UNIT-1: Earth atmosphere its composition, extent and structure;

Atmospheric weather variables: Atmospheric pressure, its variation with

height.
AGROMETEOROLOGY
Definition of Agro-meteorology: Agro-meteorology is abbreviated from
agricultural meteorology and is also referred to as agro-climatology.
i. Agro-meteorology, as the name indicates, is the study of those aspects of
meteorology which have direct relevance to agriculture. It is the branch of
science which investigates the relationship between plants and climate.
OR
ii. Agro-meteorology is defined as “Science investigating the
meteorological, climatologic and hydrologic conditions which are
significant for agriculture owing to their interaction with the objects and
processes of agricultural production”.
Use of Agro-meteorology in Crops and Animals:
Crops:
i. It can be used in regulating the plant cycle, growth, development and yield.
ii. It can be used in frost prediction and protection of crop plants.
iii. It can be used in giving the warning against the forest fires and cyclonic
storm / dust storm.
iv. It can be used in soil and water conservation.
v. It is helpful in planning irrigation.
vi. It is helpful in controlling the insects and plant diseases.
vii. It is helpful in controlling the pollution of air and water.
viii. It can be used to minimise the losses caused by heavy rain, floods and hail
storm.
ix. Modification of microclimate of crop fields can be made to improve the
health of the crop plants. As a result, the yield of the crop increases under
modified microclimatic conditions.
Animals:
i. It can be used to regulate the animal cycle, i.e. growth, by-product and yield
(milk, eggs and meat).
ii. It can be used in designing animal houses. The houses for the animals can be
designed scientifically to save the animals from various climatic stresses such as
heat and cold waves which affect the production.
iii. It affects the growth of the pastures, and the health of the animals depends
on the selection of the pastures. The pastures are not good in cur climate but
these are very good in the cool and temperate climates.
iv. It can be used in the prediction and prevention of animal diseases.
Agro-meteorology as an interdisciplinary science: Agro-meteorology is
essentially an inter-disciplinary science because the atmosphere, land and ocean
constitute an integrated system. This has linkages with forestry, horticulture and
animal husbandry. The agro-meteorologist requires not only a sound knowledge
of meteorology but also of agronomy, plant physiology, plant and animal
pathology, in addition to common agricultural practices.
The study of agro-meteorology involves:
1. Atmospheric science
2. Soil science
3. Plant science
4. Animal science
 Atmospheric and soil science involves physical and chemical
environment.
 Plant science and animal science involves subjects like Pathology,
Entomology, Parasitology, Physiology etc.
 As an interdisciplinary science, Agro-meteorology uses four stage
approaches to deal with the subject.
1. Formulate accurate description of physical environment and biological
responses.
2. Interpret biological response in terms of physical environment.
3. Weather and crop yield forecasts.
4. Control physical environment of crop fields and animal houses.
 The three basic aspects of meteorology are observation, understanding
and prediction of weather. There are many kinds of routine
meteorological observations. Some of them are made with simple
instruments like the thermometer for measuring temperature or the
anemometer for recording wind speed.
 The observing techniques have become increasingly complex in recent
years and satellites have now made it possible to monitor the weather
globally.
 Countries around the world exchange the weather observations through
fast telecommunication channels. These are plotted on weather charts and
analysed by professional meteorologists at forecasting centres. Weather
forecasts are then made with the help of modern computers and super
computers.
 Weather information and forecasts are of vital importance to many
activities like agriculture, aviation, shipping, fisheries, tourism, defence,
industrial projects, water management and disaster mitigation. Recent
advances in satellite and computer technology have lead to significant
progress in meteorology. Our knowledge of the weather is, however, still
incomplete.
Earth atmosphere its composition, extent and structure: Earth is a unique
planet because the life is found only on this planet. The air has a special place
among the conditions necessary for life.
 The air is a mixture of several gases. The air encompasses the earth from
all sides. The air surrounding the Earth is called the atmosphere.
 The atmosphere is an integral part of our Earth. It is connected with the
earth due to the gravitational force of the earth. It helps in stopping the
 ultra violet rays harmful for the life and maintains the suitable
temperature necessary for life.
 The air is essential for the survival of all forms of life on the earth. You
cannot imagine any kind of life in the absence of it. The atmosphere is
like a large protective cover.
 Besides many gases, water vapour and dust particles are also found in the
atmosphere.
 Due to these all kinds of changes take place in the atmosphere you will
study in this topic. The composition and structure of the atmosphere and
the cyclic process of main gases are as follows.
Composition of Atmosphere: The atmosphere is made up of different types of
gases, water vapour and dust particles. The composition of the atmosphere is
not static. It changes according to the time and place.

(A) Gases of the atmosphere: The atmosphere is the mixture of different

types of gases, including water vapour and dust particles.
 Nitrogen and Oxygen are the two main gases of the atmosphere. 99
percent part of it is made up of these two gases.
 Other gases like Argon, Carbon dioxide, Hydrogen, Neon and Helium
etc. form the remaining part of atmosphere.
 Amount of gases in the dry air of the atmosphere.
Serial Gas Amount (in percentage)
No.
A Main
1. Nitrogen 78.1 99%
2. Oxygen 28.9
B Secondary

1. Argon 0.9 0.99%

2. Carbon Dioxide 0.03
3. Hydrogen 0.01
4. Neon 0.0018
5. Helium 0.0005
6. Ozone 0.00006
7. Others 0.1%

Ozone Gas: The amount of ozone gas in the atmosphere is very little. It is
limited to the ozone layer but it is very important. It protects the living beings
by absorbing the ultraviolet rays of the sun. If there was no ozone gas in the
atmosphere, there would not have been existence of living beings and plants on
the earth surface.
 (B) Water vapour: Gaseous form of water present in the atmosphere is
called water vapour. Water vapour present in the atmosphere has made
life possible on the earth.
 Water vapour is the source of all kinds of precipitation. Its maximum
amount in the atmosphere could be up to 4 percent. Maximum amount of
water vapour is found in hot-wet regions and its least amount is found in
the dry regions.
 Generally, the amount of water vapour goes on decreasing from low
latitudes to high latitudes. In the same way, its amount goes on
decreasing with increasing altitude. Water vapour reaches in the
atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration.
 Evaporation takes place in the oceans, seas, rivers, ponds and lakes while
transpiration takes place from the plants, trees and living beings.
(C) Dust Particles: Dust particles are generally found in the lower layers of
the atmosphere. These particles are found in the form of sand, smoke and
oceanic salt.
 Sand particle have important place in the atmosphere. These dust
particles help in the condensation of water vapour.
 During condensation water vapour gets condensed in the form of droplets
around these dust particles. Due to this process the clouds are formed and
precipitation is made possible.
Importance of the Atmosphere:
1. Oxygen is very important for the living beings.
2. Carbon dioxide is very useful for the plants.
3. Dust particles present in the atmosphere create suitable conditions for the
precipitation.
4. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere goes on changing and
directly affects the plants and living beings.
 5. Ozone protects all kinds of life on the earth from the harmful ultra violet
rays of the sun.
Structure of Earth Atmosphere: The atmosphere is an integral part of the
earth. It surrounds the earth from all sides. Generally it extends up to about
1600 kilometres from the earth’s surface. 97 percent of the total amount of
weight of the atmosphere is limited up to the height of about 30 kilometres. The
atmosphere can be divided into five layers according to the diversity of
temperature and density.
(a) Troposphere (d) Ionosphere
(b) Stratosphere (e) Exosphere
(c) Mesosphere
(a) TROPOPHERE: - This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. The
height of this layer is about 18 km on the equator and 8 km on the poles.
The main reason of higher height at the equator is due to presence of hot
convection currents that push the gases upward.
 This is the most important layer of the atmosphere because all kinds of
weather changes take place only in this layer. Due to these changes
development of living world take place on the earth. The air never
remains static in this layer. Therefore this layer is called changing sphere
or troposphere.
 The environmental temperature decreases with increasing height of
atmosphere. It decreases at the rate of 100C at the height of 165 metre.
This is called Normal lapse rate.
 The upper limit of the troposphere is called tropopause. This is a
transitional zone. In this zone characteristics of both the troposphere and
ionosphere are found.
(b) STRATOSPHERE: This layer is above the troposphere. This layer is
spread up to the height of 50 km from the Earth’s surface. Its average
extent is 40 km.
 The temperature remains almost the same in the lower parts of this layer
upto the height of 20 km. After this the temperature increases slowly with
the increase in the height. The temperature increases due to the presence
of ozone gas in the upper part of this layer.
 Weather related incidents do not take place in this layer. The air blows
horizontally here. Therefore this layer is considered ideal for flying of
aircrafts.
(c) MESOSPHERE: It is the third layer of the atmosphere spreading over
stratosphere. It spreads up to the height of 80 km from the surface of the
earth. Its extent is 30 km.
 Temperature goes on decreasing and drops up to – 1000C.
  ‘Meteors’ or falling stars occur in this layer.
(d) IONOSPHERE: This is the fourth layer of the atmosphere. It is located
above the mesosphere. This layer spreads up to the height of 400 km
from the surface of the earth. The width of this layer is about 300 km.
 The temperature starts increasing again with increasing height in this
layer.
 Electrically charged currents flows in the air in this sphere. Radio waves
are reflected back on the earth from this sphere and due to this radio
broadcasting has become possible.
(e) EXOSPHERE: This is the last layer of the atmosphere located above
ionosphere and extends to beyond 400 km above the earth.
 Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to the lack of gravitational force.
Therefore, the density of air is very less here.
Importance of layers of Atmosphere
 Change of weather take place only in troposphere.
 Change of weather conditions does not take place in stratosphere. This is
an ideal layer for flying aeroplanes.
 Ions are found in abundance in ionosphere. Ionosphere reflects back the
radio waves to the earth and makes possible the communication system.
 Density of air is the least in the exosphere.
Atmospheric Weather Variables
1. Atmospheric Pressure: Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area
exerted by the weight of the air. In general it is the pressure differences in
space and time that we are interested in. The spatial differences that we
measure along the surface of the Earth give useful information about the
local wind. The day to day changes at one location tell us what kind of
weather to expect. Usually, rising pressure brings fair weather and falling
pressure brings poor weather. We show the pressure corrected to sea
level. The units of pressure are hectopascals (hPa).
2. Humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the air. If
there is a lot of water vapour in the air, the humidity will be high. The
higher the humidity, the wetter it feels outside.
 On the weather reports, humidity is usually explained as relative
humidity. Relative humidity is the amount of water vapour actually in the
air, expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount of water vapour
the air can hold at the same temperature.
 Think of the air at a chilly -10 degrees Celsius (14 degrees Fahrenheit).
At that temperature, the air can hold, at most, 2.2 grams of water per
cubic meter. So if there are 2.2 grams of water per cubic meter when its
-10 degrees Celsius outside, we're at an uncomfortable 100 percent
relative humidity. If there was 1.1 grams of water in the air at -10 degrees
Celsius, we're at 50 percent relative humidity.
 When humidity is high, the air is so clogged with water vapour. If you
sweat when its humid, it can be hard to cool off because your sweat
cannot evaporate into the air like it needs to.
 Humidity is blamed for all kinds of negative things, including mold in
your house (usually the bathroom, where it’s wet a lot of the time), as
well as malfunctions in regular household electronics. 
 Moisture from humid air settles, or condenses, on electronics. This can
interrupt the electric current, causing a loss of power. Computers and
television sets can lose power like this if not protected from the effects of
humidity.
 Living with humidity is easier with the aid of a dehumidifier, which sucks
moisture out of the air.
 High humidity is also associated with hurricanes. Air with high moisture
content is necessary for a hurricane to develop. U.S. states such as Texas
and Louisiana, which border the very warm Gulf of Mexico, have
humid climates.
  This results in tons of rainfall, lots of flooding and the occasional
hurricane. If the temperature goes down and the amount of water vapour
does not change then the humidity will go up. Relative humidity is
expressed in percent (%).

3. Rain: Rainfall is measured using a tipping bucket rain gauge that doesn't
have to be emptied. An event is recorded when about one quarter
millimetre of rain falls. Total daily rainfall is stored as a running total that
is reset to zero each day at midnight.
4. Incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation): The solar radiation sensor on
the weather station measures the intensity of sunlight reaching the Earth's
surface. This radiation is coming from the entire sky, not just the sun. It is
interesting to note the effect of closely approaching clouds.

Reflection of energy from clouds often causes a noticeable peak in the strength
of the intensity. The intensity of the incoming radiation is measured in Watts
per square metre (Wm-2).
5. Temperature: The weather station contains a temperature sensor in a
special chamber that is shielded from direct exposure to the sun. The
shield is ventilated to allow air to circulate over the sensor. Temperature
is measured in degrees Celsius (°C).
6. Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation: Some of the energy that comes from the sun reaches
us in the form of ultraviolet light. This kind of light is responsible for causing the skin to burn.
The UV sensor on the weather station allows us to report the UV index during the course of
the day. Here is a table of UV index values and your risk of exposure to the sun. Human skin
comes in a wide range of sun sensitivity. Some skin type’s burn more quickly at a particular
UV Index than others.

UV Index Exposure Risk

0-2 Low
3-5 Moderate
6-7 High
8 - 10 Very High
11+ Extreme
7. Wind Speed: Wind speed is measured with a anemometer. This device
spins in the wind in such a way that the rate of spin is proportional to the
wind speed. We store the wind speed in metres per second (ms-1) and
display it in kilometres per hour (kmhr-1). Wind speed is variable at
different timescales. The wind speed is also available in the Beaufort
wind rose. A wind rose is a histogram of wind directions. This plot
combines the observed directions and speeds (as Beaufort numbers). The
speeds are drawn as coloured segments of each bar in the rose.
8. Wind Direction: The direction of wind is measured using a weather
vane. In our case it is a simple device that rotates to point into the wind,
to indicate in what direction the wind is coming from. We store the
direction as degrees from north and report it both in degrees and using
compass headings. We plot the wind direction in two ways.
 In the first, we show wind direction as a function of time through the day,
week or month.
 In the second, we plot a wind rose which shows the relative amount of
time the wind blows from a particular direction.
9. Dew Point: The dew point temperature is the temperature to which the
air must cool for it to reach saturation, for a given pressure and humidity.
If the air temperature cools to the dew point, dew will form. If the dew
point temperature is less than zero, frost will form.
10. Air motion: In atmospheric circulation, any atmospheric flow used to
refer to the general circulation of the Earth and regional movements of air
around areas of high and low pressure.

 On average, this circulation corresponds to large-scale wind systems

arranged in several east–west belts that encircle the Earth. In the
subtropical high-pressure belts near latitudes 30° N and 30° S (the horse
latitudes), air descends and causes the trade winds to blow westward and
equator ward at the Earth’s surface.
 11.Sea surface: Swell (A swell, in the context of an ocean, sea or lake, is a
series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between
water and air and thus are often referred to as surface gravity waves.
These surface gravity waves are not wind waves, which are generated by
the immediate local wind, but instead are generated by distant weather
systems, where wind blows for duration of time over a fetch of water.
More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are not—
or are hardly—affected by the local wind at that time) wind waves and
sea temperature.
12. Predictability: How reliable can the weather forecast be?
13. Air quality: Air quality, ozone, desert dust concentration.
14. Soil and surface: Moisture and evapotranspiration.
15. Leaf wetness: Leaf wetness indicators and probability.
Atmospheric pressure, its variation with height
Variation in Atmospheric Pressure
1) Variation with height or vertical variation: The pressure depends on
the density or mass of the air.  The density of air depends on its
temperature, its composition and force of gravity.
 It is observed that the density of air decreases with increase in height so
the pressure also decreases with increase in height.
 The pressure at sea level is 1013.25 mb, at 50 km height, it becomes 0.93
mb at 80 km it is only 0.03 mb.  This indicates how rapidly the
atmospheric gas becomes thinner to decrease density and so the pressure.
 The pressure decreases on an average at the rate of about 34 mb
(Millibar, unit of air pressure in the metric system, commonly used in
meteorology, equal to 100 pascals) per every 300 meters height.
 The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be interpreted as the
total weight of the air above a unit area at any elevation. At higher
 elevations, there are fewer air molecules above a given surface than a
similar surface at lower levels.
 For example, there are fewer molecules above the 50 km surface than are
found above the 12 km surface, That is why the pressure is less at 50 km.

 It implies is that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height.

Since most of the atmosphere's molecules are held close to the earth's
surface by the force of gravity, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then
more slowly at higher levels.

 Since more than half of the atmosphere's molecules are located below an
altitude of 5.5 km, atmospheric pressure decreases roughly 50% (to
around 500 mb) within the lowest 5.5 km. Above 5.5 km, the pressure
continues to decrease but at an increasingly slower rate.
2) Horizontal variation of pressure: The horizontal variation of
atmospheric pressure depends on temperature, extent of water vapour,
latitude and land and water relationship.
i) The equatorial low pressure belt: Along the equator lies a belt of low
pressure known as the equatorial low or doldrums or calm. This low
pressure belt lies between 50 degree North and 50 degree South latitudes.
ii) Sub – tropical high pressure belt: The high pressure belt are found
between 24 – 3000C latitudes in both the hemispheres.
iii)Low pressure belts near 600 degree latitudes: The airs from this area
get thrown outwards on account of the rotation of the earth and this is
how the low pressure belts are created.
iv) Polar high pressure belts: The temperature is extremely low in the Polar
Regions.  The air being cold and heavy throughout the year, a high
pressure belt is created in both Polar Regions.
1. Diurnal variation: At a given station the pressure show the two high and
two lows. On normal pressure day two maxima i.e. one at 10 a.m. and
another at 10 p.m. and two minima i.e. one at 4 a.m. and another at 4 p.m.
are observed.  Thus there is double oscillation caused by alternate heating
and cooling of atmosphere.
Temperature changes with altitude: The atmosphere is divided into different
layers depending on how temperature changes. Take a look at the graph below
to see how temperature changes with altitude.

Near the Earth's surface, air gets cooler the higher you climb: As you climb
a mountain, you can expect the air temperature to decrease by 6.5 degrees C for
every 1000 meters you gain. This is called the standard (average) lapse rate.
If air temperature is 30 degrees C at sea level as shown above, you can expect it
to be around 10.5 degrees C at an altitude of 3000 meters because of the lapse
rate.
Factors affecting atmospheric pressure:
1. Temperature of air
2. Altitude
3.  Water vapour in air
4. Revolution and gravitation of the earth.