a of the human relations with relations
place of jurisdiction, a place of justice, among things is reigning supreme –
of reglementations, ‘fair price’, equity commodity fetishism – may be society
and correct distribution of goods, it as Toennies saw it (Gesellschaft) or
became, in liberal and neoliberal times, capitalism as Marx analysed it, or
a space of veridiction, of enouncing the even XIXth century liberalism, but it
truth and of verifying the government. is not the society neoliberalism tries
ddThe market creates the exchange to programme. At the core of this
values and also the natural truth of neoliberal society is not the laissez-
economic and government processes; faire commercial exchange but a
the utility principle creates the value concurrential mechanism. It is not
of public power acts. The market and about trying to create an exclusive
the utility principle converge to form area where the sate cannot go, a kind
the category of ‘interest’ and by doing of reciprocal tolerance or ignorance
so the government becomes real, between state and market. Concurrence
effective and influences individuals, is a formal, regulatory, pure and perfect
actions, comportments, discourses structure, but, in the same time, it is a
and properties (Foucault, 2007: 52). historically fragile formation that must
The governmentality is put into act, be protected in order to be able to
effectuated through the interests exist and to exercise its influence on
and values that things get in the the whole social body. It emerges as
‘veridiction place’: the market. The the result of a continuous effort, of a
people are governed by and through relentless activity of governmentality.
their own interests. It is not just an This is, in Foucault’s view, the origin
aggregation that happens at the level of ‘neoliberal policies’ – regulatory
of political and economic theory. It is and ordering actions on the conditions
an intimate modification of knowledge, of existence of this coherent but fragile
government and subjectivities. structure of pure concurrence. The
ddA new art of governing is being more the governmental intervention
formed by the transformation of is abhorred at the level of the market,
liberal governmentality. In a way, the more it is required on the technical,
neoliberalism opposes one of the main juridical, demographic and social
tenets of liberalism. The problem does levels (Foucault, 2007: 140).
not consist anymore in the absolute ddThe only sound social policies
autonomy of the economy but in are, from a neoliberal point of view,
deciding how the political and social economic growth, access to private
powers will articulate themselves in property and individual insurance.
order to form the market economy Redistribution policies, social security
(Foucault, 2007: 120). Neoliberalism or revenue equalization are the paragon
is not endorsing a society totally of unsound policies. The neoliberal
ensnared by the exchange values. The governance is not intervening on the
soulless and inorganic commercial market – as many of the Keynesian
114 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011
Human capital. Reverted Marxism into the fix capital (factories and
machines) and so, they are reduced
By placing Marx and neoliberalism in to an indigent and unqualified
the perspective of a similar problem working force – the proletariat – that
– that of work or labour – it becomes is historically destined to destroy
possible to have a better glimpse on and replace capitalism by a global
the functioning of neoliberalism that, historical dialectic (Marx, 1961).
by generalizing the models and ideas ddHuman capital theories do not refer,
of ‘entrepreneur’, ‘investition’ and explicitly, not even in a critical manner,
‘risk’ at the level of day to day life, to Marxism, but they look as if they
radically undermines the possibility of were created as a radical alternative
thinking exploitation as part of human to the Marxist analysis of labour and
relationships (Read, 2009: 32). commodity. The core model of these
ddLabour is, Marx taught us, a theories is the human-entrepreneur
commodity amongst other commodities or the individual as entrepreneur of
that is sold and bought on the market. herself. Compared to Marxism, the
The wage is the pay due for buying the analytical focus is translated towards
work-commodity, and is equivalent the subjective rationality of individual
to the working time that is spent for choice, guided by interest. The place
obtaining enough commodities for of ‘alienation’ is taken by that of
reproducing the consumed working ‘rationality’ – understood as the choice
force. Nevertheless, when work, the between rare resources. Work is no
working force, is bought by the class longer a commodity bought by wage,
that owns the production forces – the but a set of choices that constitute,
capitalists – it will enter the production reproduce and make competitive the
process and will engender plus product human capital. Wage is, basically,
and plus value, being exploited and a revenue, a flux of revenues more
alienated (Marx, 1949). How does an exactly, linked to a special kind of
exchange process, a selling and buying capital: the human one (Becker, 1976).
on the free market gives birth to plus- ddThe problem of human capital,
value? By grossly simplifying Marx’s similar to the problem of work/
analysis, it can be said that this ‘magical’ working force in Marx’s theory, is that
transformation happens because work it cannot be detached – as a system of
is a special commodity that not only competences that can attract revenues
has value but also produces value and – from the individual that bears it.
is organically bounded to the working- The entrepreneur forms, together
creative individual that transforms with his human capital, a ‘dispositif’,
and creates nature during the working a mechanism for creating a flux of
process. The working force is detached revenues. The human capital has, by
by the individual through an alienating its human ‘captivity’, inborn, genetic
process that stems from the intimate characteristics that enter into the overall
workings of the capitalist production mechanism of choice between rare
mode (Marx, 1961). The workers resources. Genetic manipulation, the
competences - the living labour - are ways efficient genetic equipments are
gradually alienated and incorporated managed and reproduced is, gradually,
116 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011
services, new markets, and, above all, for the emergence of discourses. Even
greatly intensified rates of commercial, if practices are frequently mentioned
technological, and organizational together with discursive formations,
innovation. It has entrained rapid and their connection is lavishly
shifts in the patterning of uneven stressed, the political economy part
development, both between sectors and of the practices themselves is not
between geographical regions, giving analysed. Keynesianism is presented
rise, for example, to a vast surge in – with a strange lack of attention to its
so-called ‘service-sector’ employment internal structure – as a homogeneous
as well as to entirely new industrial background against which the
ensembles in hitherto underdeveloped contours of neoliberalism are drawn.
regions [...]. It has also entailed a new Keynesianism has, as Margaret Weir
round of what I shall call ‘time-space and Theda Skocpol have shown, a
compression’ in the capitalist world – diverse, even heterogeneous, internal
the time horizons of both private and and external geography. There used to
public decision-making have shrunk, be a Swedish ‘social Keynesianism’ –
while satellite communication and an almost full employment economy,
declining transport costs have made it with a high level of redistribution of
increasingly possible to spread those public revenues and social welfare
decisions immediately over an ever – but also an American ‘commercial
wider and variegated space (Harvey, Keynesianism’, where the Federal
1990: 147). government used to have tax cuts and
ddIf we compare Harvey’s story of ‘automatic’ financial readjustments
postfordism and neoliberalism with of public spending, being more
Foucault’s neoliberal governmentality, concerned with controlling inflation
there are a few disimilarities. For than with eradicating unemployment
the French scholar, neoliberalism as (Weir & Skocpol, 1985: 108). Not
a governing art emerges as early as to mention that Keynesian policies,
1948, through a series of ruptures like the American agriculture policy
and displacements from classical during New Deal, can create neoliberal
liberalism. The series of European reactions, or strategies to colonize the
governmentalities start with l’État de public institutions by big business
Police, followed by classical liberalim interest groups (Weir & Skocpol,
and, finally, German ordo-liberalism 1985: 144).
and American anarho-liberalism. ddIn David Harvey’s account, Fordism
Keynesianism, as a historical form, and Keynesianism appear also as
is understudied and seen, mostly, as a homogenous historical block –
the ‘adversity field’ against which undermined by the essential tensions of
neoliberal thinkers react. Sometimes, the capitalist crises – that has been replaced,
analysis of succesive and simultaneous in the 1970s, by flexible accumulation,
governmentalities seems to give way neoliberalism and postmodernism. His
to the study of theories and writings of focus on accumulation regimes and
neoliberal economists and politicians, cultural policies intimately connected
of the ‘episteme’ (Foucault, 1996b) to these – like modernism for Fordism
that creates the field of possibilities and postmodernism for postfordism –
120 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011
leaves less space for the understanding a central value in our worldview, much
of alternative ‘arts of government’. the same as ‘civilization’ use to be in
There is no detailed analysis of the the XIXth century.
fields where government technologies ddA special discourse of development
emerge or of the transformations of is created which constructs the object
sovereignty or the human models of development; a knowledge structure
involved in the new ‘modes of envelops the object (country, region
reglementation’. or community) to be developed.
ddThe anthropologies and ethno- ‘Development’ is, though, not just
graphies of governmentality and a conceptual apparatus but also an
neoliberalism can have an important institutional one, which has real effects
role in understanding neoliberalism in social life through document and
at work, and in deconstructing false rapports but also through policies,
dichotomies like state/ civil society/ programmes and projects (Ferguson,
market. The minute descriptions 1990: 73-74).
and interpretations of the daily life ddThe rural development programme
of governmentality, in marginal but from Thaba-Tseko region, Lesotho,
also central social and political areas, started in 1975 and was discontinued in
are informed by previous theoretical 1984. The region to be developed was
positions. Nevertheless, ethnography imagined as a traditional rural one and
can breed, modify, and enrich theory, the project tried to produce economic
as it happens in various ethnographies growth by introducing commercial
of the state, analyses of failed political cattle raising. The population reacted
bodies, withcraft, Georgian pickles, slowly, even aggressively at times to
Polish women labourers, African the implementation of the project. The
migrants, development programmes, failure was explained, by the project
border controls, corruption, colonial team, as due to a lack of education or
bodies and internment camps of entrepreneurial competences on the
(Comaroff & Comaroff, 1997; Dunn, part of the population to be developed.
2004; Mbembe, 2001; Ferguson & Subsequently, more education pro-
Gupta, 2001; Escobar, 1995; West, grammes and competence building
2005; Geschiere, 1997; Hansen & strategies were deployed in the region.
Sepputat, 2005; Agamben, 2005). In Ferguson’s view, the cattle raisers
ddJames Ferguson’s argument in from Thaba-Tseko – many of them
his research on the Thaba-Tseko migrant workers to the mines of South
project, from Lesotho, financed by Africa, redeployed sets of alliances and
the World Bank and CIDA (Canadian conflicts, based on different categories
International Development Agency), of interests, alongside the project
can be summarized like this: interventionist policies, embedding the
‘development’ is one of the main values project in local, national and regional
in the understanding and appraisal of politics. The development project acted
the world we live in and guides the as an ‘anti-politics machine’ because it
interventions that we consider possible considered government as a technical
and desirable. Development is not just device and not as a way of governing
a technical or rational project, but also men and women and, an instrument
CĂLIN COTOI Neoliberalism: A Foucauldian Perspective | 121
used by some interest groups and emerges in post soviet states like
social classes to control the conduct Georgia, where people imagine
and choices of others (Ferguson, 1990: different political and bureaucratic
225). orders, incongruent with the neoliberal
ddThe development apparatus in ones imagined by political elites, by
Lesotho did not function as a device to eating home made pickles, and dying
eliminate poverty, that got, accidentally from botulism? What governmentality
involved in local and regional politics, is being formed in India on the trails
but as a „machine for reinforcing and of the big white jeeps of development
expanding the exercise of bureaucratic programme officers? Or in internment
state power, which incidentally camps from Africa and Europe? Or
takes ‘poverty’ as its point of entry’ in the formation of new ethnicities in
(Ferguson, 1990: 255). By transforming postsocialist, post structural reforms
poverty into a technical problem and East European countries?
by providing apolitical answers to ddWestern donors, Non-Governa-
the problem of the reproduction of mental Organisations representatives,
subaltern populations, ‘development’ and international investors create the
depoliticizes, in the same stroke, the context for the emergence of new
poverty and the state. Development is forms of neoliberal governmentalities
a kind of governmentality that works that are transnational (Ferguson &
in different ways than the classical, Gupta, 2002). The homogeneous
European variant, described by grid that seems to define foucauldian
Foucault or Rose. governmentality, even in its neoliberal,
ddIn Lesotho, Ferguson says, the ambiental guise, does not appear in
growth of state bureaucracy power, former socialist Mozambique for
intimately connected with the long- example. There, the new government
term development project, does not emerged unevenly distributed on the
mean an enhanced centralization territory of the state: concentrated
of political power. A neoliberal in spaces of commercial investment
governmentality with its combination and resource extraction (graphite and
of entrepreneurial technologies of the marble mines) and NGO intervention
Self and capilar power networks does but almost totally absent from
not emerge either. The power relations the spheres of peasant agriculture
are rearranged inside bureaucratic (West, 2005: 262). Citizens were
circuits. The ‘Development State’, that transformed into NGO or development
absorbs the worldview, programmes, programmes ‘beneficiaries’ or weak
education, practices and financial counterclaimants to denationalized
inputs of the global institutions of resources and, as West puts it, ‘needing
development ‘grabs onto and loops nothing from these rural residents,
around existing power relations, not investors and their intermediaries had
to rationalize or coordinate them, so no reason to offer them anything – no
much as to cinch them all together into cause to cultivate their deference and
a knot’ (Ferguson, 1990: 274). What loyalty’ (West, 2005: 262). ‘Low-
kind of governmentality is this? What intensity governance’ (Hansen and
kind of fragmented governmentality Stepputat, 2001: 16), ‘privatization
122 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011
References
Bucuresti: Univers.
Foucault, M. (1980) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings
1972 - 77. Brighton: Harvester.
Foucault, M. (2000) Trebuie să aparăm societatea. Bucureşti: Univers.
Foucault, M. (2001) Theatrum Philosophicum. Studii, eseuri, interviuri 1963 -
1984. Cluj-Napoca: Casa Cărţii de Stiinţă.
Foucault, M. (2005) A supraveghea şi a pedepsi. Nasterea inchisorii. Bucuresti:
Editura Paralela 45.
Foucault, M. (2007) Naşterea biopoliticii, Cursuri ţinute la College de France,
1978-1979. Cluj-Napoca: Ideea Design & Print.
Foucault, M. (2008) Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the College de France 1978 -
79. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Geschiere, P. (1997) The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in
Postcolonial Africa. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
Giddens, A. (1990) The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity.
Habermas, J. (2000) Discursul filosofic al modernităţii. 12 prelegeri. Bucureşti,
Editura ALL.
Hansen, T. and F. Sepputat. (2005) Sovereign Bodies: Citizens, Migrants, and
States in the Postcolonial World. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
Harvey, D. (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity. Oxford: Blackwell.
Harvey, D. (1985) The Urbanization of Capital. Baltimore: John Hopkins
University Press.
Harvey, D. (2007) A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Kooiman, J. (2003) Governing as Governance. London: SAGE.
Marx, K. (1949) Salar, Pret, Profit. In K. Marx and F. Engels. Opere alese: pp.400-
456. Bucuresti: Editura Partidului Muncitoresc Român.
Marx, K. (1961) Capitalul. Volumul I. Bucuresti: Editura Politică.
Mbembe, A. (2001) On the Postcolony. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press.
Osborne, D. and T. Gaebler. (1992) Reinventing Government: How the
Entrepreneurial Spirit Is Transforming the Public Sector. New York: Plume.
Rabinow, P. (1999) French DNA: Trouble in Purgatory. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Read, J. (2009) A Genealogy of Homo Economicus: Neoliberalism and the
Production of Subjectivity. Foucault Studies 6 (1): 25-36.
Robertson, R. (1990) Mapping the Global Condition: Globalization as the Central
Concept. Theory, Culture, and Society 7 (1): 31-55.
Rose, N. (1999) Powers of Freedom: Reframing Political Thought. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Rose, N. (1996) Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies. In N. Rose, Andrew
Barry and Thomas Osborne (eds.) Foucault and Political Reason. London &
Chicago: UCL Press.
Rose, N and P. Miller. (1992) Political Power Beyond the State: Problematics of
Government. In British Journal of Sociology 43 (2): 172-205.
124 | IRSR Volume 1, Issue 2, June 2011