Introduction

There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. To put it in simple words a computer can be defined as an electronic device that processes instructions and produces
an output to the user. To unveil the secret behind this process, understanding of individual components is important. Starting with the case, we'll discuss the role and
functionalities of the various peripherals and hardware which are integral parts of the computer.

What is a Computer?

A machine that can be programmed to :

Receive information.
Process the information according to a set of suitable instructions.
Display desired result information.

A computer can also be used to store information whenever required

It is a device capable of performing arithmetic and logical operations

Computer – The Framework

Types of computers

Analog - An analog computer represents data as physical quantities and operates on the data by manipulating the quantities
Digital - A computer that stores data in terms of digits (numbers) and proceeds in discrete steps from one state to the next
Hybrid - Hybrid computers are made by combining features of analog computers and digital computers
 Desktop Computer

Desktop computers are designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer
They are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall
They are widely used in homes and offices

Laptop

A laptop is much smaller and lighter than even the most compact PC tower
It is a portable computer; its size being suitable to rest comfortably on one's lap
Is more expensive than a Desktop and can run on inbuilt batteries for a limited period of time
Also referred as a Notebook, the screen and keyboard are integrated into a single unit
It comes in a spacious case with lots of room for air circulation

Differences between Desktop & Laptop

Desktop Laptop

Not portable Portable

Is bigger & heavier Is smaller & lighter

Consumes more power Consumes less power

Produces more heat Produces less heat

No Battery back up Battery back up

Less expensive More expensive

Components of a Computer
Hardware
The physical components of a computer system that can be touched and felt.
E.g. Monitor, keyboard, mouse etc.

Software
A program or set of instructions that enables the computer to perform a specific task.
E.g. Anti-virus, MS Office etc.

Firmware
Firmware is a combination of hardware and software. These are programs that have been written on to the Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Hardware :

The physical components of a computer system that can be touched and felt.
The Computer Case

A computer case is an enclosure that encases all the components of a computer.The case is essentially the mounting platform for all the electronic devices that make up the
computer. Typically, cases are square or rectangular boxes, usually beige in color (although the current trend is for all-black cases and matching peripherals), and made of
steel, aluminum, or plastic.

Cases are primarily categorized in two ways: by their physical size (full tower, mini tower, and so on) and by the type of motherboard
they are designed for (such as AT, ATX, or Mini-ATX).

Several common PC case styles are in use today. Let‘s take a quick look at each of these and how they differ.

These styles include:

Full tower Mid tower Mini tower Desktop

The Computer Case

Full Tower Mid Tower

A full tower case is a computer case that A mid tower case is a computer case that
stands approximately 20–25 inches tall, has stands between 16 and 19 inches tall, has
at least five 5 1/4-inch drive bays, and is at least three 51/4-inch drive bays, and is
designed to stand vertically on the floor designed to stand vertically either on the
next to a desk (instead of on the desk). floor or on a computer user‘s desk next to
This type of case usually has wheels so you the monitor. This type of case doesn‘t have
can move it easily when you need to unplug quite as much room inside as a full tower
a cable or do other work on the computer. case, but it still has significant room for
Often, because of its sheer size, it will have airflow and component layout.
stabilizing feet to prevent it from tipping
over.

Mini Tower Desktop

A mini tower case is a computer case that A desktop case is designed to lie
stands about 12 to 15 inches tall, has one horizontally, with at least three 51/4-inch
or two 51/4-inch drive bays, and is bays oriented horizontally and the 31/2-inch
designed to stand next to a computer bays oriented vertically. The original IBM PC
monitor. It was designed to keep the small used this style of case (although the case
form factor of a desktop case but also keep for the original PC was much bigger).
the look of a tower, which is more visually Currently, the dimensions for a typical full
appealing. Mini towers are often used in size desktop case are about 15 to 17 inches
low-end or entry-level computer systems to wide and 5 to 7 inches high.
keep the price down.

Proprietary

A proprietary case is a computer case that is designed to work with only one particular motherboard and set of components and is typically designed for a specific purpose.

Computers manufactured by Dell are a perfect example of PCs that use proprietary cases. Although these cases could be classified as mid tower or mini tower, they only
work with Dell motherboards designed for the particular case and are therefore usually classified as proprietary.

Rear Panel View of a computer Tower

Internal View of a Computer Tower

Switch mode power supply (SMPS) is responsible for converting alternating current( AC) to
direct current(DC),filter impurities and split the DC into + and - 5 and 12 V respectively.

A standard power supply draws power from a local, AC source (usually a wall outlet) and
converts it to either 3.3 or 5 volts DC, for on-board electronics, and 12 volts DC for motors
and hard drives. In all cases, it delivers both positive and negative DC to the computer.
Power supplies must "condition" the power, smoothing out any radical changes in its
quality. Many homes and offices have power that fluctuates, far more than the delicate
parts of a PC can tolerate and survive. Most PC power supplies also provide the system's
cooling and processor fans that keep the machine from overheating.

A power supply converts 110 volt or 220 volt AC current into the DC voltages that a
computer needs to operate.

These are as follows:

+3.3 volts DC
+5 volts DC
–5 volts DC (ground)
+12 volts DC
–12 volts DC (ground)
+5 volts DC standby.

The 3.3 volts DC and +5 volts DC standby voltages are used only by ATX motherboards, not
AT motherboards.

SMPS

Powersupply connectors
Power supplies use different types of connectors to power the various devices within the
computer like Floppy drive power connectors, AT system connectors, ATX power
connectors, and standard peripheral power connectors. Each has a different appearance
and way of connecting to the device. Additionally, each type is used for a specific purpose.

AT system connectors
For AT connector both black (connector) wires need to be connected adjacent to each
other.
 The Power Supply

Power Supply Connectors

Power supplies use different types of connectors to power the various devices within the computer Floppy drive power connectors, AT system connectors, ATX power
connectors, and standard peripheral power connectors. Each has a different appearance and way of connecting to the device. Additionally, each type is used for a specific
purpose.

AT System Connectors ATX Power Connector

These are two 6-wiresconnectors, labeled P8 and P9. They connect to an AT-only
motherboard and deliver the power that feeds the electronic components on it. It is
important to note that only computers with AT and baby AT motherboards use this
type of power connector. Most computers today use the ATX power connector to
provide power to the motherboard. AT connector cointains 6+6 pins. For AT
connector both black (connector) wires need to be connected. If the Mother board
uses AT connector, the computer will display "It's now safe to turn off the
computer".
The ATX system connector (also known as the ATX motherboard power connector)
feeds an ATX motherboard. It provides the six voltages required, plus it delivers
them all through one connector: a single 20-pin connector. This connector is much
easier to work with than the dual connectors of the AT power supply. The computer
will automatically shut down without pressing power button.

Floppy Drive Power Connectors Standard Peripheral Power Connector

Floppy drive power connectors are most commonly used to power floppy disk drives The standard peripheral power connector is generally used to power different types
and other small form factor devices. This type of connector is smaller and flatter of internal disk drives. This type of connector is also called a Molex connector. This
than any of the other types of power connectors. These connectors are also called power connector, though larger than the floppy drive power connector, uses the
Berg connectors. same wiring color code scheme as the floppy drive connector.

Notice that there are four wires going to this connector. These wires carry the 2
voltages used by the motors and logic circuits: +5VDC (carried on the red wire) and
+12VDC (carriedon the yellow wire) plus 2 black ground wires.

SATA Power Connector CPU Fans

This connector gives power supply to the SATA devices.

The CPU fans get the power supply from the SMPS.
The Motherboard

The spine of the computer is the motherboard, otherwise known as the system board (and less commonly referred to as the planar board). This is an olive green or brown
circuit board that lines the bottom of the computer. It is the most important component in the computer because it connects all the other components of a PC together.

On the system board, you will find the following components:

Expansion slots
Memory slots
CPU and processor slots or sockets
Power connectors
On-board disk drive connectors
Keyboard connectors
Peripheral port and connectors
BIOS chip
CMOS battery
Jumpers and DIP switches
The Motherboard

Chipset

A chipset is a collection of chips or circuits that perform interface and peripheral functions for the processor. This collection of chips is usually the circuitry that provides
interfaces for memory, expansion cards, and onboard peripherals, and generally dictates how a motherboard talks to the installed peripherals.

The functions of chipset can be divided into two major functional groups: North bridge and South bridge.
North bridge

The North bridge subset of motherboard chipset includes circuitry or chips that perform one very important function: management of high-speed peripheral
communications. The North bridge subset is primarily responsible for AGP communications and processor-to-memory communications. Therefore, much of the true
performance of a PC relies on the performance of the North bridge chipset and its communication with the peripherals it controls.

South bridge

The South bridge chipset, as mentioned earlier, is responsible for providing support to the myriad of onboard peripherals (PS/2, parallel, IDE, and so on), managing their
communications with the rest of the computer and the resources given to them. Most motherboards today have integrated PS/2, USB, parallel, and serial ports.

The South bridge chipset is also responsible for managing communications with the other expansion buses, such as PCI, USB, an d legacy buses.

The Motherboard
Expansion Slots

The most visible parts of any motherboard are the expansion slots. These look like small plastic slots, usually from 3 to 11 inches long and approximately 1/2 inch wide. As
their name suggests, these slots are used to install various devices in the computer to expand its capabilities. Some expansion devices that might be installed in these slots
include video, network, sound, and disk interface cards.

If you look at the motherboard in your computer, you will more than likely see one of four main types of expansion slots used in computers today:

ISA
PCI
AGP
PCI Express
PCI-X

ISA Expansion Slots PCI Expansion Slots

The ISA design is one of the most enduring elements of the PC. It can be found on The PCI design's special bus and chip set are designed for advanced bus mastering
virtually all systems, from the second-generation IBM PC to machines built today.
techniques and full arbitration of the PCI local bus. This allows support of more than
However, it suffers from two major shortcomings: lack of speed and compatibility
problems stemming from card design. three slots.

Expansion cards must make use of system resources in an orderly way, so that they
do not conflict with other devices. When demands for these system resources are The PCI bus has its own set of four interrupts, which are mapped to regular IRQs
not coordinated, the system could behave erratically or even fail to boot up. ISA can on the system. If a PC has more than four PCI slots, some will be sharing interrupts
be an 8 bit slot or a 16 bit slot. It is black in color. and IRQs.

The PCI bus allows multiple bus-mastering devices.

Auto configuration lets the PC's BIOS assign the IRQ linking the card to the system
bus. Most PCI cards have no switches or jumpers to set, speeding installation and
preventing many hardware conflicts. It's a 32 bit interface. It is creamy white in
color.

The Motherboard
AGP Expansion Slots
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slots are becoming more popular. In the
past, if you wanted to use a high-speed, accelerated 3D graphics video
card, you had to install the card into an existing PCI or ISA slot. AGP slots
were designed to be a direct connection between the video circuitry and the
PC's memory. They are also easily recognizable, because they are usually
brown, are located right next to the PCI slots on the motherboard, and are
shorter than the PCI slots. AGP is dark brown in color usually. It's a 64 bit
interface.
PCI-X
PCI - X is known as PCI Extended is an enhanced version but
backward-compatible with existing PCI cards
It improves upon the speed of PCI from 133 MBps to as much as
1 Gbps
PCI-X was designed to increase performance of high bandwidth
devices, such as Gigabit Ethernet and Fibre Channel and processors
PCI Express
PCI Express or PCIe, (formerly known as 3GIO for 3rd Generation I/O, not to be mistaken
for PCI-X) is an implementation of the PCI computer bus that uses existing PCI
programming concepts.
A connection between any two PCIe devices is
known as a "link", and is built up from a collection
of 1 or more lanes. All devices must minimally
support single-lane (x1) links. Devices may
optionally support wider links composed of 2, 4, 8,
12, 16, or 32 lanes. This allows for very good
compatibility in two ways. A PCIe card will physically
fit (and work correctly) in any slot that is at least as
large as it is (e.g. an x1 card will work in an x4 or
x16 slot), and a slot of a large physical size (e.g. x16) can be wired electrically with fewer
lanes (e.g. x1 or x8; however it must still provide the power and ground connections
required by the larger physical slot size). In both cases, the PCIe link will negotiate the
highest mutually supported number of lanes. PCI Express is 64 bit interface.
PCI – X PCI – Express
Will have Two partition Will have One Partition in between
Known as PCI Extended It doubles the data rate

Processor Socket and Slot
Sockets and slots on the motherboard are plenty and varied.
Sockets are basically flat and have several rows of holes arranged in a
square. The processor slot is another method of connecting a processor to
a motherboard, but one into which an Intel Pentium II or Pentium III.
Supports Gigabit Ethernet Data Transfer up to 8 Gbps
Supports Fiber Channel Mainly used for high transfer rates
Memory Slots
Memory or random access memory (RAM) slots are the next most prolific slots on a
motherboard, and they contain the memory chips. There are varied types of memory
available for PCs today. PCs today use memory chips arranged on a small circuit board.
These circuit boards are called Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMM) or Dual Inline Memory
Modules (DIMM), depending on whether there are chips on one side of the circuit board or
on both sides, respectively.
Aside from the difference in chip placement, memory modules also differ in the number of
conductors, or pins, that the particular memory module uses. Some common examples
include 30-pin, 72-pin, and 168-pin (the 168-pin modules are most often DIMM).
Additionally, laptop memory comes in smaller form factors known as Small Outline DIMM
(SODIMM).
The Motherboard

On-Board Floppy and Hard Disk Connectors On Board SATA connector

Most drives need a connection to the motherboard so the computer can ―talk‖ to
the disk drive. These connections are known as drive interfaces and are of two
types: floppy drive interfaces and hard disk interfaces. Floppy disk interfaces allow
floppy disk drives to be connected to the motherboard and, similarly, hard disk
interfaces do the same for hard disks. Most motherboards manufactured today
include both the floppy disk and hard disk interfaces embedded on the
motherboard.
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment(SATA) is an interface for connecting hard
drives to a computer.
Unlike IDE which uses parallel signaling, SATA uses serial signaling technology.
Because of this the SATA cables are thinner than the ribbon cables used by IDE
hard drives. SATA cables can also be longer allowing you to connect to more distant
devices without fear of signal interference. There is also more room to grow with
data transfer speeds starting at 150 MB/s.

Keyboard Connectors

The most important input device for a PC is the keyboard. All PC motherboards contain a connector that allows a keyboard to be connected directly to the motherboard
through the case. There are two main types of keyboard connectors: AT and PS/2. The AT connector is round, about 1/2 inch in diameter, and has five sockets in the
DIN-5 configuration.

The PS/2 connector is smaller and more common than the AT connector. Most new PCs you can purchase today contain a PS/2 keyboard connector as well as a PS/2
mouse connector right above it on the motherboard.
The Motherboard

Peripheral Ports and Connectors

In order for a computer to be useful and have the utmost functionality, there must be a way for the data to arrive and depart. Many different ports are available for this
purpose.

Briefly, the seven most common types of ports you will see on a computer are serial, parallel, Universal Serial Bus (USB), Vi deo, Ethernet, Sound in/out, and Game ports.

Typical 9-pin and 25-pin serial ports A Parallel Port

The above Figure shows an example of the two different types of serial ports: 9- The above Figure shows a typical parallel port (also called a printer port, because
pin male and 25-pin male.
the most common peripheral connected to it is a printer).

A Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port A Video Port

Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports look slightly different, as shown in the figure Video (SVGA) ports (as shown above) are found on motherboards that have built-
above.
in video circuitry to allow the computer to display images on a monitor. The video
port is typically a 15-pin, three row, female connector.

An Ethernet Port A Game Port

If your motherboard has an Ethernet network adapter integrated into its circuitry, The above figure shows an example of a game port (also called a joystick port
you may see an Ethernet port (as shown above), an RJ-45 port, attached to the because that‘s the most common device connected to it). Game ports are used to
motherboard. connect peripheral devices to the computer and use a 15-pin female connector.

Connecting a port to the motherboard with the Dongle Method Peripheral ports Directly Soldered to a Motherboard
 There are two ways of connecting these ports to the motherboard (assuming the
circuitry for providing these functions is integrated into the motherboard). The
first, called a dongle connection, allows you to mount the ports into the
computer‘s case with a special cable (called a dongle). The dongle for each port
connects to the respective pins on the motherboard for that port.
The second method of connecting a peripheral port is known as the direct-solder
method. With this method, the individual ports are soldered directly to the
motherboard. This method is used mostly in integrated motherboards in non-clone
machines. Figure above shows peripheral ports connected to a motherboard with
the direct solder method. Notice that there is no cable between the port and the
motherboard and that the port is part of the motherboard.

Microprocessor

Microprocessor is the brain of any computer that does all the arithmetic computations & logical instructions inside the CPU. Microprocessor also communicates and controls
activities between all peripherals including hard drive, RAM, multimedia devices and other components of a PC. Microprocessors comprise millions of transistors that
contribute to performing additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions and much more complex instructions.

Initial computing was about using small programs like basic spreadsheets, word processors, simple calculations and some progr amming. Today's computing requires more
powerful hardware to compete with much powerful programs including complex calculations, graphic designing, gaming, multimedia and much demanding development
software.

The Factors which affect the performance of a processor are as follows:

Clock Speed

The clock speed is the frequency with which a processor executes instructions. This frequency is measured in millions of cycles per second (megahertz [MHz]) or billions of
cycles per second (gigahertz [GHz]). Generally speaking, the higher the MHz value, the faster the PC.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a storage area for frequently used data and instructions. It requires a small amount of physical RAM that can keep up with the processor; it uses this RAM
for storage. The processor contains an internal cache controller that integrates the cache with the CPU. The controller stores frequently accessed RAM locations to provide
faster execution of data and instructions. This type of cache is known as a level 1(L1) cache.

L1 Cache L2 Cache L3 Cache

In addition to external memory (RAM) will improve In addition to L1 Cache & DRAM, it was available on In addition to L1 and L2 Cache, available in recent
the performance as it is much faster than RAM, the motherboard earlier and now "in-built" today in processor Intel Pentium IV HT Extreme edition,
found integrated along with the processor. most of the processors. improves performance much better.

Microprocessor

The Bus

The processor‘s ability to communicate with the rest of the system‘s components relies on the supporting circuitry. The system board‘s underlying circuitry is called the bus.
The computer‘s bus moves information into and out of the processor and other devices, allowing all the devices to communicate with each other. The bus consists of
several components, including the external bus, the data bus and the address bus.

The External Bus (System Bus) The Data Bus

The external bus is also referred to as the system bus or expansion bus. The
expansion bus is a bus system that allows the processor to talk to another device. It
is known as an external bus system because it is outside the processor. The devices
are connected through expansion cards and slots. An expansion card is a removable
circuit board that expands the capability of the computer.
The data bus is used to send and receive data. The larger the bus width, the more
data that can be transmitted (and, therefore, the faster the bus).
Data in a computer is transferred digitally. A single wire carries +3.3V or +5V to
indicate a 1 data bit; it carries 0 volts to indicate a 0 data bit. (Remember,
computers use the binary system to transmit information.) The greater number of
wires allows more bits to be transmitted simultaneously.

For example, a 16-bit data bus width has 16 wires to transmit data, and a 32-bit
data chip can transmit twice the amount of data as a 16-bit chip. A good
comparison is the highway system. A single traffic lane allows only one car through
at a time, whereas two lanes allow twice the amount of traffic to pass.

The Address Bus Bus Speed

The address bus contains a set of wires to carry information into and out of the Motherboards are designed to be more or less universal. They have a processor
processor.The information the address bus sends used to describe memory socket or slot that can support many different processor types and speeds. The
locations. These locations are used for data being sent or retrieved. The address
bus carries a single bit of information, representing a digit in the address, along
each wire. The size of the address bus corresponds to the number of address
locations. The larger the address bus, the more memory address locations can be
supported. The more memory address locations a processor can address, the more
RAM a processor can use.
speed of the bus and the speed of the processor are directly related. Typically, the
bus speed is set to 66MHz, 100MHz, or 133MHz plus a multiplier. For example, if
you have a 450MHz processor, you set the processor speed jumper to 450MHz, the
expansion bus speed to 100MHz, and the multiplier to 4.5 (4.5 × 100MHz =
450MHz). Speeds for processors below 200MHz are generally set without a
multiplier.

Microprocessor

Voltage

As discussed earlier, power supplies provides voltage(+5VDC and +3.3VDC) for the computer. However, processors often run at different voltages than the standard power
supplies provide. Therefore, you need a small module known as a Voltage Regulator Module (VRM). The VRM regulates the voltage fed to the processor. For example, if a
processor requires 1.5VDC, the VRM steps down the voltage so the processor has the correct voltage.

Interrupt Request(IRQ)

Interrupts are special lines connected directly to the processor. A device uses an interrupt to get the attention of the CPU when it needs to. It‘s rather like the cord you use
to signal the driver when you need to get off at the next stop when you‘re a passenger on an actual bus. Just as you would use the ―stop requested‖ cord to send a signal
when you need the bus driver‘s attention,a computer device uses the interrupt request (IRQ) line to get the attention of the CPU.

IRQ Number Typical Use Description

IRQ 0 System timer This interrupt is reserved for the internal system timer. It is never available to peripherals or
other devices.

IRQ 1 Keyboard This interrupt is reserved for the keyboard controller. Even on devices without a keyboard, this
interrupt is exclusively for keyboard input.

IRQ 2 Cascade interrupt for IRQs 8-15 This interrupt cascades the second interrupt controller to the first.

IRQ 3 Second serial port (COM2) The interrupt for the second serial port and often the default interrupt for the fourth serial port
(COM4).

IRQ 4 First serial port (COM1) This interrupt is normally used for the first serial port. On devices that do not use a PS/2 mouse,
this interrupt is almost always used by the serial mouse. This is also the default interrupt for the
third serial port (COM3).
 IRQ 5 Sound card This interrupt is the first choice that most sound cards make when looking for an IRQ setting.

IRQ 6 Floppy disk controller This interrupt is reserved for the floppy disk controller.

IRQ 7 First parallel port This interrupt is normally reserved for the use of the printer. If a printer is not being used, this
interrupt can be used for other devices that use parallel ports.

IRQ 8 Real-time clock This interrupt is reserved for the system's real-time clock timer and can not be used for any
other purpose.

IRQ 9 Open interrupt This interrupt is typically left open on devices for the use of peripherals.

IRQ 10 Open interrupt This interrupt is typically left open on devices for the use of peripherals.

IRQ 11 Open interrupt This interrupt is typically left open on devices for the use of peripherals.

IRQ 12 PS/2 mouse This interrupt is reserved for the PS/2 mouse on machines that use one. If a PS/2 mouse is not
used, the interrupt can be used for other peripherals, such as network card.

IRQ 13 Floating point unit/coprocessor This interrupt is reserved for the integrated floating point unit. It is never available to
peripherals or other devices as it is used exclusively for internal signaling.

IRQ 14 Primary IDE channel This interrupt is reserved for use by the primary IDE controller. On systems that do not use IDE
devices, the IRQ can be used for another purpose.

IRQ 15 Secondary IDE channel This interrupt is reserved for use by the secondary IDE controller.

Microprocessor

DMA Channels

The bus also allows devices to bypass the processor and write their information directly into main memory. This feature is known as Direct Memory Access (DMA). Each
type of bus has a different number of channels that can be used for DMA. If two devices are set to the same DMA channel, neither devic e will write information to memory
correctly; thus, neither device will work.

DMA Channel # Use Notes

0 Some sound cards Requires 16-bit ISA or PCI card

 1 Sound cards
2 Floppy drive
3 LPT port in ECP mode
4 System reserved
5 Sound card
Microprocessor
Form Factors
A processor form factor is the way the package of the processor is laid out, including how many pins it has, and the composition and size of the processor itself. Some of
the most common Intel processor form factors include:
PGA Package Type
PGA stands for Pin Grid Array, which is the way the pins on the
processor are laid out. These pins interface with the small wafer of
silicon inside the processor package and are inserted into a
motherboard socket. The PGA package has a nickel-plated copper heat
sink on top to help with thermal conductivity. The pins on the bottom of
the processor are laid out such that the processor can be inserted only
one way (to prevent accidental damage by incorrect installation). The
Sound Blaster standard; also used by "clones"
-
Some systems offer DMA 1 as an alternative setting
-
Requires 16-bit ISA or PCI card; some sound cards use only DMA 1 or use DMA 0 instead of
5
SECC Package Type
The Single Edge Contact Cartridge (SECC) is a style of processor package in which the CPU is
soldered directly to a small circuit board that has many gold finger contacts. These fingers on
this circuit board make a connection with the contacts in a motherboard slot connector. The
SECC is covered with a metal shell to protect the processor and to provide heat dissipation. This
cartridge may also have an integrated L2 cache.
The SECC package was used in the Intel Pentium II processors (with 242 contacts) and the
PGA package is primarily used by the Intel Xeon processor, which has Pentium II Xeon and Pentium III Xeon processors (with 330 contacts).
603 pins.

SECC2 Package Type PPGA Package Type

The SECC2 package type is similar to the SECC package type, but the The Plastic Pin Grid Array (PPGA) package is similar to the PGA package type; however, the pins
SECC2 plugs into the Slot 1 connector and does not use the metal heat are staggered differently. The pins are arranged so that the processor can be inserted only one
sink. SECC2 was used with later model Pentium II and early model way into its socket. PPGA also has the nickel-plated copper heat sink on top. This package type
Pentium III processors. was used primarily by early Intel Celeron processors with 370 pins that fit into a Socket 370.

FC-PGA2 Package Type

The FC-PGA2 package type is almost identical to the FC-PGA package type, with one important difference: The FC-PGA2 package
includes what is known as an Integrated Heat Sink (IHS). This heat sink is attached directly to the processor during
manufacturing. You can‘t mistake the FC-PGA2 for FC-PGA, because of the large copper or metal block on the top of the
processor. Because it is directly attached to the die, it is a more efficient heat sink and can better conduct heat away from the
processor.

This package is used primarily with the Intel Celeron and Pentium III with 370 pins and the Pentium 4 with 478 pins.
Inserting a microprocessor

1. Raise the locking lever align the chip, and gently insert it
2. One corner has a missing pin, an arrow, and a beveled edge, and there‘s a corresponding corner on the socket
3. Lock the chip in place with the locking lever

Note: Socket is a Zero insertion force socket and doesn‘t need any force to insert a chip. The chip goes in only one way

Microprocessor

775-land LGA Package

The Intel® Pentium®4 processor on 90 nm process in the 775-land package is a follow on to the Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin package with enhancements to the
Intel Net Burst® micro architecture. The Pentium 4 processor on 90 nm process in the 775-land package uses Flip-Chip Land Grid Array (FC-LGA4) package technology,
and plugs into the 775LGA socket. The Pentium 4 processor in the 775-land package, like its predecessor, the Pentium 4 processor in the 478-pin package, is based on the
same Intel 32-bit micro architecture and maintains the tradition of compatibility with IA-32 software.
 How Microprocessors work?

Microprocessors are made of millions of transistors and it performs three simple

steps:

Fetch: Get the instruction from the memory

Decode: Find out what has to be done
Execute: Process the instruction

Millions of instructions will be processed within a second based on the speed of the processor. Intel‘s first microprocessor 4004 that had mere 2300 transistors can just
perform 60,000 calculations per second. Today‘s processor like Pentium IV running at blazing speeds can do over million times faster. For the sequence to happen, the
processor internally is made of various execution units as discussed in the following section "Inside the MP".

The computer industry is very profitable, so many companies make CPUs for PCs. The market leader in the manufacture of chips is Intel Corporation. Intel‘s competition
includes Motorola, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Cyrix, and IBM. When it first began making CPUs for the IBM PC, Intel shared its designs with other manufacturers; but
with the introduction of the 80386 model in 1985, Intel ceased licensing its designs.

Intel Processors

When the first PC was introduced, IBM decided to go to the chip manufacturer Intel for a CPU.
Since then, Intel has been the CPU supplier for almost all IBM-compatible computers.

Chip Year Added Data Bus Address Bus Speed (In Transistors Other Specifications
Width (In Width (In MHz)
Bits) Bits)

Pentium 1993 64 32 60 - 200 3.3 million Super scalar

 Pentium Pro 1995 64 32 150 - 200 5.3 million Dynamic Execution

Pentium II 1997 64 32 233 - 450 7.3 million 32KB of L1 cache, dynamic execution and MMX Technology

Pentium II 1998 64 32 400 - 600 7.3 million Multiprocessor version of Pentium II

Xeon

Chip Year Added Data Bus Address Bus Speed (In Transistors Other Specifications
Width (In Width (In MHz)
Bits) Bits)

Celeron 1999 64 32 400 - 600 7.5 million Value version of Pentium II

Pentium III 1999 64 32 350 - 1000 9.5 - 28 SECC2 Package

million

Pentium III 1999 64 32 350 - 1000 9.5 - 28 Multiprocessor version of Pentium III
Xeon million

Pentium 4 2002 64 32 1200 - 3100 42 million 20KB L1, 256-512KB L2 on chip

AMD

Options other than just Intel processors are available for PCs. Among the so-called Intel ―clones‖ are chips made by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). AMD has made a very
profitable business out of being Intel‘s main competitor in the PC CPU market. Generally speaking, AMD‘s CPUs are roughly comparable in speed to Intel‘s chips. However,
they end up being about 10 percent cheaper on average.

Chip Socket Speed (In MHz) Transistors Intel Equivalent

K6 7 166 - 300 8.8 million Pentium MMX - Pentium II

K6 - II 7 / Super 7 266 -550 9.3 million Pentium II

K6 - III Super 7 400 - 600 21.3 million Pentium II

 Athlon Classic Slot A 500 - 1000 22 million Pentium III

Athlon Thunderbird Socket A 650 - 1400 37 million Pentium III

Athlon XP Palomino Socket A 1333 - 1733 37.5 million Pentium III - 4

Athlon XP Thoroughbred Socket A 1467 - 2250 37.2 - 37.6 million Pentium 4

Memory

Memory is the electronic holding place for instructions and data that your computer's microprocessor can reach quickly.When your computer is in normal operation ,its
memory usually contains the main parts of the operating system and some or all of the application programs and related data that are being used. Memory is often used as
a shorter synonym for Random Access Memory(RAM).

All computer memory is used to hold binary strings of data to be manipulated by the CPU. Think of memory as a vast bank of switches with two positions: on or off. Off is
given the value of 0; on is given the value of 1. This allows the switches to hold binary data based on whether they are open or closed. By stringing a series of switches
together, larger numbers and code values can be represented.

Memory is one of the most popular, easy, and inexpensive ways to upgrade a computer. As the computer‘s CPU works, it stores information in the computer‘s memory.

ROM PROM EPROM EEPROM

There are two major classes of computer memory:

Non - Volatile Volatile

The Memory is said to be Non Volatile, if the data is retained even though the
The memory is said to be Volatile, if the data is lost when the computer loses the
power to the computer is shut off. The setup data held in CMOS (complementary
metal-oxide semiconductor), is a good example of nonvolatile memory. power. The RAM is an volatile memory

The various types of Non-Volatile Memory are as follows:

ROM CMOS

ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. It is called read-only because it cannot be

CMOS is a special kind of memory that holds the BIOS configuration settings. CMOS
written to. Once information has been written to the ROM, it cannot be changed.
ROM is normally used to store the computer‘s BIOS, because this information memory is powered by a small battery so the settings are retained when the
normally does not change. computer is shut off. The BIOS reads information such as the hard drive types
which are configured for this computer to use, the drive(s) it should search for boot
Types of ROM
sectors, and so on. CMOS memory is usually not upgradable in terms of its capacity.
Mask-Programmed ROM (MROM) — programmed at the factory.
Programmable ROM (PROM) — can be custom-programmed by the user
(once) using special circuitry.
Erasable-Programmable ROM (EPROM) — can also be programmed and
erased by the user using ultraviolet light and special circuitry external to the
computer.
Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) — can be erased and reprogrammed
by special circuitry within the computer.

The various types of Volatile Memory are as follows:

RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory) is most often referred to when PC memory is discussed. RAM is the form of volatile memory used to hold temporary instructions and data
for manipulation while the system is running. The term random is applied because the CPU can access or place data to and from any addressable RAM on the system. If
power to the system is lost, all RAM is lost as well.

SRAM DRAM

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) was an improvement over SRAM. DRAM uses a
different approach to storing the 1s and 0s. Instead of transistors, DRAM stores
information as charges in very small capacitors. If a charge exists in a capacitor, it‘s
interpreted as a 1. The absence of a charge will be interpreted as a 0. Because DRAM
uses capacitors instead of switches, it needs to use a constant refresh signal to keep the
 information in memory. DRAM requires more power than SRAM for refresh signals and,
therefore, is mostly found in desktop computers. DRAM technology allows several
memory units, called cells, to be packed with very high density. Therefore, these chips
can hold very large amounts of information. Most PCs today use DRAM of one type or
another.

The S in SRAM stands for static. Static random access memory does not
require a refresh signal like DRAM. The chips are more complex and are thus
more expensive. However, they are faster. DRAM access times come in at 80
nanoseconds (ns) or more; SRAM has access times of 15 to 20 ns. SRAM is
often used for cache memory.

FAST PAGE MODE (FPM) EXTENDED DATAOUT (EDO)

At one time, FPM was the most common form of DRAM found in computers. In In 1995, EDO became the next memory innovation. It was similar to FPM, but with a
fact, it was so common that people simply called it "DRAM," leaving off the slight modification that allowed consecutive memory accesses to occur much faster. This
"FPM". FPM offered an advantage over earlier memory technologies because it meant the memory controller could save time by cutting out a few steps in the addressing
enabled faster access to data located within the same row. process. EDO enabled the CPU to access memory 10 to 15% faster than with FPM.

Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM)

SDRAM was developed to match the ever-increasing processing speeds of the
Pentium systems. SDRAM, as its name suggests, is synchronized to the speed
of the systems in which it will be used (PC66 SDRAM runs at 66MHz, PC100
runs at 100MHZ, PC133 runs at 133MHz, and so on). Synchronizing the speed
of the systems prevents the address bus from having to wait for the memory
because of different clock speeds.
Essentially, Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) is clock-doubled SDRAM. The
memory chip can perform reads and writes on both sides of any clock cycle (the up or
start and the down or ending), thus doubling the effective memory executions per
second. So, if you are using DDR SDRAM with a 100MHz memory bus, the memory will
execute reads and writes at 200MHz and transfer the data to the processor at 100MHz.
The advantage of DDR over regular SDRAM is increased throughput, and thus increased
overall system speed.

RDRAM

With densities up to 256Mbit, RDRAM components are available in volume from leading memory suppliers in a range of
speeds from 800MHz to 1200MHz. For systems requiring upgrade flexibility, RDRAM devices may be configured into
single-, dual- or quad-channel RIMM modules to support bandwidths from 1.6 GB/sec to 10.7 GB/sec and system memory
capacities up to 8GB. Both RDRAM memory devices and RIMM modules are tested for specification compliance with an
extensive validation program that also promotes system inter-operability. Additionally, standard RDRAM memory
controllers are available in a wide range of ASIC and foundry processes in a variety

Memory
Cache Memory

Caching, in PC terms, is the holding of a recently or frequently used code or data in a special memory location for rapid retrieval. Speed is everything when it comes to
computers. Mass storage is much slower than RAM, and RAM is much slower than the CPU. The high-speed memory chip generally used for caching is called static RAM
(SRAM).

Caching: The Layered Look

Caches are organized into layers. The highest layer is closest to the device (such as the CPU) using it. On early PCs, caches were usually separate chips. Today, it is not
uncommon to have two levels of cache built right into the CPU.But a cache is not limited to dynamic memory. Mass storage devices like hard drives can also be used to
store less commonly used code or data.

Internal Cache (L1)

Starting with the 486 chips, a cache has been included on every CPU. This original on-board cache is known as the L1 (level 1) or internal cache. All commands for the
processor go through the cache. The cache stores a backlog of commands so that if a wait state is encountered, the CPU can continue to process using commands from the
cache. Caching will store any code that has been read and keep it available for the CPU to use. This eliminates the need to wait for fetching of the data from DRAM.

External Cache (L2)

Additional cache can be added to most computers, depending on the motherboard. This cache is mounted directly on the motherboard, outside the CPU. The external cache
is also called L2 (level 2) and is the same as L1, but larger. L2 can also (on some motherboards) be added or expanded. When installing any L2 cache, be sure to check the
CMOS setup and enable the cache. Some computer systems are now also employing a Level 3 cache.

Notes

Computer Memory can also be classified as follows:-

Primary Memory: Memory which can be accessed directly by the processor.

Extendable Memory
RAM
ROM

Secondary Memory: Memory which is accessed by the processor indirectly through the Primary memory.
Extendable Memory
Hard Disk
Floppy Disk
Input Devices
Let‘s start this chapter off by talking about some of the most commonly used peripheral devices: input devices. As their name suggests, input devices exist so that human
beings can communicate with the object we call a computer. These devices interpret the intentions of their users (via a keystroke or some other movement) to tell the
computer to perform some action. Without them, the computer would be of little use to us.

Keyboard
 The most common PC input device is the keyboard. This type of device translates keystrokes into
letters or numbers. The letters are then interpreted and commands are performed, depending on
what is being sent.

Types of Keyboards

Keyboards have changed very little in layout since their introduction. In fact, the most common change has simply been the natural evolution of adding more keys that
provide additional functionality.

The most common keyboards are:

101-key Enhanced keyboard

104-key Windows keyboard
82-key Apple standard keyboard
108-key Apple Extended keyboard

Portable computers such as laptops quite often have custom keyboards that have slightly different key arrangements than a standard keyboard. Also, many system
manufacturers add specialty buttons to the standard layout. A typical keyboard has four basic types of keys:

Typing Keys
Numeric keypad
Function keys
Control keys
Input Devices
Mouse

A mouse is an input device which allows the user to control a cursor to manipulate data without complicated commands. The mouse or mice was invented by Douglas
Englebart in 1963, who at the time was working at the Stanford Research Institute. Today the mouse are now found on every Apple and PC computer and used with
various different GUIs.
Types of Mouse and its Technologies

Mechanical Mice Optical Mice

Mechanical Mice requires that the mouse be set on a flat surface. The distance and
the speed of the rollers inside the mouse determines how far the mouse cursor
moves on the screen depending on the software configuration.
Optical Mice require a special mouse pad which has a grid pattern. A sensor inside
the mouse determines the movement by reading the grid as the mouse passes over
it while emitting a light from an LED or sometimes a laser. This type of mouse is
much more accurate than the ordinary optical mechanical mouse which relies on the
traction between the mouse ball and the rollers. One drawback to an optical mouse
is they can have problems in bright lights.

New Optical Mice no longer have the disadvantages of earlier mice and are capable
of being utilized on any surface. In comparison to the traditional Optical-Mechanical
mouse the Optical is a much better solution for a computer mouse.

Optical-Mechanical

The optical-mechanical hybrid consists of a ball which rolls a wheel inside the mouse. This wheel contains a circle of holes and or notches to read the LED by a sensor as it
spins around when the mouse is moved. This mouse is much more accurate than the mechanical mouse. This mouse is now the most commonly used mouse with PC and
Macintosh computers. See how a mouse works for an illustration and a more in-depth explanation of how this mouse works.

Interfaces

These are the following ways in which the mouse can be connected to a computer:

Blue tooth
Infrared
PS/2 Port
Serial Port
USB
How a Mouse Works

As you can see in the illustration the mouse movement is tracked by four parts. As the mouse is moved, the ball rolls in
the direction of the movement which in turn moves the roller (X or Y axis). As the roller begins to rotate so does the
chopper / gear. The gear has small notches within it or around the edges of it, as it rotates light shines through the
openings which is then detected by the two light sensors which then sends the computer a signal of that movement. The
offset of the light received by the two light sensors determines the direction of each axis.

Within the mouse you will find a total of two rollers and choppers / gears. Each roller represents a X or Y axis which is the
Horizontal or Vertical movement of the mouse cursor.

Input Devices
Touch screens

A touch screen is an intuitive computer input device that works by simply touching the display screen, either by a finger, or with a stylus, rather than typing on a keyboard
or pointing with a mouse. Computers with touch screens have a smaller footprint, and can be mounted in smaller spaces; they have fewer movable parts, and can be
sealed. Touch screens may be built in, or added on. Add-on touch screens are external frames with a clear see-through touch screen which mount onto the monitor bezel
and have a controller built into their frame. Built-in touch screens are internal, heavy-duty touch screens mounted directly onto the CRT tube.

Any touch screen system comprises the following three basic components;

Touch screen sensor panel -it sits above the display and generates appropriate voltages according to touch.
Touch screen controller -it processes the signals received from the sensor and translates these into touch event data which is passed to the PC's processor,
usually via a serial or USB interface
 A software driver-it provides an interface to the PC's operating system and translates the touch event data into mouse events, essentially enabling the sensor
panel to "emulate" a mouse.

Scanner

In addition to using keyboards and pointing devices, there is another very common method of getting data into a computer. The charge-coupled device (CCD) was
developed to allow light (and shades of light) to be converted into electrical pulses. This opened up the arena to allow a new breed of devices to input data to a computer.
The largest class of these devices are scanners. Optical scanners (their full name) use CCDs and a light source to convert pictures into a stream of data.
Optical Storage Device

CD-ROM Drives

A CD- ROM (CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc–Read-Only Memory) is an optical storage device which is accommodated by a CD-
ROM drive.These drives are slightly different from other storage media in several ways. First, they read information differently than
magnetic media disk drives do. CD-ROM drives use laser light to read the information from the media, they are described as optical
drives.

Another difference between magnetic media and CD-ROM drives is that CD-ROM drives are read-only devices ( Compact Disc–Read-
Only Memory). The only way to write to a CD-ROM is during manufacture time, when the pits are burned into the substrate of the
disc. Once written, they cannot be erased.Today, using the latest writable and re-writable CDs we can write new data as well as
erase existing and re-write new data.

When reading information from a CD, the drive basically reads a lot of pits and lands (lands are the spaces between the pits) in the disc surface. The pits are etched into
the CD at production time. The laser reflects off the CD‘s surface and onto a sensor. The sensor detects the pattern of pits and lands as the disc rotates and translates them
into patterns of 1s and 0s. This binary information is fed to the computer that is retrieving the data.

A CD-ROM disc has a single track that runs from the center to the outside edge, exactly the reverse of the groove on a record. A CD-ROM uses basically the same
technology as the audio compact discs used in most homes today. When a CD-ROM is placed into a CD-ROM drive, a motor spins the CD at a specific rate. A laser that
reads the CD is then activated.Due to these basic similarities, several compatibilities exist between the different compact disc technologies. For example, it is possible to
play audio CDs in a computer‘s CD-ROM drive. Also, some computer CDs have audio tracks on them and are made to be used in either type of CD drive (home audio or
computer).

Tracks & Sectors

A hard disk is really a set of stacked "disks," each of which has data recorded electromagnetically in tracks on the disk. A "head" records (writes) or reads the information
on the tracks. Two heads, one on each side of a disk, read or write the data as the disk spins. A sector contains a fixed number of bytes - for example, 256 or 512. Either at
the drive or the operating system level, sectors are often grouped together into clusters.
 The process of low-level formatting a drive, establishes the tracks and sectors on the platter. High-level formatting then writes the file-storage structures, like the file-
allocation table, into the sectors. This process prepares the drive to hold files.

Storage Devices

Floppy Disk Drives

The floppy disk drive is the most commonly used magnetic storage device. Floppy disks have only one platter encased in a plastic
shell and are available in different capacities.

A floppy drive has either one or two read/write heads. Each head moves in a straight line on a track over the disk rather than on an
angular path as with fixed disk systems. When the disk is placed into the drive, a motor engages the center of the disk and rotates
it in 3600RPMs speed. This action moves the tracks past the read/write heads.

5 1/4-Inch Floppy Disk 3 1/2-Inch Diskette

The 5 1/4-inch floppy disks are made from a polyester disk coated with iron oxide The other type of floppy disk media is not really ―floppy‖ at all. Some people
and a flexible outer covering. The disk has a large hole in the center, called the
mistakenly call it a hard disk. Its real name is a 31/2-inch diskette (to differentiate it
drive hole, which the motor in the disk drive uses to spin the disk. In addition, a
11/2-inch oval window is cut into the case to allow the read/write heads access to from a full-grown disk, I suppose). The 31/2-inch diskettes are also made from a
the disk media. A small round hole cut into the disk shell next to the drive hole lines polyester disk coated with a layer of iron oxide. This disk is enclosed in a durable,
up with an even smaller hole cut into the disk media. When this smaller hole spins plastic case. This case is an improvement over the 51/4-inch variety, because the
past the slightly larger hole in the shell, it allows a light to shine all the way through
51/4-inch floppies are easily creased or damaged. The 31/2-inch diskettes also have
the disk system. In this way, the floppy drive can tell how fast the disk is rotating
by how many times per second that hole appears. a metal shutter over the media access window. Again, this is an improvement over
51/4-inch media - people often grasp the disks inadvertently by this edge of the
Finally, a notch is cut in one side of the disk. This notch is called the write protect disk, pressing their fingers onto the media and thus contaminating the disk, making
tab. When a disk is inserted into a floppy drive, a small lever places itself into this
it difficult to read.
notch. When the lever is in the notch, the disk can be written to. You can write-
protect the disk (which prevents it from being written to) by covering this hole.

Capacity Form Factor Density Sides

360KB 51/4" FH Double Double

720KB 31/2" HH Double Double

1.2MB 51/4" FH or HH High Double

1.44MB 31/2" HH High Double

Tape Drives
 The final type of magnetic media drive is tape drive.The tape cartridge uses a long polyester ribbon coated with magnetic oxi de
wrapped around two spools. As the tape unwinds from one spool, it passes by a read/write head in the drive that retrieves or saves
the information. It then proceeds to the other spool where it is kept until needed again.

Tape media is great for large-capacity storage, but it is relatively slow because it uses sequential read- write operation.The best
application for tape media is making backups. Current tape technology uses 4mm or 8mm Digital Audio Tape (DAT) or Digital Linear
Tape (DLT) for its storage medium. With these technologies, it is possible to store up to 70GB of data on a sin

Storage Devices
What good is a computer without a place to put everything? Storage media hold the data being accessed, as well as the files the system needs to operate, and data that
needs to be saved. When everything is done and information needs to be stored, where should it be kept? The many different types of storage differ in terms of their
capacity (how much they can store), access time (how fast the computer can access the information), and the physical type of media being used.

Storage devices hold data, even when the computer is powered off.
The physical material that actually holds data is called storage medium.
The hardware that writes or reads data from a storage medium is called as a storage device.
Storage devices would include magnetic, optical and Chips

Magnetic Storage Device

Disk Drives

A disk drive is an encasement which accommodates a disk and helps to read and write data on the disk .There are different types of disk drives for different types of disks
:- Hard disk drive ( HDD )- Floppy disk drive ( FDD )

Hard Disk Drives

Hard disks actually contain several disks called platters, stacked together and mounted through their centers on a small rod called a
spindle. The disks are rotated about this rod at a speed between 2,000 and 10,000 revolutions per minute (RPM). As the disks
rotate, one or more read/write heads float approximately 10 micro inches (about one-tenth the width of a human hair) above the
disk surfaces and make, modify, or sense changes in the magnetic positions of the coatings on the disks. Several heads are moved
together as one unit by an actuator arm. There is usually one head for each side of a platter.

This entire mechanism is enclosed in a hard disk case. These disks are also called fixed disks because the mechanism is not
designed to be removed. The disk platters, though perfectly free to revolve at high RPM, are otherwise fixed in place.

SATA
Ports and Connectors

A port is a place where data arrives or departs in a computer .There are two types of ports:

- Physical ports - Eg. Serial, parallel, game and USB.

- Logical ports - Eg. HTTP, FTP, TCP, Telnet, SMTP etc.

Peripheral Port Connector Types

DB-Series

DB connectors, the most common style of connector found on computers today, are typically designated with DB-n, where
the letter n is replaced by the number of connectors. DB connectors are usually shaped like a trapezoid.

The nice part about these connectors is that only one orientation is possible. If you try to connect them upside down or
try to connect a male connector to another male connector, they just won‘t go together, and the connection can‘t be
made.

Common DB-Series Connectors:

 Connector Gender Use

DB-9 Male Serial port

DB-9 Female Connector on a serial cable

DB-25 Male Serial port

DB-25 Female Parallel port, or connector on a serial cable

DB-15 Female Game port

DB-15 Male Connector on a game peripheral cable

DB-15HD Female Video port (HD has three rows of 5 pins as opposed to two rows)

DB-15HD Male Connector on a monitor cable

RJ-Series

Registered Jack (RJ) connectors are most often used in telecommunications. Figure shows the two most common
examples of RJ ports and connectors: RJ-11 and RJ-45. RJ-11 connectors are used most often in telephone hookups; your
home phone jack is probably an RJ-11 jack or port. RJ-45 connectors, on the other hand, are most commonly found on
Ethernet networks that use twisted pair cabling.

On the left in this picture is an RJ-11 connector and on the right is an RJ-45 connector. Notice the size difference.

As you can see, RJ connectors are typically square with multiple gold contacts on the top (flat) side. A small locking tab on
the bottom prevents the connector and cable from falling or being pulled out of the jack accidentally.

Ports and Cables

Universal Serial Bus (USB) RCA

Most computers built after 1997 have one or two flat ports in place of one DB-9
serial port. These ports are Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports, and they are used for
connecting multiple (upto 127) peripherals to one computer through a single port
(and use of multi port peripheral hubs). USB version 1.1 supported data rates as
high as 12Mbps (1.5MBps). The newest version, USB 2.0, supports data rates as
high as 480Mbps (60MBps).
Because of USB‘s higher transfer rate, flexibility, and ease of use, most devices that
in the past used serial interfaces now come with USB interfaces.
Infrared
Increasing numbers of people are getting fed up with being tethered to their
computers by cords. As a result, many computers (especially portable computing
devices like laptops and PDAs) are now using infrared ports to send and receive
data. An infrared port is a small port on the computer that allows data to be sent
and received using electromagnetic radiation in the infrared band. The infrared port
itself is a small, dark square of plastic (usually a very dark maroon) and can typically
be found on the front of a PC or on the side of a laptop or portable.
The RCA port was developed by the RCA Victor company in the late 1940sfor use
with its phonographs. RCA jacks and connectors are used to transmit both audio
and video information. You will find RCA connectors on the sound card which are
used for Mic In, Line In and Line out.
Centronics
The last type of port connector is the Centronics connector. It has a unique shape.
It consists of a central connection bar surrounding by an outer shielding ring. The
Centronics connector is primarily used in parallel printer connections and SCSI
interfaces. It is most often found on peripherals, not on computers themselves
(except in the case of some older SCSI interface cards).
Infrared ports send and receive data at a very slow rate (maximum speed on PC
infrared ports is less than 4Mbps).

PS/2 (Keyboard and Mouse) VGA port

A PS/2 port (also known as a mini- DIN 6 connector) is a mouse and keyboard
interface port first found on the IBM PS/2. It is smaller than previous interfaces (the
DIN-5 keyboard port and serial mouse connector), and thus its popularity increased
quickly. You can tell the difference because usually the keyboard port is purple and
the mouse port is green. Also, typically there are small graphics of a keyboard and
mouse, respectively, imprinted next to the ports.
The last type of port connector is the Centronics connector. It has a unique shape.
It consists of a central connection bar surrounding by an outer shielding ring. The
Centronics connector is primarily used in parallel printer connections and SCSI
interfaces. It is most often found on peripherals, not on computers themselves
(except in the case of some older SCSI interface cards).

25 pin serial port RJ-45-port

9 pin Serial port

Game port
USB port
Parallel port

Ports and Cables

Common Peripheral Cables

An interface is a method of connecting two dissimilar items together. A peripheral interface is a method of connecting a peripheral or accessory to a computer, including the
specification of cabling, connector type, speed, and method of communication used.

The most common interfaces used in PCs today include:

 Parallel
Serial
USB
IEEE 1394 (Fire Wire)
Infrared
RCA
PS/2

For each type, let‘s look at the cabling and connector used as well as the type(s) of peripherals that are connected.

Parallel Serial

Most parallel cables use a DB-25 male connector on one end and either a DB-25
male connector or Centronics-36 connector on the other. Printer cables typically
used the DB-25M to Centronics-36 configuration.Inside a parallel cable, eight wires
are used for transmitting data, so one byte can be transmitted at a time.
Almost every computer made since the original IBM PC has at least one serial port.
They are easily identified because they have either a DB-9 male or DB-25 male port.
Standard serial ports have a maximum data transmission speed of 57Kbps and a
maximum cable length of 50 feet.Serial cables come in two common wiring
configurations, standard serial cable and null modem serial cable. A standard serial
cable is used to hook various peripherals like modems and printers to a computer.

Ports and Cables

Universal Serial Bus (USB) IEEE 1394 (Fire Wire)

The USB interface is very straightforward. Essentially, it was designed to be plug The IEEE 1394 interface is about one thing: speed. Its first iteration, now known as
Fire - Wire 400, has a maximum data throughput of 400Mbps. The latest iteration,
and play - just plug in the peripheral, and it should work (provided the software is
Fire Wire 800, has a maximum data throughput of 800Mbps. It caries data at that
installed to support it). The USB cable is simple: a USB male connector on each speed over a maximum cable length of 4.5 meters (Fire Wire 400) and 100 meters
end. (Fire Wire 800 over fiber optic cables has maximum data throughout of 800Mbps).
Sometimes manufacturers put a mini connector on one end to make it fit the form
Fire Wire uses a very special type of cable. It is difficult to mistake this cable for
factor of the device that needs a USB connection.
anything but a Fire Wire cable. Although most people think of Fire Wire as a tool for
connecting their digital camcorders to their computers, it‘s much more than that.
One part of the USB interface specification that makes it so appealing is the fact Because of its high data transfer rate, it is being used more and more as a
that if your computer runs out of USB ports, you can simply plug a device known as universal, high-speed data interface for things like hard drives, CD-ROM drives, and
digital video editing equipment.
a USB hub in to one of your computer‘s USB ports, which will give you several more
USB ports from one USB port. USB cables are used to connect a wide variety of
peripherals to computer, including mice, digital cameras, printers, and scanners.
USB‘s simplicity of use and ease of expansion make it an excellent interface for just
about any kind of peripheral.

RCA PS/2 (Keyboard and Mouse)

The RCA cable is simple. There are two connectors, usually male, one on each end The final interface we‘ll discuss is the PS/2 interface for mice and keyboards.
of the cable. The male connector connects to the female connector on the Essentially, it is the same connector for the cables from both items: a male mini-Din
equipment. An RCA male to RCA female connector is also available; it‘s used to 6 connector. Most keyboards today still use the PS/2 interface, whereas most mice
extend the reach of audio or video signals. are gravitating toward the USB interface (especially optical mice).

The RCA male connectors on a connection cable are sometimes plated in gold to
increase their corrosion resistance and to improve longevity.
PS/2 ( Keyboard and mouse ) USB

There are two types of connectors on USB cables: a long, flat rectangle for plugging
into computers and hubs called 'USB-A', and a smaller, square connector for
plugging into devices like external CD and Hard drives, scanners, and printers called
'USB-B

BIOS ( Also known as ROM BIOS and Firmware ) and CMOS

BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. The BIOS communicates between the computer and devices. The BIOS is usually stored in ROM. It was created by IBM to act
as a translator to run the same operating systems on different hardware platforms. When the operating system needs to access a piece of hardware, it would now ask the
BIOS, rather than just taking control of the hardware. The use of BIOS prevented programs from fighting over hardware. As lon g as the operating system (such as DOS)
uses the BIOS for its hardware requests, it can run on different hardware platforms. The BIOS creates a standard reference point for many different types of hardware.

BIOS Chip

Aside from the processor, the most important chip on the motherboard is the basic input/output system (BIOS) chip. This speci al
memory chip contains the BIOS software that tells the processor how to interact with the rest of the hardware in the computer. The
BIOS chip is easily identified: If you have a non-clone computer (Compaq, IBM, HP, and so on), this chip has on it the name of the
manufacturer and usually the word BIOS. For example, the BIOS chip for a Compaq has something like Compaq BIOS printed on it.
For clones, the chip usually has a sticker or printing on it .

Flashing : Process of upgrading BIOS.

CMOS

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor ) contains settings that determine how the computer is configured. These settings are user-configurable and can be
accessed through the CMOS setup program by pressing some key combination at startup (such as Shift+F1 or Ctrl+Shift+Esc). For example, one setting in CMOS controls
the boot sequence. The parameter is usually called boot sequence and can be set to either ―A: C:‖ or ―C: A:‖ (in most cases). Every CMOS setup program is different and
uses different commands for configuration. Usually, though, the CMOS setup program is menu driven and will present you with a list of settings that you can configure, as
well as the possible settings for them. When you‘re done configuring, you can press Esc and the CMOS setup program will ask you to press Enter to save the changes and
reboot. After rebooting, the computer will operate with the modified settings.

Your PC has to keep certain settings when it‘s turned off and its power cord is unplugged. Some of these settings include:
Date
Time
Hard drive configuration
Memory

Your PC keeps these settings in a special memory chip called the Complimentary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS RAM ) chip.

CMOS Battery
 To maintain CMOS RAM settings, it is essential to have power constantly. When you shut down the computer and it stops receiving
power supply , CMOS battery continues to provide power supply to CMOS RAM to main its contents.

BIOS and CMOS

Power-On Self Test

Every time a PC is powered on or reset using the Reset button or Windows Restart command, the computer is rebooted and reset to its basic operating condition. The
system BIOS program starts by invoking a special program (stored on a ROM chip) called the power-on self test (POST). It checks whether all the devices receive adequate
power supply ( Desktop circuits - + & - 5 volts , Laptop circuits - + & - 3.3 volts , all motors should receive + & - 12 volts ).

POST determines whether the computer will display errors by beeping or showing them on the screen. The POST does not assume the video works until it has been tested.
The POST does assume that the speaker always works, but to let you know that the speaker is working, all computers beep on st artup. Depending on the BIOS type, the
POST might also sound a single beep when it's done to let you know the boot process was successful. If something goes wrong, the POST sends a series of beep codes to
let you know what the problem is or where to start looking for it.

Beep Codes Before and During the Video Test

The purpose of the first POST test is to check the most basic components. The exact order, number of tests, and error states will vary from product to product. In a healthy
system, the POST reports by using a series of beep codes and screen messages to convey that all components are working. Then it transfers control to the boot drive,
which loads the operating system. The POST is a good indication that the hardware is in working status.

If a problem occurs, the POST routine attempts to report the problem. This is also done using beep codes and (if possible) screen prompts. Some error codes are specific to
chip sets or custom products, and the exact message and meaning can vary from system to system. The following table lists the basic beep codes for AMI and Phoenix
BIOS's.

Number of Beeps Possible Problem

01 DRAM refresh failure

 02 Parity circuit failure

03 Base 64 KB or CMOS RAM failure

04 System timer

05 Processor failure

06 Keyboard controller or Gate A20 error

07 Virtual mode exception error

08 Display monitor write/read test failure

09 ROM BIOS checksum error

10 CMOS RAM shutdown register failure

1 long, 3 short Conventional/extended memory test failure

1 long, 8 short Display test and display vertical and horizontal retrace test failure

Adapter Cards

An adapter card (also known as an expansion card) is simply a circuit board you install into a computer to increase the capabilities of that computer. Adapter cards come in
many different kinds, but the important thing to note is that no matter what function a card has, the card being installed must match the bus type of the motherboard you
are installing it into (for example, you can only install a PCI network card into a PCI expansion slot).

Four of the most common expansion cards that are installed today are as follows:

Video card
Network interface card (NIC)
Modem
Sound card
PCMCIA
Expansion slots in laptop computers

Let‘s take a quick look at each of these cards, their functions, and what they look like.
Video Card
A video adapter (more commonly called a video card) is the expansion
card you put into a computer in order to allow the computer to display
information on some kind of monitor or LCD display. A video card also is
responsible for converting the data sent to it by the CPU into the pixels,
addresses, and other items required for display. Sometimes, video cards
can include dedicated chips to perform certain of these functions, thus
accelerating the speed of display. With today‘s motherboards, most video
cards are AGP expansion cards that fit in the AGP slot on a motherboard.
Modem Modulator DeModulator(Internal Modem)
Any computer that connects to the Internet via a dial-up connection
needs a modem. A modem is a device that converts digital signals from a
computer into analog signals that can be transmitted over phone lines
and back again. These expansion card devices have one connector for
the expansion bus being used (PCI or ISA) and another for connection to
the telephone line. Actually, there are two RJ-11 ports: one for
Network Interface Card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is an expansion card that connects a computer to a network so
that it can communicate with other computers on that network. It translates the data from
the parallel data stream used inside the computer into the serial data stream of packets used
on the network. NIC card has one RJ45 connector. In addition to the NIC, you need to install
software or drivers on the computer in order for the computer to use the network.
Sound Card
Just as there are devices to convert computer signals into printouts and video information,
there are devices to convert those signals into sound. These devices are known as sound
cards. Many different manufacturers make sound cards, but the standard has been set by
Creative Labs with its SoundBlaster series of cards.
A sound card typically has small, round, 1/8-inch jacks on the back of it for connecting to
connection to the telephone line and the other for connection to a microphones, headphones, and speakers as well as other sound equipment. Many sound
telephone. This is the case primarily so that putting a computer online cards also have a DB-15 game port which can be used for either joysticks or Musical
still lets someone hook a phone to that wall jack (although they won‘t be Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) connections (allows a computer to talk to a digital musical
able to use the phone while the computer is connected to the Internet). instrument, like a digital keyboard or similar).

PCMCIA Expansion slots in laptop computers

Originally stood for ‗Peripheral Component Microchannel PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) are 16 bit slots that are
Interconnect Architecture‘ present in laptop computers. They are hot swappable and plug n play compatible. The cards
It was then renamed ‗Personal Computer Memory Card
that are connected to this slots are called ‗PC cards‘ or ‗PCMCIA cards‘ There are three types
International Association‘, referring to the standards organization
of PCMCIA slots/ cards
Version 2.0 specifications lead to the simpler name – ‗PC Cards‘

Type No of rows of pins Usage

Type I Single row of pins For memory cards.

Type II Two rows of pins For modems and LAN adapters

Type III Four rows of pins For PC card hard disks.

Adapter Cards

Types of NIC

There are different types of NICs available for different purposes. The major types are Wired NICs and wireless NICs. To connect a computer to a wired network a wired
NIC is used. To connect a computer to a wireless network, wireless NIC is used. The main difference between a wired NIC and a wireless NIC is - Wired NIC has an RJ 45
port, whereas a wireless NIC has small transreceiving circuit to send and receive signals. There are other types of NICs as w ell.

NIC Type Usage Slot/Port

PCI adapter Used for connecting a desktop computer to a Connected to PCI slot
(wired / wireless) wired / wireless network

PCMCIA adapter Used for connecting laptop computer to a Connected to Type II PCMCIA slot
(wired / wireless) wired / wireless network

USB adapter Used for connecting desktop / laptop Connected to USB port
(wired / wireless) computer to a wired / wireless network

Cardbus

Improved version of PCMCIA is cardbus. Cardbus allows for all the functions that are possible with PCMCIA cards, but with these improvements:

A 32-bit path is used for data transfer.

 The operating speed is several times greater.
CardBus works at lower battery voltage.

These CardBus cards can only be used with CardBus slots - they are keyed to prevent insertion into 16-bit slots so that the card and the slot won't be damaged by differing
voltage requirements. 16-bit cards work in either type of slot, but CardBus cards only work in CardBus slots. A CardBus card will have a gold grounding shield strip across it,
typically with 8 small metal bumps. This strip is necessary to prevent signal noise from interfering with CardBus high speed bus.

Cardbus PCMCIA

Display Devices

A way of getting information out of a computer is to use a computer display. Display systems convert computer signals into text and pictures and display them on a TV-like
screen. As a matter of fact, the first personal computers used television screens because it was simple to use an existing display technology rather than to develop a new
one. Several types of computer displays are in use today, including the TV. All of them use either the same cathode ray tube (CRT) technology found in television sets
(almost every desktop monitor uses this technology) or the liquid crystal display (LCD) technology found on all laptop, notebook and palmtop computers.

Video Technologies

Let‘s first talk about the different types of video technologies. There are four major types: monochrome, EGA/CGA, VGA, and Super VGA. Each type of video technology
differs in two major areas: the highest resolution it supports and the maximum number of colors in its palette. Resolution depends on how many picture units (called pixels )
are used to draw the screen. The more pixels, the sharper the image. The resolution is described in terms of the screen‘s dimensions, indicating how many pixels across
and down are used to draw the screen. For example, a resolution of 1,024 × 768 means 1,024 pixels across and 768 pixels down were used to draw the pixel grid. The
video technology in this example would use 786,432 (1,024 × 768 = 786,432) pixels to draw the screen.

Monochrome

The first video technology for PCs was monochrome (from the Latin mono, meaning one, and chroma, meaning color). This black-and-white video (actually, it was green
and white or amber and black) was fine for the main operating system of the day, DOS. DOS didn‘t have any need for color. Thus, the video adapter was very basic. The
first adapter, developed by IBM, was known as the Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA). It could display text but not graphics and used a resolution of 720 × 350 pixels.

EGA and CGA

The next logical step for displays was to add a splash of color. IBM was the first with color, with the introduction of the Color Graphics Adapter (CGA). CGA could display
text, but it displayed graphics with a resolution of only 320 × 200 pixels with four colors. It displayed a better resolution (640 × 200) with two colors—black and one other
color. After a time, people wanted more colors and higher resolution, so IBM responded with the Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA). EGA could display 16 colors out of a
palette of 64 with a resolution of 320 × 200 or 640 × 350 pixels.

Types of Monitors

Consumes less power and occupies less Is also flat, but consumes more power than LCD
Is bigger and bulkier when compared space, owing to its flat nature displays
to the more modern flat screens Reflective twisted pneumatic liquid crystal A grid of conductors are sealed between two flat
Consumes more power when display plates of glass; neon and/or argon gas fills the space
compared to flat screens Commonly used in notebooks, mobile between the plates
A beam of electrons lights up pixels on phones, calculators etc. Commonly used for TV displays
the screen. Has a larger maximum practical size & better
viewing angle than LCDs

Display Devices
VGA

The Video Graphics Array (VGA). This video technology had a whopping 256KB of video memory on board and could display 16 colors at 640 × 480 pixels or 256 colors at
320 × 200 pixels. It became widely used and has since become the standard for color PC video; it‘s the starting point for today‘s computers.

Super VGA

Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) enhanced IBM‘s video technology and make the enhanced technology a public standard. The result of this work was Super
VGA (SVGA). This new standard was indeed an enhancement, because it could support 256 colors at a resolution of 800 × 600 (the VESA standard), or 1,024 × 768 pixels
with 16 colors, or 640 × 480 with 65,536 colors.

XGA

IBM introduced a new technology in 1991 known as the Extended Graphics Array (XGA). XGA could support 256 colors at 1,024 × 768 pixels or 65,536 colors at 640 × 480
pixels. It was a different design, optimized for GUIs like Windows or OS/2. It was also an interlaced technology, meaning that rather than scan every line one at a time to
create the image, it scanned every other line on each pass, using the phenomenon known as persistence of vision to produce what appears to our eyes as a continuous
image.

Monitors

As we have already mentioned, a monitor contains a CRT. But how does it work? Basically, a device called an electron gun shoots electrons toward the back side of the
monitor screen. The back of the screen is coated with special chemicals (called phosphors) that glow when electrons strike them. This beam of electrons scans across the
monitor from left to right and top to bottom to create the image.

Dot pitch
The shortest distance between two dots of the same color on the monitor. Usually given in fractions of a millimeter (mm), the dot pitch tells how ―sharp‖ the picture is. The
lower the number, the closer together the pixels are, and, thus, the sharper the image. An average dot pitch is 0.28mm. Anything smaller than 0.28mm is considered great.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)

Portable computers were originally designed to be compact versions of their bigger brothers. They crammed all the components of
the big desktop computers into a small, suitcase-like box called a portable computer. No matter what the designers did to reduce
the size of the computer, the display remained as large as the desktop version‘s. That is, until an inventor found that when he
passed an electric current through a semi crystalline liquid, the crystals aligned themselves with the current. It was found that by
combining transistors with these liquid crystals, patterns could be formed. These patterns could represent numbers or letters. The
first application of these liquid crystal displays (LCD) was the LCD watch.

Printers

printers

Printers are considered standard PC components; they are often bundled with computers and sold to consumers as part of a complete package. The most common add-
ons, printers are manufactured in several popular forms. Like other devices, each type has unique advantages and disadvantages.

A printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper, transparent sheets, etc

Three of the most commonly used printers are

Dot matrix
Ink jet
Laser jet

Portable systems

PCMCIA content to be removed & would be better if it is added in the expansion slots in Motherboard module

Dot-Matrix Printers Ink-Jet Printers

A quick trip through a consumer electronics store might lead the average person to
believe the age of the dot-matrix printer is over. The home and home office
segments of the market are now the domain of the ink-jet and low-cost laser
products. Still, in business locations, where the ability to print several copies at once
is a driving factor, the loud and lowly dot-matrix still rules.
Ink-jet printers spray ink onto paper to form images. They produce good-quality
printing and—compared to dot-matrix and wax printers—they are relatively fast.
They also require little maintenance beyond cleaning and ink cartridge replacement.
Their ability to easily produce color as well as standard black-and-white images
makes them attractive.

Laser Printers

The laser printer has become the dominant form of computer output device, with models ranging from personal, low-volume,
desktop printers to behemoths that fill half a room and serve hundreds of users, churning out reams of pages every day.

All laser printers follow one basic engine design, similar to the one used in most office copiers. They are non impact devices that
precisely place a fine plastic powder (the toner) on paper. Although they cost more to purchase than most ink-jet printers, they
are much cheaper to operate per page, and the "ink" is permanent.

Printers

Printer Connection

There are eight major Printer connection types: serial, parallel, Universal Serial Bus (USB), network, infrared, SCSI, IEEE 1394, and wireless. You‘ve learned about these
connections earlier, but now you will learn how they apply to printers.

Serial Parallel
When computers send data serially, they send it one bit at a time, one after
another. The bits stand in line like people at a movie theater, waiting to get in. Just
as with modems, you must set the communication parameters (baud, parity, start
and stop bits) on both entities—in this case, the computer and its printer(s)—before
communication can take place.
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
The most popular type of printer interface as this book is being written is the
Universal Serial Bus (USB). In fact, it is the most popular interface for just about
every peripheral. The convenience for printers is that it has a higher transfer rate
than either serial or parallel and it automatically recognizes new devices.
Infrared
Infrared transmissions are simply wireless transmissions that use radiation in the
infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Many laser printers (and some
computers) come with infrared transmitter/receivers (transceivers) so that they can
communicate with the infrared ports on many handhelds. This allows the user of a
PDA, handheld, or laptop to print to that printer by pointing the device at the
printer and initiating the print process.
As far as configuring the interface is concerned, very little needs to be done. The
infrared interfaces are enabled by default on most computers, handhelds, and
printers equipped with them. The only additional item that must be configured is
the print driver on the PDA, handheld, or computer. The driver must be the correct
one for the printer to which you are printing.
IEEE 1394 Fire Wire
When a printer uses parallel communication, it is receiving data eight bits at a time
over eight separate wires (one for each bit). Parallel communication is the most
popular way of communicating from computer to printer, mainly because it‘s faster
than serial.
A parallel cable consists of a male DB-25 connector that connects to the computer
and a male 36-pin Centronics connector that connects to the printer. Most of the
cables are less than 10 feet long.
Network
Some of the newer printers (primarily laser and LED printers) have a special
interface that allows them to be hooked directly to a network. These printers have a
network interface card (NIC) and ROM-based software that allow them to
communicate with networks, servers, and workstations.
The type of network interface used on the printer depends on the type of network
the printer is being attached to. For example, if you‘re using a Token Ring network,
the printer should have a Token Ring interface.
SCSI
Only a few types of printers use SCSI interfaces to the PC, and most of them are
laser printers, dye-sublimation printers, or typesetters. When these printers were
introduced, they all came with an option for a SCSI interface.
The benefits in these situations were:
There could be more than one device on a single SCSI connection through
daisy chaining.
It was fairly simple to implement.
It had relatively large throughput compared to other interfaces of the
time.
Because of the advent of higher-speed peripheral connection methods, like IEEE
1394/Fire Wire and USB 2.0, SCSI interfaces for printers are rapidly becoming
obsolete.
Wireless
The IEEE 1394 interface (also known as Fire Wire—an Apple trademark) has had an
explosion of popularity recently. This interface has a maximum throughput of
800MBps, so more and more devices that need to send a lot of data in a short
period of time will use this interface. Printers used for tasks such as graphics and
typesetting that need to receive hundreds of megabytes of camera-ready art and
graphics have IEEE 1394 ports. Not many home printers use IEEE 1394.
Modem
Modem (from modulator-demodulator)
How Modems work ?
A modem modulates outgoing digital signals from a computer or other digital device to analog signals for a conventional copper twisted pair telephone line and
demodulates the incoming analog signal and converts it to a digital signal for the digital device.
The latest boom in printer interface technology is wireless (of many different kinds).
With the advent of IEEE 802.11b wireless networking it is possible for people to
roam around an office and still remain connected to each other and to their
corporate network. So, someone had the idea that it would be nice if printers could
be that mobile as well. Some printers either have built in 802.11b interfaces or are
hooked to 802.11b bridges with their built-in network cards. Another wireless
technology that has been gaining acceptance rapidly, especially among peripheral
manufacturers, is Blue tooth. Blue tooth is a wireless technology that is used to
replace the myriad of interface cables that run between your computer and all its
peripherals. It‘s not meant to work over long distances (its absolute maximum
range is 100 meters, and most devices are specified to work within 10 meters).
Printers like the HP 955c have Blue tooth capability.
When printing with a Blue tooth-enabled device (like a PDA or cell phone) and a
Blue tooth-enabled printer, all you need to do is get within range of the device (i.e.
move closer), select the print driver from the device, and select ―print‖. The
information is transmitted wirelessly, through the air using radio waves, and is
received by the device.
Types of modem

Dial up Modem

The client uses a dial up modem connected to a computer and a telephone line to dial into an Internet Service Provider's (ISP) node, which is then routed to the
Internet.These modems utilize traditional copper phone lines to transmit analog signals. The maximum speed delivered by a dial up modem is 56 Kbps. Dial up modems can
be installed inside a PC in an expansion slot or attached to the PC externally through a serial or USB port.

Internal Dial up modem

As the name suggests, this type of dial up modem is installed inside a PC in an expansion slot. It has 2 RJ11 ports - one connected to the line and the other connected to
the phone.
Cable Modem

A cable modem is a type of modem that provides access to a data signal sent over the cable television infrastructure.Because the coaxial cable used by cable TV
provides much greater bandwidth than telephone lines, a cable modem can be used to achieve extremely fast access to the internet.

DSL Modem

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a very high-speed connection that uses the same cables as a regular telephone line. Unlike dial up modem, both the internet and the phone
(for calls) can be used at the same time.
Portable Systems

Laptop Architecture

Laptop Architecture Laptops are similar to desktop computers in architecture in that they contain many parts that perform similar functions. However, the parts that make
up a laptop are completely different from those in desktop computers. They are physically much smaller and lighter, and they must fit into the compact space of a laptop's
case. Also, laptop parts are designed to consume less power and to shut themselves off when not being used (although many desktops have so me components that go into
a low-power state when not active, such as video circuitry). Finally, most laptop components (especially the motherboard) are proprietary-the LCD screen from one laptop
will not necessarily fit on another.

Comparing Laptops to Desktops

If you've ever shopped for a laptop, you have no doubt noticed that the prices of desktop PCs keep dropping, whereas the prices of notebook computers stay about the
same. If you've ever wondered what makes a laptop so much different than a PC, here are the primary differences between lapto ps and desktops:

Portability Cost

This is probably the most obvious difference. Laptops are designed to be portable.
They run on batteries, so you aren't tied to one spot at home or at the office.
Networking options are now available that allow you to connect to a network
wirelessly and do work from just about anywhere, including malls, airports and so
on. As anyone who's tried to bring their full-tower PC to a LAN party can tell you,
desktops just aren't that portable.
Laptops cost more-sometimes as much as 60 to 80 percent more-than similar
desktop computers with similar features. The primary reason is that portability
requires small components and unique (proprietary) designs for those components
so they fit into the small size necessary. Miniature versions of components cost
more money than standard size (desktop) versions.

Building Your Own Performance

You can't build your own laptop. Because laptop components are designed to fit
exacting specifications to fit properly inside the notebook, there generally are no
universal motherboards, video boards, and so on for laptops. Memory and hard
drives are the exception. You can get different brands of memory and hard drives
for laptops, but you can't buy a motherboard from one company and the video
circuitry from another. Even things as mundane as floppy drives are designed to
work only with a specific model.
Expandability
Because desktop computers were designed to be modular, their capabilities can be
upgraded quite easily. It is next to impossible to upgrade the processor or
motherboard on most laptops.
Portable Systems ( Components of a Laptop)
Laptop Case
A typical laptop case is made up of three main parts: the display(usually an LCD
display), the case frame(the metal reinforcing structure inside the laptop that
provides rigidity and strength and that most components mount to), and the
laptop's case itself (the plastic cover that surrounds the components and provides
protection from the elements).
Memory
By and large, laptops are always going to loose out somewhere in the performance
department. Because compromises have to be made between performance and
portability, performance is what usually suffers. While it is possible to have laptops
with comparable performance to a desktop, the amount of money one would have
to spend for a "desktop replacement" laptop is considerable. This is not to say that
a laptop can't outperform a laptop, it's just that the "bang for the buck" factor is
higher in a desktop.
Quality of Construction
Considering how much abuse laptops get, it is much more important that the
materials construction of the laptop case and other components be extremely
durable. Not that it isn't important in a desktop-but it's more important in a laptop.
Motherboard and Supporting Circuitry
The motherboard of a laptop is the backbone structure to which all internal
components connect. However, with a laptop, almost all components are integrated
onto the motherboard, including onboard circuitry for the serial, parallel, USB, IEEE
1394, video, expansion, and network ports of the laptop.
Storage
Notebooks don't use standard desktop computer memory chips. In fact, until fairly
recently, there were no standard types of memory chips. If you wanted to add
memory to your laptop, you had to order it from the laptop manufacturer (and
usually pay a premium over and above a similar-sized desktop memory chip).
However, there are now two main types of laptop memory package: The Small
Outline DIMM (SoDIMM) and the Micro DIMM.
Just like desktop computers, most laptops have a hard drive. However, not all
laptops have both a floppy drive and a CD-ROM drive. Many times there just isn't
room for both. So, often there is a drive bay that can be used to hold either drive. If
this drive bay exists, users generally keep the CD-ROM drive installed most of the
time and leave out the floppy drive. In some cases, the floppy drive is an external
device that you connect with a special cable to a proprietary connector. Laptops
don't have the room for the full-size 3 1/2 - inch hard drives that desktop computers
use. Instead, they use a small-form-factor hard drive that's only 2 1/2 - inches wide
and less than 1/2 - inch thick!
Laptop CD-ROM drives come in many different kinds, just like desktop CD-ROM
drives. You can get standard CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD, DVD-RAM, and
(probably the most popular option) CD-RW/DVD-ROM drives that can both burn CDs
and play DVD movies.

Displays

Laptops normally use liquid crystal displays (LCD) that are integrated into the case. These LCD displays are designed to consume
less power and be more portable than other display types.

A laptop's display takes the most power to run. It is also the device that drains the battery the fastest when the laptop is running
on batteries only. Because the technology behind LCD displays is complex, there are almost no service procedures for the display
in a laptop. Most often, when the display is broken, it can be removed by a service technician (usually the display is only held in
with a few screws and a plastic bezel) and exchanged with the manufacturer for a new one. This procedure may be under
warranty (depending on the length of the manufacturer's warranty). One particular sore spot with laptop owners and
manufacturers is the phenomenon known as bad pixels( Bad Pixels happens when a particular matrix in display goes bad).

Input Devices
Keyboards

A standard-size desktop keyboard wasn‘t designed to be portable. It wouldn‘t fit well with the portable nature of a laptop. That usually means laptop keys are not normal
size; they must be smaller and packed together more tightly. People who learned to type on a typewriter or regular computer often have a difficult time adjusting to a
laptop keyboard because the keys are smaller and closer together. Laptop keyboards are built into the lower portion of the cl amshell. Sometimes, they can be removed
easily to access peripherals below them (like memory and hard drives, as in the IBM Think pad series). Because of the much smaller space available for keys, some laptop
keys (like the number pad, Home, Insert, PgUp, and PgDn keys) are consolidated into special multifunction keys. These keys are accessed through the standard keys by
using a special function key (usually labeled Fn).

Mice and Pointing Devices

In addition to the keyboard, you must have a method of controlling the on-screen pointer in the Windows interface. There are many methods of doing this, but the most
common are as follows:

Trackball
Touch pad
Touch point
 Touch screen

Most laptops today include a mouse/keyboard port, a USB port, or both. Either of these ports can be used to add an input device like a mouse or a standard-sized
keyboard.

PCMCIA (PC Card) Expansion Bus

PCMCIA‘s bus width is either 16-bit or 32-bit, as discussed. Also, PC Cards support only one IRQ (a problem if you need to install in a PC Card bus two devices that both
need interrupts). PC Cards also do not support bus mastering or Direct Memory Access (DMA). However, because of its flexibility, PCMCIA has quickly become a very
popular bus for all types of computers (not just laptops).

Three major types of PC Cards (and slots) are in use today. Each has different uses and physical characteristics. Coincidentally, they are called Type I, Type II, and Type
III:

Type I cards are 3.3mm thick and are most commonly used for memory cards.
Type II cards are 5mm thick and are mostly used for modems and LAN adapters. This is the most common PC Card type found today, and most systems have at
least two Type II slots (or one Type III slot).
The Type III slot is 10.5mm thick. Its most common application is PC Card hard disks. Developers have been slowly introducing these devices to the market.

In addition to the card, the PC Card architecture includes two other components:

Socket Services software is a BIOS-level interface to the PCMCIA bus slot. When loaded, it hides the details of the PC Card hardware from the computer. This
software can detect when a card has been inserted and what type of card it is.
Card Services software is the interface between the application and Socket Services. It tells the applications which interrupts and I/O ports the card is using.
Applications that need to access the PC Card don‘t access the hardware directly; instead, they tell Card Services that they n eed access to a particular feature, and Card
Services gets the appropriate feature from the PC Card.
USB Ports

Just as desktops do, laptops use USB ports for expansion. However, because of the lack of internal expansion in laptops, most peripherals for laptops are either found as PC
Cards or USB expansion devices.
Mouse/Keyboard Port

Just in case you don‘t like using your laptop‘s built-in keyboard or pointing device, most laptops come with a combination keyboard/mouse port that allows you to connect
either an external keyboard or an external mouse to the laptop. On laptops that don‘t have USB ports, this port is most often used for a standard PS/2 mouse. On those
laptops that do have USB ports, this port is used for an external keypad or keyboard (because the USB port can accommodate an external mouse).

Infrared Port

Laptops were the first computers to use infrared ports regularly. Handheld computers had them before that (including the Palm Pilot and HPC platforms). This port is used
for several reasons, although one of the most common uses is to send information to another device (like a Palm Pilot).

Networking

In addition to expansion buses and ports, most laptops today include support for some kind of network. Because it is the most common, the majority of laptops include
support for 10BaseT or 100BaseT (usually both) in the form of an RJ-45 connector. The circuitry for the network is included in the motherboard . Some of the newest
laptops include support for wireless network connections (typically 802.11b or 802.11g) built into the laptop. The laptop can then connect to a network wirelessly, without
the need for a PC Card or a built-in NIC.

Power Systems

Since portable computers have unique characteristics as a result of their portability, they have unique power systems as well. Portable computers can use either of two
power sources: batteries or AC power. There are many different sizes and shapes of batteries, but most of them are Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad), Lithium Ion (LiIon), or Nickel
Metal Hydride (NiMH). All of these perform equally well, but NiCad batteries can only be recharged a finite number of times. After a time, they develop a memory and must
be recharged on a special deep-charging machine. NiMH and LiIon batteries don't usually develop a memory and can be recharged many times, but they're a little more
expensive. Some of the much smaller handheld or palmtop computers can use any of these types of battery, but a few vendors like Hewlett-Packard took a more common-
sense approach: They designed their handhelds to use standard AA batteries(size of the battery). Most notebook computers can also use AC power with a special adapter
(called an AC adapter) that converts AC power into DC power. The adapter either is integrated into the notebook (as on some Compaq notebooks) or is a separate "brick"
with a cord that plugs into the back of the laptop.