Paavai Institutions Department of AERO

UNIT-IV

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
OF CRYOGENIC ROCKETS

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CRYOGENIC ROCKETS
A cryogenic rocket engine is a rocket engine that uses a cryogenic fuel and oxidizer,
that is, both its fuel and oxidizer are gases liquefied and stored at very low
temperatures.
Rocket engines burning cryogenic propellants remain in use today on high
performance upper stages and boosters. Upper stages are numerous.

CRYOGENIC PROPELLANTS

Rocket engines need high mass flow rates of both oxidizer and fuel to generate useful
thrust. Oxygen, the simplest and most common oxidizer, is in the gas
phase at standard temperature and pressure, as is hydrogen, the simplest fuel. While it
is possible to store propellants as pressurized gases, this would require large, heavy
tanks that would make achieving orbital spaceflight difficult if not impossible. On the
other hand, if the propellants are cooled sufficiently, they exist in the liquid phase at
higher density and lower pressure, simplifying tankage. These cryogenic temperatures
vary depending on the propellant, with liquid oxygen existing below −183 °C
(−297.4 °F; 90.1 K) and liquid hydrogen below −253 °C (−423.4 °F; 20.1 K). Since

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one or more of the propellants is in the liquid phase, all cryogenic rocket engines are
either liquid-propellant rocket engines or hybrid rocket engines

Various cryogenic fuel-oxidizer combinations have been tried, but the combination of
liquid hydrogen (LH2) fuel and the liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer is one of the most
widely used. Both components are easily and cheaply available, and when burned
have one of the highest enthalpy releases in combustion, producing a specific
impulse of up to 450 s at an effective exhaust velocity of 4.4 kilometres per second
(2.7 mi/s; Mach 13).

Why do rockets use cryogenic fuel?

Cryogenic fuels are fuels that require storage at extremely low temperatures to
maintain them in a liquid state. ... Some rocket engines use regenerative cooling, the
practice of circulating their cryogenic fuel around the nozzles before the fuel is
pumped into the combustion chamber and ignited.

BOIL OFF RATE

The amount of liquid that is evaporating from a cargo due to heat leakage and
expressed in % of total liquid volume per unit time.

Indian Space Research Organisation

- LAUNCH VEHICLES

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SOUNDING ROCKETS SLV PSLV GSLV

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WHY LIQUID ENGINE ?

1
High Energy release per unit mass. Combined

High Energy release per unit mass. Combined

with low molecular weight of combustion products.

Stable Combustion

High density to minimize size & weight of

propellant tanks

Effectiveness of thrust chamber cooling

High thermal & shock stability

Non corrosiveness & nontoxicity

Cost & availability

Rocket Performance:

- Equation of state (Ideal gas law)

- Continuity equation (Conservation of mass)
- Conservation of momentum
- Conservation of energy ( first law of thermodynamics)
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- Isentropic expansion (second law of thermodynamics)

Considerable numerical computations are thus necessary. Sophisticated Computer
modelling & simulation are to be done exclusively for accurate
prediction of performance

DESIGN IMPLEMENTS

1. Thrust levels
2. Performance
3. Burn time
4. Propellant mixture ratio
5. Burnout mass.
6. Envelope/Size
7. Reliability
8. Cost
9. Schedule

1. Thrust Level.

- Lift off weight

- Minimum & maximum acceleration allowed.
- Single engine or multiple engine.
- Variable thrust.

2. Performance
- Specific Impulse
- Theoretical
- Tested
- Flight

3. Burn duration
- Tank capacity
- Pressurant storage
- Nozzle cooling
- Thrust build up
- Shut down

4. Mixture Ratio
- Stoichiometric ratio -(max. temp &
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heat)
- Exhaust velocity - (gas properties)
Optimum ratio - (Residence time in combustion chamber; Chamber wall cooling)

5. Burnout Mass
- Dry mass + residual propellants
- Burn out mass
- Wet mass – CG & MI
- Wet gimbal mass.

6. Envelope/Size

- Vehicle Structure
- Handling
- Servicing
- Realisation
- Expansion Ratio

7. Reliability
- Unmanned/manned mission
- Review of design, calculation & drawing
- Paintaking execution of the above
- Familiarizing with correct application of
accepted, prior design standards &
procedures
- Written statements & instruction
- Simplicity, Redundancy & Safety
- Test condition vs. Flight condition
- FMECA

8. Cost
- Design Phase
- Engineering Phase
- Programme phase.

9. Schedule.
- Availability of subsystems
- Design Quality
- System Analysis
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- Materials, Fabrication, Handling.

THRUST CHAMBER & COMBUSTION DEVICES

Thrust chamber assembly undeniably embodies the essence of rocket propulsion: the
acceleration and ejection of matter, the reaction of which imparts the propulsive force
to the vehicle.

The design goals are

- maximum performance
- stability & durability
- minimum size, weight & cost.

Basic Elements are

1. Combustion process
- droplets spray
- Evaporation by surrounding gas
- Mixing & reaction
- High speed diffusion
- Stability of mixing process

2. Performance parameters
- Characteristic velocity
C* = f (γ, R, Tc,)
- Thrust coefficient Cf Cf = f (γ, ε, pa)
3 Configuration and Layout
Throat Area At = F / Cf. pc
Chamber volume Vc = m.V. ts
Characteristic length L* = Ve / At
= m.V.ts / A

Shape: a) Long one:

gas flow pressure losses
b) Short one:
Vaporization zone – excessive
Combustion zone – inefficient

Conical nozzle Vs. Bell Nozzle

c) Spherical: Less mass & cooling surface Difficult to produce & poor performance
d) Cylindrical: Design Flexibility & easy to produce
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Heavy mass & more cooling surface

e) Conical Nozzle: non axial component of velocity leads to performance losses but
easy to fabricate
f) Bell Nozzle: Shorter length & increased performance starting from fast expansion
flow to uniform axial flow at exit

Cooling Techniques
(i) Regenerative cooling : widely used
(ii) Dump Cooling : limited use
(iii) Film Cooling : used in high heat flux
(iv) Transpiration cooling: special type
(v) Ablative Cooling : mainly solid motors, low Pc liquid system
(vi) Radiation Cooling : Used in nozzle extension/low heat flux.

Injector Design:
- Combustion stability
- Performance
- Structural integrity
- Hydraulic characteristics
- Combustion chamber heat protection
- Special requirements

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PROPELLANT TANKS & FEED SYSTEM

1. General Categorization:
a) Booster stage system
b) Upper stage system
a) Booster Stage System
- Large volumes
- Pump- fed system
- Self-supporting walls reinforced by
skin stringers
- Independent designer
b) Upper Stage System
- Smaller volumes
- Pressure-fed system
- Waffle / Isogrid walls
- Most likely engine designer
2. Design consideration:
- Propellant properties & Compatibility
- Operating pressure & temperature
- Thrust level from engines to vehicle
- Manufacturing easiness.
Pressure – fed system
- Pressurant gas is used
- Tank pressure higher than engine chamber
pressure
- Flow rate governed by feed line resistance
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- For higher engine thrusts above 220 kN, not

effective
(i) Stored gas system
- High pressure storage gas bottles are used
- Pressure & flow rate are regulated for a
specified tank pressure
- Helium gas is the most common gas

ii) Blow down system:

- No continuous feeding of gas.

- Pressurant gas expands in the ullage volume
- Continuously decreasing the tank pressure
- Not in common use

iii) Hot gas system:

- Gases produced in gas generator are used
- System mass is less but highly complicated
- Not in general use

4.Pump fed system

- Used in high thrust engines requiring high propellant flow rate

- Larger pressurant flow rate & larger tank volume make tank weight highly non-
optimal
Tank pressures are kept at low pressure levels just sufficient enough to meet NPSH
requirements of pumps (0.4-0.5 MPa)- Classified into either open or closed system
depending on the way the power is supplied to turbine and how the energy of the
working fluid is dumped from turbine exhaust.- Open Cycle has 3 types & closed
cycle has 2 types

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Examples of Materials used in LPS

Material Type Application
1. Al. Alloys 2219, Propellant Tanks
6061, Pump Housings
7075
2. Austenite 321,316 Nozzle tubing
Stainless steel 347 ducts
3. Martensite 440C Bearings, Balls
Stainless steel Races
4. PH Stainless 174PH Valve parts
steel 15.5 PH stem, poppets
5. Cobalt Alloys Stellite 21 Injection ports
Turbine blades

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6. Iron base 903, 909 Duct, Bellowssuper alloys

7. Titanium Alloys Ti-6Al-4V Gas bottles Gimbal blocks
8. Silica Composite Engine throat
9. Carbon-carbon Composite Vanes, seals
10. Alumina Protection Nozzles, Zirconia coatings turbine blade
11. Fluorocarbon KEL-F Gaskets Polymer PTFE, FEP O rings, seals
12. Elastomers Nitrile Sealants Silicone gaskets Iron base 903, 909 Duct, Bellows
super alloys
7. Titanium Alloys Ti-6Al-4V Gas bottles Gimbal blocks
8. Silica Composite Engine throat
9. Carbon-carbon Composite Vanes, seals
10. Alumina Protection Nozzles, Zirconia coatings turbine blade
11. Fluorocarbon KEL-F Gaskets Polymer PTFE, FEP O rings, seals

AEROSPACE MATERIALS
Aerospace materials can be broadly classified into four classes: metallic materials
(metallics), nonmetallic or polymeric materials, composite materials (composites) and
ceramic materials (ceramics). Examples from these classes of materials are given in
this chapter. Historically aircrafts used the best materials available at that time.
Wright brothers used aluminum alloys in their aircraft to make them lighter
(compared to steel) so that they can become airborne more readily. Lightweight
nonmetallic materials such as wood and fabric were also used. There has been a
continuous improvement in aerospace materials in all classes over the last hundred
years. Carbon fiber reinforced composites were introduced some sixty years ago and
their use has become more common today because of lighter weight and higher
strength compared to other materials. Metallic materials are the most used materials
in building aerospace systems of today. They are covered in sections: 2.2 - Aluminum
alloys, 2.3 - Titanium alloys, 2.4 – Iron alloys (Steels), 2.5 - Superalloys, and 2.6 -
Copper alloys. Damage tolerance considerations are described in section 2.7. Details
on alloy development, properties, processing and typical applications are presented.
Relationships between properties, microstructure and processing are also described
with aerospace applications in mind. Structural properties such as elastic modulus,
tensile strength, ductility and damage tolerance (fatigue and fracture) are emphasized
since they are major considerations in design. Manufacturing technologies commonly
used to fabricate metallic material components are described in the context of design
for manufacturing. Environmental effects on materials performance (hydrogen
embrittlement) and (oxygen compatibility). These two topics are of special interest
because of their importance in propulsion systems that use hydrogen and oxygen as
propellants. Polymers and composites . Polymers are organic compounds that are
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chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (e.g. O, N,

and Si). Some of the common polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon or polyamide
(PA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), silicone
rubber, epoxy, and phenolic. Polymers are different from the other materials in many
ways but generally possess lower densities, thermal conductivities, and moduli. The
lower densities of polymeric materials offer an advantage for applications where
light-weight is a requirement. Carbon fiber reinforced composites and their
processing is also described

Ceramic materials and their characteristics are not discussed in this chapter but they
are covered under applications - Materials in Spacecraft - Thermal Protection
Systems in Hypersonics. Aerospace materials have advanced steadily in the last
hundred years. They have become much stronger and lighter, as the readers will see
in the following sections. There are more material choices available to the designer
today than any time in the past. The selection of the best material for design is a key
step in the design process

Aluminum Alloys
There has been considerable use of aluminum alloys in aerospace applications at
moderate temperatures (up to 300⁰F) for many decades due to its attractive
mechanical properties including higher specific strength (strength /density), durability
and damage tolerance. Aluminum alloys demonstrate very attractive mechanical
properties including strength, fatigue resistance and fracture toughness. The
mechanical properties are affected by alloy composition, processing and the heat
treatment. Aluminum alloys are readily forged into precise and intricate shapes as
they are very ductile at normal forging temperatures and they do not develop scale
during heating. Aluminum alloys have good corrosion resistance due to the formation
of aluminum oxide on the surface. The primary use of high strength aluminum alloy
is in aircrafts; the airframe of modern aircraft is typically 80 percent aluminum by
weight. More recently composites are being used in place of aluminum skin,
predominantly on the Boeing 787 aircraft. There are two excellent textbooks available
on aluminum alloys: one by Polmear and other by Hatch . In addition, Starke and
Staley have written a very comprehensive overview on aluminum alloys for
aerospace applications. This section provides an overview of different classes of
commonly used aluminum alloys in aerospace applications along with a look at
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current trends and future developments, including high temperature aluminum alloys
and discontinuously reinforced aluminum.

Strengthening Mechanisms

Aluminum alloys can be strengthened by a number of mechanisms: solid solution

strengthening, grain size strengthening, work (strain) hardening, precipitation
hardening, and dispersion hardening. Each mechanism is described below briefly.
Details may be found in the literature. Solid Solution Strengthening: Solid solution
strengthening is derived from the presence of alloying elements in aluminum [6].
Two types of solid solution strengthening can be produced in aluminum depending on
the presence of alloying element (a) substitutional solid solution and (b) interstitial
solid solution. Magnesium provides strengthening through substitutional solid
solution. Solid solution strengthening depends on misfit strain that is caused by
change in lattice parameter of aluminum matrix due to presence of alloying elements.
Grain Size Strengthening: Grain size strengthening is a phenomenon where strength
increases with a decrease in grain size . When a stress is applied to the material,
dislocations tend to align at the grain boundaries leading to pile up of dislocations.
The finer grains have more grain boundaries and therefore, dislocation pile up is
higher in finer grain materials compared to coarse grain materials. The dislocation
pile up raises stress required for deformation, which results in increased strengthening
in finer grain materials. The contribution of grain size strengthening can be
significant in aluminum alloys. Work (strain) hardening: Strain hardening (usually
through cold working the material) can provide strengthening by increasing
dislocation density. As dislocation density increases, shear stress required to
overcome the dislocation barrier increases. Strain hardening is applicable for the non-
heat treatable aluminum alloys, 3xxx and 5xxx series alloys. Substantial
strengthening in Al-Mn and Al-Mg based alloys can be produced by cold working.

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