Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

1. The graph shows the volume of CO2 released over time when 25.00cm3 of 0.500 mol dm-3
Na2CO3(aq) is reacted with an excess of HCl at a temperature of 30oC.
a. Copy the graph and, on the same
axes, sketch the graph of the volume of
CO2 released over time when 25.00cm3 of
1.00mol dm-3 of Na2CO3 is reacted with
the same amount of HCl, keeping HCl still
in excess
b. On a different set of axes, graph the
mass of the mixture in the original
experiment as CO2 escapes over time.

Catalysts

Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by decreasing the activation energy of the reaction.

Catalysts are not consumed in the reaction – it can be used over and over again

Enzymes are special kinds of catalysts – catalysts formed by the body

What are some of the catalysts that are useful in the industry?

Transition elements could make good catalysts – because they have more than one oxidation state –
they can donate electrons in more ways than one  they lend 2 electrons into the reaction,
jumpstarting the entire reaction. Towards the end of the reaction, the transition elements recover
the pair of electrons back

Examples:

1. Fe for the Haber process

2. V2O5 for the Contact process
3. Ni for production of margarine
4. Zr can used for cracking (to make gasoline and other fuels)

In the case of enzymes

1. For production of ice cream – use enzyme lactase – breaks down milk sugar (lactose) into
two smaller sugars – glucose and galactose
a. Lactose-intolerant persons – they can eat ice cream without stomach ache.
b. Makes ice cream sweeter – glucose and galactose are sweeter than lactose.
 c. Makes ice cream creamier – improves texture of the ice cream
2. Detergent – if a detergent has “stain-removing feature”, it probably has an enzyme in it.
a. Removing blood stains – use animal enzyme (protease)
b. Grass stain – use plant enzyme (cellulose)

Problem with enzymes is that they only work for a limited range of temperature and pH. But we
would prefer enzymes over inorganic catalysts because they are hundreds of times faster.

Photochemical Reactions

Photochemical reactions – chemical reactions that need light

Examples

1. Photosynthesis: carbon dioxide + water + light  glucose + oxygen

2. Photographic films: Reaction between AgBr(s) clear + light  Ag(s) (dark) +Br2 (colorless) –
negative

Destruction of the ozone layer

Reason why ozone protects use from harmful UV rays is because the production of ozone (O3) in the
atmosphere requires the absorption of the most harmful frequencies of ultraviolet rays

(UV-A 80% of UV incident to surface of earth – least harmful)

(UV-B 20% of UV incident to surface or earth – more harmful and cause skin cancer)

(UV-C none falls to the earth’s surface – most harmful, totally absorbed by the ozone layer)

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) destroy the ozone layer by absorbing light. Its products become catalyst
to breakdown of ozone.
 ACIDS AND BASES

Characteristics of acids: Characteristics of bases

Sour taste/smell Bitter taste/smell

Turns litmus paper from blue to red Turns red litmus to blue

Usually corrosive Some are caustic

pH < 7 pH >7

Universal Indicator

^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Strong acid weak acid neutral weak strong base
1 7 14

Strong vs. weak acids

Strong – lower pH; weak – slightly higher pH

Strong – more conductive; weak – less conductive

 Strong acid: HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  H+(aq) gives the substance its acidic character
 Weak: CH3COOH(aq)   H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)  not all acid breaks down into H+

Some of the most common acids

Strong:

 Hydrochloric acid: HCl

 Sulfuric acid: H2SO4
 Nitric acid: HNO3

Weak:

 Ethanoic acid (vinegar): CH3COOH

 Methanoic acid: HCOOH

Strong vs. Weak Bases

Strong bases – higher pH; weak bases – lower pH

Strong bases – more conductive; weak bases – less conductive

Strong bases: NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Weak bases: NH3(aq) + H2O(l)  NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Common bases:

Strong:
  NaOH
 KOH
 Ca(OH)2
 Ba(OH)2

Weak bases:

 NH3
 Mg(OH)2

Reactions involving acids:

1. Neutralization reaction: acid + base  salt + water* + heat (exothermic)

*except with ammonia
2HCl + Ca(OH)2  CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + heat
HCl + NH3  NH4Cl(aq)
2. Reaction with active metals: active metal + acid  salt + hydrogen gas
What is an active metal? It is metal that is more reactive than hydrogen
Active  K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al….Zn, Fe, Sn, H, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt  inactive
2K(s) + H2SO4(aq)  K2SO4(aq) + H2(g) there is bubbling (effervescence)
3. Reaction with carbonate (Anything with CO32-): carbonate + acid salt + water + carbon
dioxide  effervescence
Example: CaCO3(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)  CaCH3COO(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

Reactions involving bases:

1. Neutralization (see acids)

2. Reaction of hydroxides with ammonium salts
NaOH(aq) +NH4Cl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)  effervescence
Fill in the blanks

Method of Chemical
Reactants Salt formed Byproduct/s
preparation equation
Acid + base Calcium Calcium nitrate Water only Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3
hydroxide and  Ca(NO3)2 +
nitric acid 2H2O
Acid + active Zinc and Zinc chloride Hydrogen gas Zn + 2HCl 
metal hydrochloric acid ZnCl2 + H2
Acid + alkali Sulfuric acid and Potassium sulfate Water only 2KOH + H2SO4 
potassium K2SO4 + 2H2O
hydroxide
Acid + carbonate Sodium Sodium chloride Water and Na2CO3 + 2HCl 
carbonate and carbon dioxide 2NaCl + H2O +CO2
hydrochloric acid
Acid + metal Iron and sulfuric Iron (II) sulfate Hydrogen gas Fe + H2SO4 
acid FeSO4 + H2
Acid + alkali Nitric acid and Sodium nitrate Water only HNO3 + NaOH 
sodium NaNO3 + H2O
hydroxide
Acid + base Sulfuric acid and Copper (II) Water only H2SO4 + CuO 
copper (II) oxide sulfate CuSO4 + H2O
Acid + carbonate Sulfuric acid and Copper (II) Carbon dioxide H2SO4 + CuCO3 
copper (II) sulfate and water CuSO4 + H2O +
carbonate CO2