Rocket Propulsion

Solid Propellants in Rocket Propulsion System
CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION
Propellants are usually made from low explosive materials, but may include high
explosive chemical ingredients that are diluted and burned in a controlled way (deflagration)
rather than detonation. The controlled burning of the propellant composition usually produces
thrust by gas pressure and can accelerate a projectile, rocket, or other vehicle. In this sense,
common or well known propellants include, for firearms, artillery and solid propellant rockets
Solid propellants are mainly used in gun and rocket propulsion applications .They are very
energetic and produce high temperature gaseous products on combustion. The high material
density of solid propellants leads to high energy density (The energy produced by a unit mass
of a propellant is called its energy density) needed for producing the required propulsive force.
Propellants in onboard rocket are burned in a controlled way (deflagration) to produce the
desired thrust.
A solid propellant consists of several chemical ingredients such as oxidizer, fuel,
binder, plasticizer, curing agent, stabilizer, and cross-linking agent. The specific chemical
composition depends on the desired combustion characteristics. Different chemical ingredients
and their proportions lead to different physical and mechanical properties, combustion
characteristics, and performance. The propulsive performance of a solid propellant critically
depends on its combustion characteristics including pressure and temperature sensitivities of
the burning rate, and spatial distribution of energy release, temperature, and species
concentrations. The specific chemical composition depends on the desired combustion
characteristics for a particular mission. Solid propellants are often tailored and classified by
specific applications such as space launches, missiles, and guns. Different chemical ingredients
and their proportions result in different physical and chemical properties, combustion
characteristics, and performance. Ammonium perchlorate (AP)-based composite propellants
have been a workhorse in the field of solid rocket propulsion for more than five decades. This
type of propellant typically contains a multi-modal distribution of AP (NH4ClO4) grains (_20
to 200 mm) embedded in the hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) matrix.
Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 1

1.1 Solid Rocket Motor

Solid rocket motor is the main workhorse of a missile. As the reliability requirements of the
rocket motor is very high, elaborate ground testing is carried out to qualify it before using it as
part of a launch vehicle/missile. The design and ballistic performance of the rocket motor are
getting validated during these ground tests. The present research deals with analysis of
vibration observed during static testing of a solid rocket motor. Rocket motor static test is the
most essential one that is required to evaluate the design characteristics of the rocket motor
chamber which is subjected to high pressure, thrust, strain and vibration coupled with high
temperature.
Figure 1.1: Basic Solid Rocket Motor.
Fig. 1.2 Two stage Solid Rocket Motors

1.2. BASIC FEATURES OF A SOLID ROCKET MOTOR

The basic features of a solid propellant rocket motor are:
1. Motor case
2. Propellant grain
3. Motor case insulation
4. Igniter
5. Nozzle
Motor case is usually made of light weight and high strength material. It is designed to
withstand the pressure developed by the burning of the propellant grain. High strength material
is selected for the motor case to keep its mass to a minimum. The composition of the propellant
and the configuration of the propellant grain are designed to give the desired pressure–time
performance for achieving a particular mission.
Thermal insulation is provided on the inner surface of the motor case. Depending on the
configuration of the propellant grain, the thickness of the insulation liner is designed to provide
protection to the motor case against heating of the same due to the burning of the propellant.
The igniter is designed to give the necessary heat energy at the desired pressure so that the
propellant grain ignites and burns in sustained manner.
The mass flow rate through the throat of the nozzle and the expansion of gases in the divergent
region of the nozzle constitute the total thrust developed by the rocket motor. The throat of the
nozzle is usually made of low erosion rate material like high density graphite or carbon
phenolic. The shape of the divergent region of the nozzle is designed to give optimum thrust
due to the expansion of the gases. The inner wall of the nozzle is lined with ablatives to
withstand the high temperature of the exhaust gases. The outer wall is made of high strength
material to act as structural back-up for the ablatives. During the ground testing (static testing)
of the rocket motor, its ballistic parameters are measured. If the ballistic performance of the
motor is matching with the prediction made, then the design of the motor is validated. If the
ballistic performance is identically repeated in consecutive static tests, then the motor is
considered as qualified.

1.3. Working Principle
Fig 1.3. Schematic diagram of a solid fueled rocket motor
In solid propellant rocket motors, the propellant to be burned is contained within the
combustion chamber or case. The solid propellant charge is called the grain and it contains all
the chemical elements for complete burning. Once ignited, it usually burns smoothly at a
predetermined rate on all the exposed internal surfaces of the grain. Initial burning takes place
at the internal surface of the cylinder perforation and the four slots. The internal cavity grows
as the propellant is burned and consumed. The resulting hot gas flows through the supersonic
nozzle to impart thrust. Once ignited, the motor combustion proceeds in an orderly manner
until essentially all the propellant has assumed. There are no feed systems or valves.
After ignition, a solid rocket motor normally operates in accordance with a preset thrust
program until all the propellant is consumed. All the efforts should be directed to the accurate
prediction of the thrust programs

Literature review
[1] Shalini Chaturvedi et al- concluded that the propulsive performance of a solid propellant
critically depends on its combustion characteristics including pressure and temperature
sensitivities of the burning rate, and spatial distribution of energy release, temperature, and
species concentrations.
[2] Siva V et al- has found that the specific impulse of a solid propellant rocket engine is
moderate compare to liquid propellant. Still we are in the position to improve the exit
velocity of the engine in future in the case of solid propellant rocket engine. Its also found
that, the solid propellant rocket engine is best suitable for short range applications.
[3] D. Abhijeet Singh et al- has investigated about Sugar Propellants(SPs) Sugar propellants
are intermediate in performance. This simplifies loading of the propellant into the casting
tube. Also found that SPs are safe, reliable propellants that can provide an effective tool in
their ease of preparation combined with minimal cost.
[4] Yasuhiro MORITA et al- has dealt with the concept of the Advanced Solid Rocket
launcher (ASR), now under development at JAXA, which doubles the cost-performance over
the previous rocket and is loaded with the highly intelligent autonomous check-out system to
reform the launch system into an efficient responsive one. Also he investigated about
simplification of the launch system, propellant manufacturing process and the ignition
method.
[5] Y. Fabignon et al – has concluded that the addition of aluminum powder in the propellant
improves SRM thrust performance, but leads to the formation of liquid aluminum oxide
droplets and therefore produces a two-phase flow in the chamber. Also found that CFD has
become increasingly important and clearly brings new insights into solid rocket propulsion.

CHAPTER 2
PROPELLANT SYSTEM
2.1 Desirable Characteristics of a Solid propellant:

An ideal solid propellant would possess these characteristics:
· High release of chemical energy
· Low molecular weight of combustion products
· High density before combustion
· Readily manufactured from easily obtainable substances by simple processes
· Insensitive to shock and temperature changes and no chemical or physical deterioration
while in storage
· Safe and easy to handle.
· Ability to ignite and burn uniformly over a wide range of operating temperatures
· Non-hygroscopic (nonabsorbent of moisture)
· Smokeless and flashless
2.2 Propellant Processing and Manufacture

The manufacture of solid propellant involves complex physical and chemical processes. Most
of the rocket motors in production today use composite-type propellants, Fig shows a
representative flowsheet for the manufacture of a complete solid rocket motor with a composite
propellant made by batch processes. Processes marked with an asterisk are potentially
hazardous, are usually operated or controlled remotely, and are usually performed in buildings
designed to withstand potential fires or explosions. The mixing and casting processes are the
most complex and are more critical than other processes in determining the quality,
performance, burn rate, and physical properties of the resulting propellant.
An important objective in processing is to produce a propellant grain free of cracks, low-density
areas, voids, or other flaws. In general, voids and other flaws degrade the ballistic and
mechanical properties of the propellant grain. Even the inclusion of finely dispersed gas in a
propellant can result in an abnormally high burning rate, one so high as to cause catastrophic
motor failure.

Fig 2.2 Manufacturing process flow diagram for a rocket motor and its composite solid
propellant.

2.3. Solid Propellants
Solid propellants have been used since the earliest times and even in twenty first century
were based on Gun powder- a mixture of charcoal, sulphur, saltpeter. Modern propellants do
not differ in fundamentals from these early mixtures the oxidant is usually one of the inorganic
salts such as potassium nitrate although chlorates and perchlorates are now more commonly
used. The fuels sometimes includes Sulphur and carbon is present in the form of organic binder.
The charge of propellant in a solid rocket motor is often called the grain. The basic
component of the grain are fuel, oxidant, binder, and additives to achieve burning stability and
stability in storage.
In past, two different kinds of solid propellant have been used. The first kind is the mixture of
inorganic oxidants with fuels. The other type is based on nitrated organic substances such as
nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose.
In modern propellants metallic powders are often added to increase the energy release
and hence the combustion temperature. The most commonly used modern solid propellant is
based on polybutadiene synthetic rubber binder, with ammonium perchlorate as the oxidizer
and some 12-16% of aluminium powder. The boosters for the space shuttle use this type of
propellant for upper stages.
The chemical composition of the exhaust is approximately 32% Alumina, 20% carbon
monoxide, 16% water, 12% hydrogen chloride, 10% nitrogen, 7% carbon dioxide, 3% chlorine
and hydrogen. The molecular weight of Al2O3 is 102. The combined effect of gaseous
components is to produce an average molecular weight of about 25. Since because of above
mentioned effect, the particles will reduce the mean exhaust velocity. So solid propellant is
rather efficient in producing reasonable thrust and exhaust velocity.
2.4 Grain and its configuration

Propellants are used in forms called grains. A grain is any individual particle of propellant
regardless of the size or shape. The shape and size of a propellant grain determines the burn
time, amount of gas and rate produced from the burning propellant and consequently thrust vs
time profile. Cartridge-loaded grains are used in some small tactical missiles and a few
medium-sized motors. They often have a lower cost and are easier to inspect. The case-bonded
grains give a somewhat better performance, a little less inert mass , a better volumetric loading

fraction, are more highly stressed, and often somewhat more difficult and expensive to
manufacture.
Fig 2.4 Diagrams of a free-standing and a case-bonded grain.
Solid propellant In ballistics and pyrotechnics, a propellant is a generic name for chemicals
used for propelling projectiles from guns and other firearms.
These are the three types of burns that can be achieved with grain
1.Progressive Burn
Usually a grain with multiple perforations or a star cut in the center providing a lot of surface
area.
2.Regressive Burn
Usually a solid grain in the shape of a cylinder or sphere.
3.Neutral Burn
Usually a single perforation; as outside surface decreases the inside surface increases at the
same rate.

CHAPTER 3
Classification of Solid Propellants and Composition:

Mainly two types of solid propellants (homogeneous and heterogeneous) are distinguished by
their constituent ingredients and the condition in which they are linked. In a homogeneous
propellant, the ingredients are linked chemically and the resulting physical structure is
homogeneous throughout. Typical examples of homogeneous propellants are single-base (NC
and additives), double-base (NC, NG and additives), and triple-base (NC, NG, NQ, and
additives) propellants. In a heterogeneous or composite propellant, the ingredients are
physically mixed, leading to a heterogeneous physical structure. It is composed of crystalline
particles acting as oxidizer and organic plastic fuels acting as binder to adhere oxidizer particles
together. The ingredients often used as oxidizers are AP, AN, ADN, RDX, and HMX. The
most commonly employed binders are either inert (typically HTPB, ballistic modifiers, and
cross-linking agents) or active (NG and NC, polyether polymer, and azide polymer such as
GAP, BAMO, and AMMO)
3.1 Homogeneous solid propellants

1.Single-base propellants
The main ingredient in a single-base propellant is NC, gelatinized with ethyl alcohol as solvent.
NG is made by acid nitration of natural cellulose fibers from wood or cotton and is amixture
of several organic nitrates. Small amounts of chemical stabilizer and flame suppressant are also
added. The propellant grain is coated with carbon black to keep the surface smooth.
2.Double-base propellants
Double-base propellants are one of the oldest propellants. They are known to have nearly
smokeless exhaust. The main ingredients in double-base propellants are NC and an energetic
nitrate ester such as NG, TMETN, or DEGDN. These nitrate esters are liquid at room
temperature and are used to produce a plasticized gel network resulting in a homogenous
physical structure. The physiochemical properties of double-base propellants such as energy
density, mechanical properties, and combustion characteristics and stability depend on the
proportions of NC, nitrate ester, stabilizers, plasticizers, and other catalysts. Two types of
double-base propellants, extruded and cast, are distinguished by the manufacturing process. By

adding crystalline nitramines the performance and density can be improved. This is sometimes
called as cast-modified double-base propellant. Aluminum can be added to suppress
combustion instability as well as improve specific impulse. Sometimes azides are added to
double-base propellants, which can act as a plasticizer. The energy density of the resultant
propellant also increases
3. Composite modified double base propellants

Composite modified double base (CMDB) propellants start with a nitrocellulose/nitroglycerin
double base propellant as a binder and add solids (typically ammonium perchlorate and
powdered aluminum) normally used in composite propellants. The ammonium perchlorate
makes up the oxygen deficit introduced by using nitrocellulose, improving the overall specific
impulse. The aluminum also improves specific impulse as well as combustion stability. High
performing propellants such as NEPE-75 used in Trident II D-5 replace most of the AP with
HMX, further increasing specific impulse. The mixing of composite and double base propellant
ingredients has become so common as to blur the functional definition of double base
propellants. The physical structure of CMDB is somewhat heterogeneous, and the
physicochemical properties are intermediate between composite and homogeneous propellants.
4. Triple-base propellants
NQ can be added to a double-base propellant to form a triple base propellant. NQ contains a
relatively high amount of hydrogen atoms within its molecular structure that lowers the average
molecular weight of the propellant combustion products. If instead of NQ, crystalline AP,
HMX, or RDX particles are can used then the propellant is called as CMDB.
3.2. Heterogeneous solid propellants

Heterogeneous propellants are mixtures of crystalline oxidizer particles binded within a
polymeric fuel matrix. The commonly used oxidizers such as AP and AN produce high oxygen
concentrations on thermal decomposition. The fuel used is the hydrocarbon-based polymers
such as HTPB, CTPB, and PBAN. Typically high concentrations of oxidizers are used to give
high specific impulse. Aluminum particles are usually added to further increase the specific
impulse

1.AP-composite propellants
AP-based composite propellants usually produce white smoke on combustion. This is because
one of the combustion products HCl nucleates the condensation of moisture in the atmosphere,
resulting in fog or mist. Such smoke is not produced if AN is used, but it lowers the
performance due to reduction in the specific impulse. AP-HTPB is the most commonly used
combination because HTPB is considered to be a superior binder to achieve high combustion
performance as well as desired propellant physical and mechanical properties. Azide polymers
such as GAP and BAMO are also used with AP or AN to formulate composite propellants. The
addition of metal fuel such as Al allows a significant increase in the adiabatic flame
temperatures of composite propellants. When aluminum is used, the combustion products
contain a substantial amount of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) in the chamber, which is mostly
presenting the liquid phase.
2.Ammonium Nitrate based Propellants

Ammonium Nitrate (AN) is one of the most appropriate oxidizer for propellant compositions
that meet the above requirements. Though the experiments on AN as a high-performance
oxidizer for SRB (space shuttle’s solid rocket boosters) in place of AP are in their infancy, gas
generator compositions have established its use as an efficient oxidizer. Both double-base and
composite (without metal) propellants are used extensively with AN or as a mixture of AN and
guanidine nitrate in gas generators. AN composite propellants provide desired exhaust
properties such as high nitrogen content, low water, modest amounts of solid particles, and a
relatively nonhazardous exhaust. Further, AN propellant formulations are relatively insensitive
to temperature and impact and have good strength properties over a wide range of temperature.
AN-based systems have several positive features including clean burning and smokeless
exhaust. They can be used as a substitution for AP.
3.Nitramine composite propellants

These propellants contain crystalline nitramines such as RDX and HMX mixed with a
polymeric binder. The polymeric binders are similar to the ones used in AP-based composite
propellants. Nitramine composite propellants offer the advantage of reduced infrared emissions
due to the reduced CO2 and H2O concentration as compared to AP-HTPB propellants.

CHAPTER 4
Ingredients and Additives:
Different chemical ingredients present in a solid propellant and their functions are as follows.
4.1. Oxidizer
Oxidizers are principle ingredients, which produce the high energy on combustion. One of the
most commonly used oxidizers is AP. AP dominates the oxidizer list because of its good
characteristics that include compatibility with other propellant ingredients, good performance,
and availability. AN and KN are also used in some applications. Although the inorganic nitrates
are relatively low-performance oxidizers compared to perchlorates, they are used because of
low cost and smokeless and non-toxic exhaust.
4.2. Metal fuel

Metal fuels such as aluminum and boron are frequently added to propellant mixtures.
Aluminum, one of the widely used metal additives, is used in the form of small spherical
particles (5–60 lm) in a wide variety of solid propellants. Aluminum particles usually comprise
14–20% of the propellant weight. Addition of metal fuel enhances the heat of combustion,
propellant density, combustion temperature, and hence the specific impulse. There are some
compounds, which can act as both fuel and oxidizer such as NG and AP.
4.3. Binder
Binders provide structurally a matrix in which solid granular ingredients are held together in a
composite propellant. The raw materials are liquid prepolymers or monomers. The binder
impacts the mechanical and chemical properties, propellant processing and aging of the
propellant. Binder materials typically act as a fuel, which gets oxidized in the combustion
processes. Commonly used binders are HTPB, CTPB, and NC. Sometimes GAP is also used
as energetic binder, which increases the energy density and performance of the propellant.
HTPB has been abundantly used in the recent years, as it allows higher solid fractions (total
88–90% of AP and Al) and relatively good physical properties.

4.4. Modifier or Catalyst

A burning-rate catalyst helps increase or decrease the propellant burning rate. It is sometimes
also referred to as burning rate modifier. It can be used to modify the burning rate of specific
grain design to a desired value. Substances such as iron oxide increase the burning rate, while
lithium fluoride decreases the burning rate. These materials help tailor the burning rate to fit
the grain design and the thrust-time requirement. Nowadays lots of work have been done on
propellants by using various catalysts. In recent researchers mainly focus on catalyst of nano
size. Several experimental results show that catalytic activity of nano sized catalyst remarkably
increased as compared to their bulk size. Complete thermal decomposition of AP occurs at
much lower temperature. Burning rate of propellants also enhanced with nano sized catalyst.
4.5. Plasticizer
It is a relatively low-viscosity organic liquid, which also contributes to the thermal energy on
oxidation. Addition of plasticizer improves the processing properties of propellant remarkably.
Some of the commonly used plasticizers are DOA, NG, GAP, and DEP.
4.6. Curing agent

A curing agent causes the prepolymers to form longer chains of larger molecular mass and
interlocks between chains. Curing agents are also referred to as crosslinkers. They solidify and
harden the binder. Although present in a minor amount, its presence impacts the propellant
physical properties, manufacturability, and aging considerably. It is used only with composite
propellants. HMDI, TDI, and IPDI are some examples of curing agents.
4.7. Additive
Other substances in minor quantities are often added to solid propellants. Opacifier is an
additive to make the propellant more opaque to prevent radiative heating at places other than
burning surface. Bonding agents improve the adhesion between the solid propellant and the
motor case. Desensitizing agents are added to make the propellant resistant to accidental
ignition from unwanted energy stimulus. Organic oxidizers, which are explosive organic
compounds with – NO2 radical or other oxidizing fractions, are also incorporated into the
molecular structure

CHAPTER 5
Solid Fuel Rockets
Solid fuel rockets are the first rockets to be recorded in history. They were first invented in
ancient China, and have been used ever since (How Rocket Engines Work.) The chemical make
up of a solid rocket fuel is very similar to the chemical makeup of gunpowder. However, the
exact chemical make up is not the same. To make a rocket work, a fast burning nonexclusive
fuel is needed. Gunpowder explodes, making it unusable. So the chemical composition was
altered to make it burn fast, but not explode. One of the biggest problems with solid fuel rocket
engines is that once started, the reaction cannot be stopped or restarted. This makes them
considered uncontrollable. Therefore, solid fuel rockets are more widely used for missiles, or
as booster rockets.
One can consider that the solid propellant after manufacturing is in a metastable state.
It can remain inert when stored (in appropriate conditions) or it can support after ignition its
continuous transformation into hot combustion products (self-combustion)
The solid rocket is therefore inherently simple and therefore can possess high intrinsic
reliability. After ignition, a solid rocket motor normally operates in accordance with a preset
thrust program until all the propellant is consumed. All the efforts should be directed to the
accurate prediction of the thrust (and pressure) programs to get the benefit of solid rocket motor
concept.
Fig 5.1 Rocket looks before and after Ignition

5.1 PARAMETERS MEASURED DURING STATIC TESTING OF A

SOLID ROCKET MOTOR
Static testing of a rocket motor is carried out to validate the design and evaluate its ballistic
performance. The various parameters that are measured during static testing of a rocket motor
are:
1. Axial thrust produced by the firing motor.
2. Motor chamber pressure.
3. Temperature of the motor case and nozzle outer skin.
4. Strains of the motor case at different critical locations.
5. Diametrical and longitudinal expansion of the motor case.
6. Vibration of the nozzle divergent.
7. Sound levels produced by the firing motor.
8. Duration of the burning.
Axial thrust is measured normally by a compression type load cell. It is a strain gauge
device. Strain gauges are bonded on the outer cylindrical surface of the steel column (of the
load cell), which is subjected to compressive load by the thrust developed by the motor. The
load cell capacity is selected such that the compressive stress induced is within its proportional
limit i.e., within the linear range of elasticity. Compressive strains measured by the load cell
are calibrated against known applied loads. Hence thrust produced by the rocket motor is
determined based on the strains measured by the load cell.
Motor chamber pressure is measured by a pressure gauge mounted to the pressure pick-
up port of the motor case. The pressure gauge is also a strain gauge device. Strain gauges are
bonded on a metallic diaphragm on one side. The other side of the diaphragm is exposed to the
hot gases of the motor chamber. The strains developed on the diaphragm due to the pressure
exerted by the hot gases are measured. Using the calibration chart, the corresponding pressures
are read.
Thermocouples are used to measure the temperature of the motor case and the back-up
structure of the nozzle. When two thermocouple alloys (e.g., Chromel – Alumel) are joined, a
voltage is generated. This voltage is a function of the difference of temperature at the tip of the

thermocouple junction and at the junction of copper cable connections with thermocouple
wires. The temperature of copper cable thermocouple wire junction is usually controlled by
placing that junction in an ice bath or other temperature controlled environment. Then the
voltage generated is a function of the temperature at the tip of the thermocouple junction. This
junction is bonded to the surface and hence reflects the temperature of the surface.
Strains developed on the motor case due to the internal gas pressure are measured by
the strain gauges bonded on the case. From these strains, induced stresses are determined by
knowing the stress-strain relationship for the case material. Elongation of the motor case both
in diametrical and longitudinal directions due to the internal pressure is measured by using
Linearly Variable Displacement Transducers (LVDTs).
Vibration of the nozzle is measured by piezoelectric accelerometers mounted on the

outer surface of the nozzle divergent region. When a quartz crystal is subjected to a varying
force, it produces charge proportional to the force. Accelerometer construction is such that a
known constant mass is kept over the quartz crystal. As the force is the product of mass and
acceleration, the output of the accelerometer is proportional to the vibratory acceleration. The
vibratory force is normally measured in terms of acceleration due to the gravity.
Sound pressure generated in the air due to the firing of a rocket motor is also
a varying force. Here also piezoelectric device is used to measure the sound pressure.
Time of burning of rocket motor is accurately measured by using appropriate
quartz oscillator.
5.2 BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE OF A ROCKET MOTOR
The following ballistic performance of a rocket motor is derived from the

thrust and pressure measurements made during static test:
(i) Total pressure integral
(ii) Characteristic velocity
(iii) Total impulse
(iv) Specific impulse
(v) Thrust coefficient

1 Total Pressure Integral

It is the area under the pressure-time curve. Its unit is: MPa-s (Mega Pascal second).
2 Characteristic Velocity – C
It is a figure of merit for the performance of the propellant and is proportional to the square
root of the energy released in the chamber reaction. It is useful in the prediction of mass flow
rate when Chamber pressure Pc and nozzle throat area At are specified.
C* = Pc At / m
where m is mass flow rate.
3 Total Impulse – It
It is the area under the thrust-time curve. Its unit is N-s (Newton second).
4 Specific Impulse – Isp

It is a measure of the performance of a rocket. Its unit is: N-s/kg. It is defined as the thrust
produced by a unit mass of propellant over a burning time of one second or the impulse
(momentum change) generated per unit mass of the propellant. Isp = It / M where M is the
total mass of the propellant.
5 Thrust Coefficient – CFX

It is a figure of merit for the performance of the nozzle.
CFX = F/Pc * At
Where F = Thrust, Pc = Chamber pressure and At = Nozzle throat area.
During the ground testing (static testing) of the rocket motor, its ballistic parameters are
measured and then its ballistic performance is evaluated as above. If the ballistic performance
of the motor is matching with the design / prediction made, then the design of the motor is
considered validated. If the ballistic performance is identically repeated in specified number
of consecutive static tests (based on the required reliability), then the motor is considered as
‘qualified’.

CHAPTER 6
Combustion
The combustion characteristics of concern include pressure and temperature sensitivities of the
burning rate, propellant surface condition, and spatial distribution of energy release,
temperature, and species concentrations. Combustion of a solid propellant involves an array of
intricate physiochemical processes evolving from the various ingredients that constitute the
propellant. Thus it is important to study and characterize the burning properties of the specific
ingredients that are used in solid propellants.
Solid propellants are fuels that do not require an external supply of oxygen for combustion.
Once ignited, they rapidly decompose to evolve hot gaseous products. Solid propellants are
hence used as fuel for propulsion applications in oxygen rare environments. In this study, a
simple model for solid propellant decomposition in a combustion chamber with an exit port
was presented. The combustion chamber is assumed to be a ʹwell‐mixed reactorʹ. The model
equations take into account the effect of shape and size of the solid propellant. The phenomenon
of ʹchoking flowʹ is included while calculating the exit flow‐rate. Appropriate methodology for
calibrating the model parameters was developed. The calibrated model was validated by
comparing simulation results with experimental pressure profiles. This study would be useful
for providing guidelines to select appropriate solid propellant configurations and for the
development of a system level model for propulsion systems.
As the solid propellant burns, the internal surface and the surface at the sides regress, changing
the shape and size of the solid propellant brick. Tracking the evolution of the solid propellant
brick shape is hence crucial to characterize the process. At high pressures, which are expected
in this system, the compressibility effects of the gas become important. Furthermore, the
velocity of the exiting gas cannot exceed the velocity of sound irrespective of the high pressure
differential. This phenomenon is known as choking flowʹ and is expected to occur in our
system. The combustion chamber is cooled externally by a cooling coil (not shown in the
figure), although the cooling is not significant compared to the rate of evolution of heat due to
combustion.

Fig 6.1: Sectional view of Combustion chamber
Assumptions
• The combustion chamber is assumed to be a ʹperfectly well‐mixedʹ.
• The combustion gases follow the ideal gas law.
• The solid propellant burning follows the St. Robertʹs burning law. The burning occurs
only at the internal and the side surfaces of the solid propellant.
• The outlet flow‐rate is modeled as a compressible flow through an adiabatic nozzle.
6.1 Burning properties

The performance of a rocket motor depends mainly on the burning rate of the propellant. At
any instant, the burning rate governs the amount of gas generated in the combustion chamber
and the mass flowing out from the motor. The burning rate (r) is a function of many parameters
such as propellant composition, chamber pressure, and initial grain temperature. It can also be
influenced by phenomena such as erosive burning, radiative emissions, chamber pressurization
rate, and combustion instability occurring inside the rocket motor.

Fig 6.2 Effect of propellant temperature on burning time and chamber pressure
6.2 Ignition
The ignition of a propellant grain in a rocket motor is caused by an igniter attached on the
motor. The igniters are usually
solid propellants that provide a rapid heat release and high gas evolution. Extruded double-
base propellants are often
employed, usually as a large number of cylindrical pellets. One of the common igniter
formulations uses 20–35% boron,
65–80% potassium nitrate with 1–5% of binder. Solid propellant ignition consists of a series
of complex rapid events, which begin on receipt of a starting signal. This process include heat
generation, transfer of heat from the igniter to the grain surface, spreading the flame over the
entire burning surface, filling the chamber free volume with gas, and elevating the chamber
pressure. The igniter generates the heat and gas required for motor ignition. During the ignition
process, the heat generated from the igniter starts the burning of propellant grain. The flame
spreads quickly until the complete grain is ignited. Then the chamber is completely filled with
combustion products for reaching the operating pressure. The ignition process is usually
completed within a fraction of a second

CHAPTER 7
Performance and Equations for Solid Propellant Dimensions and
outlet flow rate
7.1 Performance
Solid rockets can provide high thrust for relatively low cost. For this reason, solids have bee
used as initial stages in rockets (space shuttle), while reserving high specific impulse engines,
especially less massive hydrogen fueled engines for higher stages. In addition solid rockets
have a long history as the final boost stage for satellites due to its simplicity, reliability,
compactness and reasonably high mass fraction.
Higher performing solid rocket propellants are used in large strategic missiles. HMX,
C4H8N4(NO2)4, a nitramine with greater energy than ammonium perchlorate was used.
A number of performance parameters are used to evaluate solid propellent rockets and to
compare the quality of design of one rocket with another. The first is total impulse to loaded
weight ratio(It). The loaded weight is the sea level initial gross weight of propellant and rocket
propulsion system hardware. Typical values for It/WG are between 100 and 230 seconds, with
the higher values representative of high performance of rocket propellants and highly trussed
hardware, which means a low inert mass. The total impulse two loaded the weight ratio ideally
approaches. The value of the specific impulse. When the weight ratio ideally approaches the
value of the specific impulse. When the weight of hardware, metal parts, inhibitors, and so on
becomes very small relation to the propellant weight, then the ratio (It/WG) approaches It
which is the definition of the average specific impulse the higher the values of It/WG, the better
the design of a rocket unit. Another parameter used for comparing propellants is the volume
impulse, it is defined as the total impulse per unit volume of the propellant grain the thrust to
weight ratio is a dimensionless parameter that is identical to the acceleration of the rocket
propulsion system if it could fly by itself in a gravity free vacuum it excludes other vehicle
components weights. It is peculiar to the application and can vary from very low values of less
than one g0 to over 1000 go for higher acceleration applications of solid propellant rocket
motors. Some rockets associated gun munitions have accelerations of 20000go. The
temperature limits refer to the maximum and minimum storage temperatures to which a motor
can be exposed without risk of damage to the propellant grain.

7.2 Equations
The rate of burning of the solid propellant is given by the St. Robertsʹ law
s= aPn
Where s is the rate of regression of the solid propellant surface. ʹaʹ and ʹnʹ are parameters
specific to the solid propellant. Hence,
mburn = Ab ρsp x s
The outer diameter (Do) remains fixed as the outer surface is inhibited. Hence, we obtain two
equations for the rate of change of the length (L) and inner diameter (Di) of the Solid Propellant
as follows:
d(L)/dt= -2s
d(Di)/dt= +2s
From these dimensions, the area for burning and the volume of solid propellant are calculated
for each instance as follows:
A = π D L+πx(Do2-Di2)/2
V = πx(Do2-Di2)/xL
The rate of outlet flow is given by:

m = ΦG A (kg/s)
Characteristic velocity is given by:
C* = P0 Ac/m (m.s−1 )
where o is the pressure in the combustion chamber , • p (Pa)
• c A is the nozzle throat area (m2 ) .
Efficiency of a rocket if defined by specific impulse:

Is = F/mg0
where: s is the specific impulse (in s), I

m& is the mass flow rate ejected by the rocket (in kg.s-1),
o is the reference gravity (9,806 m.s g -2).

CHAPTER 8
SUGAR BASED SOLID PROPELLANTS
Sugar propellants (SP) or rocket candy is a type of rocket propellant for model rockets made
with sugar as a fuel, and containing an oxidizer. The propellant can be divided into three groups
of components: the fuel, the oxidizer, and the additive(s). The fuel is a sugar; sucrose is the
most commonly used. The most common oxidizer is potassium nitrate (KNO3). Additives can
be many different substances, and either act as catalysts or enhance the aesthetics of the liftoff
or flight. A traditional sugar propellant formulation is typically prepared in a 65:35 oxidizer to
fuel ratio.
Sugar propellants (SP) are moderate-performance propellants in which the binder-fuel is one
of the common sugars (sucrose, dextrose, maltose, etc.) or one of the so-called “sugar alcohols”
such as sorbitol. Technically, SPs are composite propellants, since they have separate fuel and
oxidizer components. However, the binder-fuel is not a polymer and is already partially
oxidized. These two properties provide two useful characteristics to the propellants. First, the
binder decomposes more readily than does a polymer, and so a lower-energy oxidizer such as
potassium nitrate can be (and is) employed with good results. Second, a lower proportion of
oxidizer can be used with good results. Sulfur, charcoal, and other auxiliary fuels are not
typically included in sugar propellants, though there are some reports of their use.
Sugar propellants are intermediate in performance. Typical delivered specific impulse (Isp) is
around 130 seconds, which is not strongly dependent on the fuel. For comparison, Isp of black
powder is usually reported as 80-90 seconds, while most ammonium perchlorate composite
propellants (APCP) provide Isp of 190-210 seconds. Burn rates of sugar propellants
approximate those of APCP.
Sugar propellants ordinarily are prepared by melting of the ingredients in some fashion. This
simplifies “loading” of the propellant into the casting tube.
SPs are safe, reliable propellants that can provide an effective tool in their ease of preparation
combined with minimal cost and long track record of safety make them an excellent place for
beginners to get a taste of the excitement that rocket motor development has to offer.

Chapter- 9
Hazards and Safety Measures
9.1 Hazards
Aging: After weakened condition is reached, the motor has a high probability of failure. The
old aged propellant has to be replaced with new strong propellant. The life of the motor
depends on the particular propellant. So the life can usually be increased by increasing the
physical strength of the propellant i.e., by increasing the amount of binder, selecting
chemically compatible, stable ingredients, also by minimizing the vibration loads and
temperature limits.
Upper pressure limit: If the pressure-rise rate and the absolute pressure becomes extremely
high, some propellants will detonate.
Inadvertent ignition: If a rocket motor is ignited and starts combustion when it is not
expected to do so, the causes can include very hot gases, local fires or ignition of rocket
motors.
Insensitive munitions: In military operations, an accidental ignition and unplanned operation
or an explosion of a rocket missile can cause severe damage to equipment and injure or kill
personnel.
Toxicity: The mixed uncured propellants and ingredients can be dermatological or
respiratory toxins or carcinogens have to be handled carefully to prevent operator exposure.
Also exhaust plume gases can be very toxic as it may contains beryllium or chlorine or
fluorine compounds.
9.2 Safety measures

• Solid motors are processed, loaded and stored in facilities well away from dwellings.
They are surrounded by blast walls and heavy earthen bunkers to stop shrapnel and
pieces of burning propellant.
• Motors are transported with care and with minimum number of personnel present to
reduce the chance of injury in case accident does occur.
• Double base propellants are not used in large sized motors, only in air to air and anti-
aircraft missiles and in final stage space vehicles.
• To train personnel, how to avoid hazardous conditions, prevent accidents, and also
how to recover.

CHAPTER 10
Advantages, Limitations and Applications
10.1 Advantages of Solid Propellants

• Solid propellant rockets are much easier to store and handle than liquid propellant
rockets.
• High propellant density makes for compact size as well.
• These feautures plus simplicity and low cost make solid propellant rockets ideal for
military applications.
• Its simplicity also makes solid rockets a good choice whenever large amounts of thrust
are needed and cost is an issue.
• It provides efficient packaging and there will be no leakage issues
10.2 Limitations of Solid Propellants

• Shutting of the engine, once started is very difficult.
• Solid fuel rockets are intolerant to cracks and voids and often require post-processing
such as x-ray scans to identify faults.
• Casting large amounts of propellants requires consistency and repeatability which is
assured by computer control.
• Difficult to test the engine prior to its launch.
10.3 Applications
• Almost all sounding rockets uses solid rocket motors.
• Due to reliability, ease of storage and handling, solid rockets are used in missiles and
ICBMs.
• Solid rockets are suitable for launching small payloads to orbital velocities, especially
if three or more stages are used. Many of these are based on re purposed ICBMs.
• Larger liquid fueled orbital rockets often use solid rocket boosters to gain enough initial
thrust to launch the fully fueled rocket.
• Solid rockets are used to lift large pay loads to intend orbits or smaller pay loads to inter
planetary trajectories.

CHAPTER 11
Future Scope
The research on next generation solid propellant rockets is actively underway in various spectra
all over the world. The advanced solid rocket (ASR) launcher is under development
by JAXA as a successor to the established M-V rocket. It aims at the development of an
indispensable next generation technology not only to the solid rocket but also to future
transportation systems as it improves the efficiency of the launch system by making the check-
out function highly autonomous.
Fig. 11.1 Concept of the ASR launcher.
A new propellant that completely changes the concept of the current composite propellant, a
Low melting temperature Thermoplastic Propellant (LTP), is considered a key player to make
the manufacturing process of propellant dramatically simple. On the other hand, the
achievement of the fly-by-wireless will be expected more in the future avionics systems.

CHAPTER 12
Case studies
1. The rocket LVM3 by ISRO used solid rocket propellant due to high propellant density, solid
rocket motors produces high amount of thrust but it has lower specific impulse. LVM3 vehicle
used two S200 solid propellant booster for lift. Specific impulse for these were 274.5 sec and
thrust provided was 9316 kN. The core stage of LVM3 used two liquid engines with specific
impulse of 293 sec and thrust provided was 1598 kN.
2. There is a solid propellant mixture with specific impulse greater than 300sec. but there are few
drawbacks which includes very high cost, limited availability and constraining of purity and
stability.
3. SERVICE LIFE ASSESSMENT OF SOLID ROCKET MOTORS
Solid propellant rocket motors are the most widely used propulsion technology used in tactical
missiles. They must be designed with narrow performance boundaries and increasingly
extended shelf life. Hence, their life cycles need to be predicted under the loads that the
systems will encounter during their life spans. These loads consist of handling, storage and
deployment loads under varying conditions. The complexity of these loads makes the service
life assessment indeed a difficult task. In literature, there are various studies which develop
alternative techniques to predict the service life of solid propellant rocket system.
4. Aluminum powder is generally introduced into the propellant in a significant proportion to
increase the flame temperature and thus the motor performance. However, the expected gain is
lowered by the presence of a massive amount, often exceeding 30% by weight, of aluminum
oxide residues and smoke in the combustion products.
5. Advanced Solid Rocket launcher (ASR), now under development at JAXA, which doubles
the cost-performance over the previous rocket and is loaded with the highly intelligent
autonomous check-out system to reform the launch system into an efficient responsive one;
and a study of the Low melting temperature Thermoplastic Propellant (LTP), now at the
experimental stage, that is expected to convert large-scale and low utilization frequency
manufacturing process to be of small-scale and high utilization frequency resulting in a
significant cost reduction. The study indicates the direction of the big flow toward the next
generation of solid-propellant rockets

13. CONCLUSION
Solid rocket boosters are most commonly used because of easy storability, reliability, simpler,
cheaper and mainly it can achieve high thrust. Because of these factors solid propellant rockets
are using even if the efficiency is lesser.
A solid propellant contains several chemical ingredients such as oxidizer, fuel, binder,
plasticizer, curing agent, stabilizer, and cross-linking agent. The specific chemical composition
depends on the desired combustion characteristics. Different chemical ingredients and their
proportions lead to different physical and mechanical properties, combustion characteristics,
and performance. The propulsive performance of a solid propellant critically depends on its
combustion characteristics including pressure and temperature sensitivities of the burning rate,
and spatial distribution of energy release, temperature, and species concentrations.
14. REFERENCES
[1] Shalini Chaturvedi, “Solid propellants” Department of Chemistry, Krantiguru Shyamji
Krishna Verma Kachchh University, Mundra Road, Bhuj 370 001, Gujarat, India
Received 23 April 2013; accepted 31 December 2014
[2] Siva V. “Investigation of Solid Propellant Rocket Engine – An Theoretical
Approach” Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application, Sri Ramakrishna Engineering
College ,Coimbatore, ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol. 7, Issue 9, (Part -5) September 2017
[3] D. Abhijeet Singh- “Sugar Based Rocket Propulsion System- Making, Analysis &
Limitations” International Journal of Engineering Trends and Applications (IJETA)
Department of Aerospace Engineering ,MLR Institute of Technology, Dundigal Village
Quthbullapur Mandal, Hyderabad– Volume 2 Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2015
[4] Yasuhiro MORITA-“Advanced Solid Rocket Launcher and Its Evolution” JSASS
Aerospace Tech. Japan, Vol. 8, 2010
[5] Y. Fabignon-“ Recent Advances in Research on Solid Rocket Propulsion” Journal

Aerospace lab. Issue 11 - June 2016
6) F A Williams- “Fundamental aspects of solid propellant rockets”
7) Martin J L Turner- “Rocket and Space craft Propulsion”

Rocket Propulsion

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Solid Propellants in Rocket Propulsion System

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 1

1.1 Solid Rocket Motor

Figure 1.1: Basic Solid Rocket Motor.

Fig. 1.2 Two stage Solid Rocket Motors

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 2

1.2. BASIC FEATURES OF A SOLID ROCKET MOTOR

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 3

1.3. Working Principle

Fig 1.3. Schematic diagram of a solid fueled rocket motor

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 4

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 5

2.1 Desirable Characteristics of a Solid propellant:

2.2 Propellant Processing and Manufacture

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 6

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 7

2.3. Solid Propellants

2.4 Grain and its configuration

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 8

Fig 2.4 Diagrams of a free-standing and a case-bonded grain.

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 9

Classification of Solid Propellants and Composition:

3.1 Homogeneous solid propellants

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 10

3. Composite modified double base propellants

3.2. Heterogeneous solid propellants

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 11

2.Ammonium Nitrate based Propellants

3.Nitramine composite propellants

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 12

4.2. Metal fuel

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 13

4.4. Modifier or Catalyst

4.6. Curing agent

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 14

Fig 5.1 Rocket looks before and after Ignition

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 15

5.1 PARAMETERS MEASURED DURING STATIC TESTING OF A

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 16

Vibration of the nozzle is measured by piezoelectric accelerometers mounted on the

5.2 BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE OF A ROCKET MOTOR

The following ballistic performance of a rocket motor is derived from the

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 17

1 Total Pressure Integral

4 Specific Impulse – Isp

5 Thrust Coefficient – CFX

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 18

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 19

Fig 6.1: Sectional view of Combustion chamber

6.1 Burning properties

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 20

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 21

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 22

The rate of outlet flow is given by:

Efficiency of a rocket if defined by specific impulse:

where: s is the specific impulse (in s), I

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 23

SUGAR BASED SOLID PROPELLANTS

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 24

9.2 Safety measures

Dept. of Mechanical, MCE, Hassan. 25

Advantages, Limitations and Applications

10.1 Advantages of Solid Propellants