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Lecture 10
Lecture 10
Plan:
1. Variational method
2. Rayleigh-Ritz trial functions
3. Derivation of the secular equation
4. H2+ ion – full problem and associated challenges
5. Born-Oppenheimer approximation the electronic Hamiltonian
6. Solving the secular equation for the H2+ molecule
References:
1. Merzbacher chapter 8.
2. Lowe, chapter 7.
3. Dahl Chapter 12 and 13.
The variation method
The problem: in most cases of physical interest the eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian
cannot be readily found. In such cases one needs to resort to a systematic procedure for
searching for functions which approximate the eigenfunctions. The calculus of variations
provides us with a powerful tool for solving such problems where H is known but not
un and En .
The variation method is based on the idea that if we try to find a trial function φ that
minimizes average E it will be greater or equal than the true ground state eigenfunctions
un .
∞
∫φ
∗
Hˆ φ dv
E = Hˆ = -∞
∞
≥ Eground state
∫ φ φ dv
∗
-∞
Proof:
Because H is Hermitian its true eigenfunctions are a complete set therefore any function
and in particular the trial function can be expanded in terms of eigenfunctions:
n
χ ( x ) = ∑ cn un ( x )
i =1
n
χ Hˆ χ = ∑ cn En
2
i =1
and
n
χ χ = ∑ cn
2
i =1
For E = Hˆ = Eground it is necessary and sufficient for all cn = 0 except for n=1.
Note: it is possible to find eigenvalues other than the ground energy using the variation
method:
χ Hˆ χ
∑c
i , j =1
∗
i φi Hˆ φ j c j
H = =
χ χ N
∑c c
i , j =1
∗
i j
∂
∑φ i Hˆ φ j c j ∑ ci∗c j − ci ∑ ci∗ φi Hˆ φ j c j
H =
j =1 i , j =1 i , j =1
=0
∂ci∗ N
2
∑ ci c j
∗
i , j =1
N
N N
→ ∑ φi Hˆ φ j c j ∑ ci∗c j = ci ∑ ci∗ φi Hˆ φ j c j
j =1 i , j =1 i , j =1
N
N ∑c ∗
i φi Hˆ φ j c j
∑φ i Hˆ φ j c j = ci
N
i , j =1
= Hˆ ci = Eci
∑ ci c j
j =1 ∗
i , j =1
Yielding n equations with n unknowns since for each ci there is a separate equation, E
being the expectation value corresponding to the optimal choice of the trial function. This
equation is known as the secular equation and we are looking for it’s roots (i.e the E
values).
∑( φ )
n
i Hˆ φ j − δ ij E c j = 0
j =1
in matrix notation,
H11 − E H12 .... H1n c1
H 21 H 22 − E c2 = 0
=
M M
H n1 H nn − E cn
H ij = ∫ φi Hˆ φ j dv
Sij = ∫ φiφ j dv
Thus the problem of finding the approximate eigenfunctions and corresponding energy
spectrum has been transformed from one that involves functions and minimization to an
algebraic problem.
The Ritz Theorem: The expectation value of the Hamiltonian is stationary in the vicinity
of its discrete eigenvalues.
All of the intelligence goes into choosing a “good” trial function, which already contains
in it a large amount of the true eigenfunction. The trial function is chosen with the aid of
physical insight. Hartree Fock method for calculating eigenfunctions of many electron
Hamiltonians is also an example of the variation method.
The problem:
r1
r2 R
B
II] Write the full Hamiltonian
2 r 2 r 2 r
h h h e 2
e 2
e 2
Hˆ ( RA , RB , r , PA , PB , p ) = − ∇r − 2
∇A −
2
∇B + − − +
2
3 nuclear{
2me 2m p 2m p r1 r2 R
1424 3 1424
KE of electron electron-nucleus repulsion
attraction energy
where,
r r r
r1 = r − RA
r r r
r2 = r − RB
In general the wave functions should contain all of the coordinates of the system
Because the protons are 1836 times heavier than the electrons they have much smaller
velocity this means that at the time scales associated with the electronic movement the
protons are stationary.
(1) The electronic wavefunctions depend only on the positions of the nuclei and not
on their momentum
(2) The positions of the protons are a parameter not a QM variable
(3) Protons have a fixed separation R just add a constant to the energy.
(4) Reduce the three body problem to an electron in a potential
(5) The Hamiltonian is separable
h2 r 2 e2 e2 e2
H el − nr = −
ˆ ∇r − − +
2me r1 r2 R
14442444 3
electronic energy H el
Hˆ elec uelec ( r ) = Eelec uelec ( r )
Eelec + Enuc nuc rep = Eelec + e 2 / R
What we have is a functional dependence of the electronic energy on the nuclear
separation Eelec ( R) .
h r 2
2
h r 2 2
e 2
H ( RA , RB ) = −
ˆ ∇A + − ∇ B + Eelec ( R ) +
2m p 2m p {R
nuclear repulsion
energy
Hˆ nuc ( RA , RB ) unuc ( RA , RB ) = Enuc unuc ( RA , RB )
These eigenfunction reperesent the translation, rotation and vibration states of the crystal.
Assume that our solution can be written as a linear combination of atomic orbitals
r r r
χ ( r ) = c1 u100 ( r1 ) + c2 u100 ( r2 )
123 1424 3
φ1 φ2
−r
r 1 a0
u100 ( r1 ) = e
π
where
r r r
r1 = r − RA
r r r
r2 = r − RB
The justification for this choice is that when the atoms are infinitely far apart (separated
atom limit) the eigenfunctions should be the exact hydrogen atom functions.
Since this wave function is not an energy eigenfunction we would like to minimize the
average energy or the expectation value with respect to the coefficients,
∫ χ Hˆ χ dv
Eav = Hˆ = -∞
∞
-∞
∫ χχ dv
c u ( rr ) + c u ( rr ) Hˆ c u ( rr ) + c u ( rr ) dv( )
∫ 1 123
100 1
1424
2 100
32
1 100 1 2 100 2
E ( c1 , c2 ) =
φ1 φ2
r r r r
( )(
∫ c1 u100 ( r1 ) + c2u100 ( r2 ) c1 u100 ( r1 ) + c2 u100 ( r2 ) dv )
We are now going to apply the variation principle to allow us to find the function
which minimizes E (Cauchy Reiman Theorem).
∂E
=0
∂ci
Minimizing the energy expectation value with respect to the coefficients leads us to
the determinant problem,
( H11 − ES11 ) c1 + ( H12 − ES12 ) c2 = 0
( H 21 − ES 21 ) c1 + ( H 22 − ES22 ) c2 = 0
We get two solutions for the approximate eigenfunctions, where we have used the
normalization condition
∫ χχ dv = 1
= ∫ ( c1u100 ( r1 ) + c2u100 ( r2 ) ) dv = c12 ∫ u100 ( r1 ) dv + c22 ∫ u100 ( r2 ) dv + 2c1 c2 ∫ u100 ( r1 ) u100 ( r2 )dv
2 2 2
= c + c + 2c1 c2 = 1
2
1
2
2
which leads to the normalization coefficients for the two approximate eigenfunctions
r
χσ ( r ) =
1
( u ( rr ) + u ( rr ) )
2 (1 + S )
100 1 100 2
r
χσ ∗ ( r ) =
1
( u ( rr ) − u ( rr ) )
2 (1 − S )
100 1 100 2
Eσ < Eσ ∗
Take a closer look at the integrals,
Get a number of integrals which we will label in the following way:
r r
∫u 100 ( r1 ) Hu
ˆ
100 ( r1 ) dr ≡ H11
r r
∫u 100 ( r2 ) Hu
ˆ
100 ( r2 ) dr ≡ H 22
r r
∫u 100 ( r1 ) Hu
ˆ
100 ( r2 ) dr ≡ H12
r r
∫u 100 ( r2 ) Hu
ˆ
100 ( r1 ) dr ≡ H 21
r r
∫u ( r1 ) u100 ( r1 ) dr ≡ S11 = 1 r
since u100 ( ri ) is orthonormal
100
r r
∫u 100 ( r2 ) u100 ( r2 ) ≡ S 22 = 1
r r
100 ( r1 ) u100 ( r2 ) dr ≡ S12
∫u r r
r r ≠ 0 overlap integral u100 ( ri ) u100 ( rj ) are non-orthogonal
∫u 100 ( r2 ) u100 ( r1 ) dr ≡ S 21
The second term in the coulomb integral describes the attractive electrostatic
interaction between the proton B and the electron around proton A tends to lower the
energy.
r h2 2 e2 r r e2 r
= ∫ u100 ( r1 ) − ∇ − u100 ( r2 ) dr − ∫ u100 ( r1 ) u100 ( r2 ) dr
14444442444444 2m r2
3 1444424444
r1
3
E1S resonant integral
The interaction leads to the splitting and the creation of two energy levels
H atom energy
1 e2
− E+ +
2 R
H11 − H12
= E−
1 − S12
Energy (a.u= 27.21eV)
H11
−1 H11 + H12
= E+
1 + S12
1. Odd and even wave functions the odd wavefunction has a node which is located
between the two nucluei.
2. Draw the wavefunction evaluated along the internuclear separation line.
bonding anti
bonding
Et
Et
Ro R Ro R
5. The lower electron eigenfunction or state has a corresponding minimum in the
total energy while the higher energy electon state rise monotonically.
6. The internuclear distance at which the system acheives a minimum is the bond
length which is 2 R0
7. The energy minimum in the lower curve indicates a stable molecule and the
corresponding MO is call bonding MO. The other MO is called antibonding.
8. The electron in the bonding state will have a wavefunction that leads to a high
probability of finding the electron in between the nuclei –this allows for the
attractive e-p forces to offset the repulsive p-p interactions.
9. Near the minimum energy,
K
E ; ( R − R0 )
2
2
K – is the bond stiffness.