Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association

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Fabric Filter Technology for Utility Coal-Fired

Power Plants

Robert C. Carr & Wallace B. Smith

To cite this article: Robert C. Carr & Wallace B. Smith (1984) Fabric Filter Technology for Utility
Coal-Fired Power Plants, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 34:1, 79-89, DOI:
10.1080/00022470.1984.10465729

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1984.10465729

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CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY News
Fabric Filter Technology
for Utility Coal-Fired Power Plants
Robert C. Carr
Electric Power Research Institute
Palo Alto, California
Series Overview
Electric utilities have made significant progress in recent years
in designing and operating fabric filters, or baghouses, for the
collection of particulate matter: small particles of fly ash
produced in the coal combustion process. As a result of these
advances,' in a ten-year period baghouses have become an
accepted and frequently preferred particulate matter control
technology within the industry.
Much of the data contributing to improved understanding
of baghouse performance and to utility acceptance of the
technology has evolved from an extensive research and de-
velopment program undertaken in 1975 by the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI). Conducted under contract by
Southern Research Institute, this program includes labora-
tory, pilot, and field studies of baghouses in utility applica-
tions, and is directed at improving unit operation, reliability,
and economics.
This series of papers has been prepared to present new
empirical data obtained in this EPRI-sponsored research, and
to summarize present understanding of baghouse technology.
The objective is to provide electric utilities, fabric filter
manufacturers and vendors, research and development or-
ganizations, and regulatory agencies with current data on unit
design and operating parameters, and to foster the continued
transfer of technical information in the field.
The series exclusively discusses the design and operation
of reverse-gas and shake/deflate cleaned baghouses. Reference
to "baghouses," "utility baghouses," or other generic mention
of fabric filter technology in utility application in these dis-
cussions should be interpreted only with respect to these types
of units.
The series will examine a number of unresolved issues in
baghouse design and operation. A fundamental aspect of these
issues only now being fully appreciated is the long operating
times required for baghouses to reach equilibrium or semi-
equilibrium in terms of pressure drop (a measure of the
amount of energy required to pull flue gas through the sys-
tem). Recent observations reveal time constants of many
months and perhaps years may be typical for utility baghouses
to reach semiequilibrium in terms of pressure drop. Further,
many units now maturing in operation are experiencing higher
than design pressure drop. Associated with this phenomenon,
particularly in baghouses cleaned by reverse gas, is the buildup
on bags of a heavy (60-150 lb) residual dust cake (that portion
of the dust cake left after bag cleaning).
Examination of these dust cakes on reverse-gas cleaned
units, and to a lesser extent on shake/deflate cleaned units,
January 1984 Volume 34, No. 1
JANUARY 1984
Wallace B. Smith
Southern Research Institute
Birmingham, Alabama
shows them to be extremely complex with large nodular for-
mations, crevices or fissures, and relatively thin areas where
the bags fold during cleaning. Moreover, these dust cakes are
much more tenacious than originally believed, they take a long
time to build, and they have been observed to build to dif-
fering levels depending on the type of coal burned.
Residual dust cakes are now thought to be the single most
critical factor relating to baghouse performance. It is clear, for
example, that baghouse collection efficiencies and pressure
drop are determined by the nature of dust cakes. But a num-
ber of factors affect how dust cakes build and adhere, among
them, electrical charge, particle size, and flue gas and ash
composition, and these factors are not now fully understood.
Until they are, optimum specifications for baghouse design
and operation cannot be established.
Particles are known to carry electrical charges which are
widely acknowledged to influence pressure drop. But the
magnitude of electrical effects on dust cake formation and
potentially on pressure drop is not known, and an explanation
of the mechanisms has not been developed. Also, while some
investigators say electrical charge has a detrimental effect on
baghouse performance, others are pursuing precharging and
electrification of bags to benefit performance.
Particle size clearly plays a significant role in determining
the structure and porosity of the dust cake. But the details of
particle size dependence as it affects dust cake buildup are not
known. Also, particle size probably has some bearing on
whether the dust cake is formed within the cloth itself or on
its surface. Each of these factors ultimately has an impact on
both pressure drop and collection efficiency.
The roles of flue gas and ash composition also need to be
better understood. Both physical and chemical reactions be-
tween reactive gases and particulate matter are known to
occur on bags, but whether or not this continuing interaction
affects the adhesion, cohesion, or porosity of dust cakes is
unclear.
Uncertainty in these areas influences a number of baghouse
design considerations. Most important among them are: the
relationship between pressure drop and air-to-cloth ratio (the
volume of flue gas to be filtered per unit area of bag cloth);
selection of the most effective bag cleaning method; and se-
lection of the best type of fabric weave, finish, and construc-
tion to accomplish maximum permeability, cleanability, and
durability for the specific type of fly ash to be filtered.
Residual dust cakes govern the pressure drop that will result
from operation at a given air-to-cloth ratio. However, con-
Copyright 1984-Air Pollution Control Association
79
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY NEWS
ventional theories to predict pressure drop for a particular
air-to-cloth ratio are based on simplistic models or empirical
data obtained with laboratory aerosols, and these data have
not been confirmed in actual operation given the lack of
standard characterization procedures and variations in dust
cake structure due to differences in fuel, ash, fabric, gas, and
operation.
Selection of the cleaning method for a particular baghouse
application is an important design consideration because of
its implications for bag life, pressure drop, and other factors
which affect capital and operating costs. At present, reverse-
gas cleaning is being used most widely in the utility industry.
But it is not clear, in retrospect, that this is the best choice.
Design specifications for fiberglass bags to accomplish op-
timum performance in filtering fly ash from different types
of coal is a totally undefined area. Bag weave, finish, and
construction are known to affect dust cake structure and
weight, and hence pressure drop, cleaning, and other aspects
of baghouse operation. But there is as yet no proven theoret-
ical, logical, or experimental basis for selecting between
weaves, finishes, and construction techniques.
In terms of baghouse operation, residual dust cakes and
aerosol characteristics have important ramifications for
startup/shutdown procedures, bag life, and cleaning philos-
ophies. Startup/shutdown procedures are thought to influence
acid condensation, chemical reactions, and "bag blinding,"
but there is no conclusive evidence that such problems occur
in a baghouse. If they do, there is no consensus as to the pro-
cedures which should be used to avoid them. Preheating of
baghouse compartments and precoating of bags (commonly
with fly ash or other dusts) to avoid condensation and pene-
tration of fine particles into new bag fabrics are recommended
by some manufacturers and operators. But no documentation
has been found by the authors to establish that this improves
performance. Also, different baghouse manufacturers now
require specific startup/shutdown procedures to maintain the
validity of guarantees, and these procedures vary widely.
Intuitively, it would seem that some practices should be
Part I: Utility Baghouse Design and Operation
This is the first in a series of papers discussing the experience of
electric utilities in applying baghouse technology for the collection
of particulate matter at coal-fired electric power generating plants.
The series presents new data obtained in research sponsored by the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) on reverse-gas and
shake/deflate cleaned baghouses, and specifically addresses a
number of unresolved issues in the design and operation of these units.
This paper explains baghouse design and operation, and includes
discussions of utility boiler operation, fly ash characterization, and
filtration mechanisms.
In the United States today, coal-fired boilers operated by the
electric utility industry consume over 500 million tons of coal
per year. Inasmuch as coal contains up to 30% noncombustible
mineral matter, enormous quantities of fly ash are produced
in the process. The average generating capacity of presently
installed coal-fired utility boilers is 500 MW, although units
as large as 1200 MW are in operation. These boilers are de-
signed to burn a variety of coals ranging from low-rank lignites
to high quality bituminous.
80
standard regardless of manufacturer. No such practices have
been identified.
Bag life is intricately tied to the question of design specifi-
cations for application on specific types of coal, as well as to
startup/shutdown procedures, cleaning, bag tensioning,
aerosol characteristics, and several other aspects of baghouse
operation. At present, however, there are no clear relationships
among these factors and procedures, and the tests which do
exist cannot be uniformly applied with a high degree of con-
fidence.
With regard to cleaning philosophies, it has been shown that
the natural inclination to clean compartments more often as
pressure drop drifts upward over time can result in in-
creased—not decreased—overall system pressure drop. De-
spite this, there is a demonstrated tendency among operators
to respond to increases in pressure drop with more frequent
cleaning. .
One of the most significant but overlooked aspects of
applying baghouse or any other pollution control technology
is establishment and implementation of a comprehensive
operating and maintenance (O&M) program. Baghouses
represent large capital investments—up to $40 million or 7%
of total power plant costs for a 500 MW unit—and proper
O&M procedures can extend their service lives. Also, these
procedures can improve the reliability of the baghouse,
thereby minimizing the risk of unscheduled boiler outages
which can cost a utility $200,000-$300,000 per day in re-
placement power for a 500-MW boiler.
In addressing these issues, this series has been divided into
six topics. They are:
• Utility baghouse design and operation
• Application of baghouse technology in the electric utility
industry
• Performance of full-scale utility baghouses
• Pilot-scale and laboratory studies of fabric filter tech-
nology for utility applications
• Development and evaluation of bag cleaning methods in
utility baghouses
• Future research, development, and demonstration of
utility baghouses
The primary role of a coal-fired boiler is to extract heat
energy from coal and produce steam at a high temperature and
pressure. This steam is expanded in a turbine coupled to an
electric generator. Figure 1 schematically illustrates the basic
features of a modern pulverized coal-fired boiler and the origin
and major paths of fly ash. In preparation for combustion, the
coal is first pulverized to a particle size typically 70 wt%
smaller than 75 fim in diameter, a consistency resembling that
of talcum powder. These particles are then blown into the
furnace where they are mixed with air and their organic con-
stituents are burned in suspension, reaching peak flame
temperatures near 3000°F.
Noncombustible mineral matter in these particles is re-
leased mostly asflyash and carried in suspension through the
boiler by flue gas (gaseous combustion products). During this
passage, heat extraction cools the flue gas, normally to 750°F.
On leaving the boiler, it is further cooled to about 300°F in an
air heater. Fly ash concentration exiting the air heater is di-
rectly proportional to the ash content of the coal burned, and
generally ranges between 1 and 10 gr/ft3. The chemical com-
position of fly ash can vary widely depending upon the type
of coal fired, and even the seam from which the coal is ex-
tracted. Table I provides ranges for commonly measured fly
ash chemical constituents.1
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
 COMBUSTION PRODUCTS:
• FLUE GAS (N2, CO2,
H2O, O2, SOx. NOx).
CLEANED FLUE GAS
• FLY ASH

BOILER

BAGHOUSE STACK

COAL AND
HEATED AIR
\S\S\f

COLLECTED
FLY ASH

Figure 1.
FURNACE
BOTTOM ASH

I TO ASH DISPOSAL
OR UTILIZATION
Schematic illustration of the basic features of a modern pulverized coal-fired boiler and the origin and major paths of fly ash.

One of the unique characteristics of fly ash which presents
a major challenge in particulate matter control is the wide
range of potential particle sizes. It is not uncommon for fly ash
to span over four decades in particle size, from less than 0.01
^m to greater than 100 £tm in diameter. Also, the distribution
of fly ash mass as a function of particle diameter (particle size
distribution) can vary significantly depending upon boiler
design and coal composition. Although the majority of particle
mass is associated with larger particles, typically 50% greater
than 10 /um, the majority of particle numbers are less than 0.5
/urn. Data developed under EPRI sponsorship show that fly
ash generated in a number of utility boilers is distributed into
at least two distinct modes: a submicron mode with particles
approximately 0.1 nm in diameter, and a large particle mode
with particle sizes greater than 0.5 /xm.2
nificantly, pressure drops that exceed the design limit of
system fans can mean that station boilers must operate at less
than full load, a very costly situation.
Air-to-cloth ratio (A/C) represents the most important
parameter of baghouse design because it determines unit size
and, thereby, capital cost. It is calculated by dividing the
volume flow of flue gas received by a baghouse by the total
area of the filtering cloth, and is typically expressed as actual
cubic feet per minute per square foot (acfm/ft2). Inasmuch as
this ratio has the dimensions of velocity (ft/min), A/C is
sometimes also called face velocity or average speed of gas
passing through the fabric.
Table I. Ranges for commonly measured fly ash
chemical constituents.

Baghouse Operation Maximum Minimum

Component ' % %
Located downstream of utility boilers, baghouses separate
fly ash from flue gas in separate compartments containing SiO 2 61.0 41.2
A12O3 31.0 17.9
between 150 and 400 tube shaped bags, or fabric filters. Flue Fe 2 O 3 23.7 3.9
gas is pulled into and through these compartments by large CaO 23.5 0.3
fans, and it arrives in volumes of up to several million cubic MgO 5.5 0.9
feet per minute at temperatures typically 250°-350°F—with Na 2 O 2.66 0.13
excursions up to 600° F under upset conditions—and at speeds K2O 3.9 0.28
up to 50-60 ft/s. Li 2 O 0.07 0.01
Baghouses have demonstrated excellent success in con- TiO 2 2.3 0.8
trolling both total and fine particulate matter, and in P2O5 1.0 0.16
achieving a clear stack (no visible plume).3"6 They have been so3 1.83 ' 0.07
shown routinely capable of filtering fly ash at collection ef-
ficiencies of 99.9% on pulverized coal-fired utility boilers, of
accomplishing stack opacities well below 5% (clear stack), and Design air-to-cloth ratio is normally specified by the utility
of achieving outlet concentrations of 0.005 lb/106 Btu. customer. Higher air-to-cloth ratios mean less fabric, there-
There are two fundamental parameters in sizing and op- fore, less structure and capital cost. However, with smaller
erating baghouses: pressure drop and air-to-cloth ratio. amounts of cloth pressure drop can become more of a problem,
Pressure drop is critical because higher pressure drops mean forcing energy costs up, and more frequent bag cleaning may
that more energy is required to pull flue gas through the sys- be required, meaning increased compartment down time and
tem. Measured in inches of water using a manometer, a pres- the potential for reliability problems.
sure drop of 4-6 in. of water is typically acceptable and suffi- In operation, baghouses may be designed to filter particu-
cient to move the flue gas economically through the system. late matter using either inside-out or outside-in collection.
Operation at higher pressure drops can become expensive (Outside-in collectors are generally called "pulse-jet" collec1
since the energy cost for each inch of pressure drop is ap- tors for the type of bag cleaning method they employ.) Figure
proximately $50,000 per year for a 500-MW plant. More sig- 2 is a schematic representation of these options. With pulse-jet

January 1984 Volume 34, No. 1 81

CONTROL TECHNOLOGY NEWS
collection, flue gas is directed from the outside surface of the
bag through the fabric to the inside. With inside-out collec-
tion, flue gas is routed into the bags at the bottom and then
passed through the fabric to the outside. (Although it has been
suggested that top inlet baghouses offer advantages over
bottom inlet design on inside-out collectors, this has not been
demonstrated and only bottom inlet is now used in the utility
industry.)7 Inside-out collectors typically operate at an air-
to-cloth ratio of 1.6-3 acfm/ft2, whereas pulse-jet collectors
typically operate at values as high as 6 acfm/ft2.
In both pulse-jet and inside-out collection, particulate
matter is trapped and deposited on the surface of the bag, and
cleaned flue gas exits at the top of the compartment into an
outlet duct that joins other similar ducts and terminates at
the stack. With pulse-jet collectors, the primary filtering
medium is the bag itself. With inside-out collectors, however,
a clean bag is not the most efficient collector. Rather, it is the
collected particulate matter on the inside of the bag, called
the dust cake or filter cake, that acts as the primary filtering
medium.
In both processes, when particulate matter on the fabric
builds to unacceptable levels, the bags are cleaned. With in-
side-out collectors, cleaning is accomplished using either a
reverse-gas flow (reverse-gas cleaning) or a shaking mecha-
nism (shake/deflate cleaning). With pulse-jet collectors, it is
accomplished by sending pulses of compressed air down the
bag. After many cycles of filtration and cleaning, and re-
gardless of which cleaning method is used, a more or less stable
residual dust cake is established on the bag.
Because of the high flue gas temperatures characteristic of
electric power generation, fiberglass bags are generally used
in utility baghouses. To protect against abrasion, and as a
shield to resist chemical attack, these bags are finished (i.e.,
coated) typically using Teflon, silicone, and graphite applied
singly or in combination. In reverse-gas and shake/deflate
cleaned baghouses, woven fiberglass bags are used. Bags for
these types of units generally fall into two size categories. For
larger installations, they are nominally 30-36 ft in length by
REVERSE OR
SHAKER DRIVE DEFLATION GAS
MECHANISM
(OPTIONAL)
INSIDE OUT
Figure 2. Schematic representation of inside-out and outside-in collectors.
82
1 ft in diameter. For smaller installations, they are nominally
20 ft in length by 8 in. in diameter. In pulse-jet collectors where
the face velocity of flue gas is higher than in inside-out col-
lectors, felted fabrics manufactured from a variety of materials
are used to protect against particulate matter bleed through.
These bags are smaller than reverse-gas or shake/deflate
cleaned bags—typically 8-15 ft in length by 6-8 in. in diam-
eter—inasmuch as the pulses of compressed air must travel
the full length of the bag to achieve effective cleaning.
Given that pulse-jet cleaning leaves very little residual dust
cake on the bag, pulse-jet collectors do have the advantage of
operating at higher air-to-cloth ratios. However, pulse-jet
cleaning requires air compressors, compressed air piping and
air drying systems, manifold systems, venturi tubes above
each bag, metal support cages inside bags, and other complex
equipment, raising maintenance and dependability concerns,
and repeated pulsing from cleaning cycle to cleaning cycle is
thought to be too vigorous for use with fiberglass bags. Also,
because more bags are required than with inside-out collectors
(given the smaller bags used in pulse-jet cleaned units), some
of the perceived advantages of operation at higher air-to-cloth
ratios are lost. For these reasons, electric utilities have over-
whelmingly opted for inside-out collectors. At present, no
full-sized pulse-jet units are known to be in operation in the
utility industry in the U.S.
Baghouse Design
Utility baghouse designs vary greatly depending upon the
equipment manufacturer and bid specification. However, in
general terms, utility baghouses have between eight and 32
compartments consisting of an inlet manifold, compartment
hopper inlet, tube sheet with thimbles, bag region and support
assembly, compartment outlet ductwork, and outlet manifold.
Generally, retrofit units will have inlet and- outlet flanges on
the same side, and new units will have them on different sides.
Isolation valves are located at the inlet and outlet of each
compartment, and valves for reverse-gas or shake/deflate
cleaning are generally installed in the compartment wall. In
some instances, units are equipped with bypass systems for
isolation during boiler startup and shutdown operation.
COMPRESSED
AIR
MANIFOLD
-TUBE SHEET
"VENTURI
NOZZLE
- - H - FILTER BAG
METAL CAGE
HOPPER
MATERIAL DISCHARGE
OUTSIDE IN
Journal of tho Air Pollution Control Association
 Design of baghouse ductwork and placement of isolation
valves can have a significant impact on performance, specif-
ically in terms of ductwork pressure drop, fly ash and flow
distribution among compartments, and ductwork erosion. In
distributing flue gas to the various baghouse compartments,
gas velocity must decelerate from nominally 60 ft/s in the main
inlet manifold to nearly zero in the compartment hopper. In
some designs, this flow is required to abruptly change direc-
tion one or more times in transit, leading to significant flow
separation and increased pressure drop. The opposite situa-
tion prevails in compartment outlet regions where flow must
accelerate from near zero in the compartment back up to ap-
proximately 60 ft/s in the outlet manifold. Improper design
in this region can lead to excessive pressure drop in the outlet
manifold. Ductwork pressure drop of 3 in. of water has been
measured in poorly designed baghouses. Proper design can
reduce this by two-thirds—to 1 in. of water or less.6'8"10
In classifying utility baghouse systems,10 three basic inlet
manifold-hopper transitions have been identified: a 90° elbow
from the bottom of the inlet manifold to the side of the hopper,
an inclined or horizontal transition from the side of the inlet
manifold to the side of the hopper, and a transition from the
bottom of the inlet manifold directly to an upper corner of the
hopper. Virtually all inlet systems can be classified in one of
these categories, and are either circular or rectangular in
cross-section, or offset on the hopper side wall. Four types of
valving systems are used: poppets, butterflies, louver dampers,
and a more sophisticated butterfly-vane combination.
Two compartment outlet manifold transitions are currently
employed: a 90° elbow from the top of the compartment to the
side of the outlet manifold and a side compartment outlet with
a pre-chamber before the outlet manifold. Outlet cross sec-
tions can be rectangular or circular, and in most cases are
offset with respect to a plane of symmetry. Three types of
valving systems are used here: poppets, louver dampers, and
flapper dampers.
To minimize ductwork pressure drop and erosion problems,
inlet and outlet manifold systems and compartment transi-
tions can be designed without abrupt changes in geometry or
equipped with flow improvement devices. Flow modeling to
determine optimum ductwork and valve arrangement is in-
tegral in this process. Minimizing compartment inlet velocities
(less than 16 ft/s) will reduce hopper fly ash reentrainment.
Directing compartment outlet jets entering the outlet mani-
fold toward the baghouse outlet flange will generally reduce
outlet manifold pressure drop.
Bag Design and Specifications
Clearly, the heart of fabric filter technology is the bag itself.
Since the bag acts principally as a matrix on which the dust
cake is formed, and not as the primary filtering medium, it is
chosen for temperature and chemical resistance, mechanical
stability, and the ability to be woven to collect the desired dust
cake and then permit that dust cake to be easily removed in
cleaning.
In utility applications, fiberglass bags are used almost ex-
clusively, although in some low temperature situations (280°F
and below), in combination with spray drying for combined
SO2 collection, or where gas cooling may be required upstream
of the baghouse, acrylic is a potentially attractive alternative
to fiberglass at approximately one-half the cost. However,
acrylic bags are typically smaller than fiberglass bags, raising
questions about maintenance and replacement requirements.
Use of acrylics also raises concerns about dimensional stability
and subsequent changes in bag tension, particularly at ele-
vated temperatures. In utility application in Australia, how-
ever, small acrylic bags each 16.6 ft by 6.6 in. have demon-
strated good performance in units where the bags are cleaned
by shaking without deflation.11
Today, bag fabric research is focused on two general goals:
to improve performance and economics, and to develop
January 1984 Volume 34, No. 1
manufacturing and performance standards and quality con-
trol guidelines. Investigation to improve fabric performance
and economics is directed toward enhancing bag permeability,
cleanability, and durability, and it involves monitoring pres-
sure drop, particulate matter penetration, and residual dust
cake weight and release characteristics. Different weaves and
finishes for fiberglass fabric are also being investigated, as are
alternative materials, such as Teflon, Nomex, Ryton, and
felted glass, as well as acrylics.
Fiberglass bags are woven with multifilament yarns, and
many steps are involved in the weaving process.12 Warp yarns
run lengthwise in the bag, and fill yarns run across the bag. Fill
yarns are often texturized to increase surface area and par-
ticulate matter collection. However, since this results in a loss
of yarn strength, warp yarns are seldom texturized.
Bags used in utility application are normally woven in a 3
by 1 twill pattern (over three, under one, etc.) to create a fabric
with two distinctly different surfaces: one with predominantly
warp yarns (smooth) and one with predominantly fill yarns
(texturized or fuzzy). Although bags are usually made from
fabrics with the warp side out (fuzzy side in), some tests have
been made of warp side in (fuzzy side out) to obtain better
dust cake release. Warp out is believed to improve particulate
matter collection and reduce fabric blinding, but there is
concern that with some fly ash a heavy, difficult to remove
dust cake may result. Several utilities are evaluating different
weaves and finishes in order to achieve better dust cake release
and lower pressure drop.
After fiberglass fabric is woven, it is heat cleaned and fin-
ished with one of three general groups of coatings: silicone/
graphite, silicone/graphite/Teflon, and Teflon B. Satisfactory
bag finish depends not only on the type of coating applied, but
also on such factors as the method of application, the degree
of application within filaments, and the level of cure.12
In addition to bag fabric, weave, and finish, other parame-
ters of bag design and construction include cuff sizes, number
of anticollapse rings (in reverse-gas units), cap material, seam
type and stitching, stitch thread, thread count (yarns per
inch), yarn type (singles vs. plied), fabric weight (oz/yd2),
degree of texturizing, and quality control procedures.13
Methods of characterizing fabrics and bags are quite varied,
and may or may not have a bearing on ultimate performance.
For example, permeability—defined as the volume of air that
will flow through a square foot of fabric at a pressure drop of
0.5 in. of water—is almost always included in bag specifica-
tions. However, permeability has little relationship to the
pressure drop of fabrics under actual filtering conditions.
Tests such as the Mullen Burst Test, Tensile Test, MIT Flex
Test, Acid Test, etc., while normally of value in yarn charac-
terizations or relative comparisons of fabrics, have not proven
useful in predicting the remaining life of bags in actual ser-
vice.
Bag installation is another important parameter of per-
formance. Bag bottoms may be slipped over the thimble and
fastened using either a radiator hose type of clamp or some
form of compression band or snap ring. Both methods can be
satisfactory if properly employed. However, compression
bands must be sized with close tolerances to fit tightly over
the thimble, and this can pose problems inasmuch as thimble
dimensions can vary considerably from site to site, and even
at the same site. For utility application, thimbles are necessary
in order to avoid bag erosion at the tube sheet. These are
typically one bag diameter in length (8-12 in.).
Bag tops normally include a J-hook and compression spring
arrangement for adjusting tension. Figure 3 illustrates two
types of support/tensioning systems designed to permit simple
adjustments. If properly set, bag tension will prevent bags
from "stretching" and going slack at the thimble as their
weight increases during filtering. (Since fiberglass expands
very little under tension, it does not literally "stretch."
However, fiberglass yarn can shift and the weave tighten,
giving the appearance of stretching.) Bags which cuff or be-
83
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY NEWS
come slack at the thimble can readily abrade, leading to ex-
cessive wear and premature failure. The specific value of
tension to ensure good bag performance is a subject of much
controversy—especially as the dust cake builds and increases
bag weight. Tension is normally set between 50 and 70 lb, even
though frequently the weight of dirty bags will greatly exceed
these values.14-15
Filtration Mechanisms
Filtration occurs when an aerosol (particle-laden gas) is
forced to flow through a porous, solid medium which captures
a fraction of the particles. The crudest form of filtration,
sieving, occurs when the pores (or voids) in the filter medium
are smaller than the particles to be captured. Sieving, however,
is impractical when filtering high concentrations of micron-
and submicron-sized particles. In these instances, other
mechanisms must be invoked to explain the interactions be-
tween the aerosol and the filter medium resulting in particle
capture.
Figure 4 is a highly simplified illustration showing the
principle of filtration as it is applied to industrial process
streams. As an aerosol approaches the structural elements of
the filter, a number of forces act to cause some of the particles
and filter elements (the fabric and/or the residual dust cake)
to come into contact. These are:
• Direct interception. In addition to simple sieving action,
interception will occur if the gas streamlines carry the
particles close enough to the filter elements for contact.
Interception is most important for larger particles such
as the ones labeled A and C.
• Inertial impaction. Streamlines initially directed toward
the filter elements must divert and pass through the pores.
When this occurs, particles with sufficient momentum (or
inertia) will continue toward and strike the filter element.
This action is also most effective on larger particles such
as A and C.
SUPPORT BEAM
ADJUSTING HOLES
PIN
WASHER
TENSIONING/
SUPPORT SPRING
WASHER
ft—SUPPORT BEAM
-J-HOOK
.METAL CAP
BAG
Figure 3. Typical support/tensioning systems for fabric filter bags.
84
FILTER ELEMENTS PARTICLE LADEN GAS
e
ft.
Figure 4. The principle of filtration in industrial process streams.
• Diffusion. If a particle mass (momentum) is very low,
Brownian diffusion (collisions with gas molecules) su-
perimposes random motion on the streamline trajectory
and greatly increases the particle's probability of con-
tacting and being captured by a filter element. This mo-
tion is illustrated by particle B.
• Electrostatic. A variety of Coulombic and polarization
forces are possible in filtration which may cause particles
to be attracted or repulsed to filter elements. Filter ele-
ments may or may not be charged, particles may or may
not be charged, and induced dipoles may or may not exist.
Also, external electric fields may be applied.
• London-van der Waal's. This is a short-range, molecular
interaction which is much less significant in particle
capture than in affecting dust cake properties.
• Gravity. Acceleration due to the earth's gravitational field
results in a steady downward component of velocity which
can, under certain circumstances, enhance filtration ef-
ficiency. This force is most effective on larger particles.
\ The mutual gravitational attraction of particles, and of
CHAIN FOR
SUPPORT AND
particles to filter elements, is negligible in particle cap-
ADJUSTING ture.
TENSION
The effectiveness of a filter in capturing particles can be
stated in terms of particle penetration or capture efficiency.
Penetration is defined as the ratio of the particle concentra-
tion on the downstream side of the filter (outlet concentration)
SPRING
to that on the upstream side (inlet concentration) such
that:
_, , ,. Number of particles per unit volume at outlet
Penetration = — — — —
Number of particles per unit volume at inlet
or,
_ Mass of particles per unit volume at outlet
Mass of particles per unit volume at inlet
Also,
Efficiency = 1 — penetration
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
 Generally, both penetration and efficiency are multiplied
by 100 and expressed as a percent. In this formula, efficiency
FILTER ELEMENTS.
represents overall or gross particulate collection efficiency.
Collection efficiency of a filter as a function of particle size—a
function called fractional or grade efficiency—can also be
measured. Graphs defining fractional penetration and effi-
ciency are determined by measuring the distribution of par- GAS FLOW
ticle concentration by mass or number at the inlet and outlet,
and taking the ratio (as indicated above) at several values of
particle diameter.16
Well developed equations exist in aerosol physics to cal-
culate the collection of particles on various structures by fil-
tration forces. However, each requires detailed knowledge of
the geometry of the collection medium, and since the structure -©-
of dust cakes is not defined—and, in fact, appears to be system
dependent in ways that are not now understood^-none can
be used to predict penetration or efficiency. Also, in practice,
such calculations are almost irrelevant inasmuch as well A. FILTRATION BY A POROUS MEMBRANE OR MONOFILAMENT
maintained systems exhibit extraordinarily high collection FABRIC.
efficiency.
Aerosol measurement techniques have recently become
sophisticated and sensitive to the point that it is now possible
to measure the fractional efficiency of baghouses. An example
reported by Ensor et al. using an electrical aerosol analyzer
and cascade impactor to measure the particle size range from
0.02-10 fim is shown in Figure 5.6 Considering the dominant
collection mechanisms, diffusion (which decreases with in-
creasing particle diameter) and impaction and interception
(which increase with particle diameter), the classic theoretical
efficiency curve exhibits a single minimum (maximum pen-
etration) in the 0.5-1 fim range. Thus, additional mechanisms
must act to create the bimodal curves of Figure 5. A reasonable
explanation (at least qualitatively supported by experiment)
is to attribute a large particle penetration mode to redispersion
of particulate agglomerates that bleed through the fabric with
the flexing action that occurs during cleaning.

The Filtration Process

The filtration process may be divided into three distinct B. FILTRATION BY A FIBROUS MAT OR FABRIC OF
time regimes: filtration by a clean fabric, which occurs only TEXTURIZED FIBERS
once in the life of a bag, and only for a few minutes; estab- Figure 6. Accumulation of a dust cake during the early stages of filtration.
lishment of a residual dust cake, which occurs after many
filtering and cleaning cycles, and can take a few days to several
weeks or months to form; and steady state, in which (with the Figure 6 is a simple schematic illustrating the early stages
residual dust cake established on the bags) the quantity of of dust cake buildup. Figure 6A illustrates filtration by a po-
particulate matter removed during the cleaning cycles equals, rous membrane or monofilament fabric. The filtration
on average, the amount collected during each filtering mechanisms cause a fraction of the particles to contact and
cycle. cling to the surfaces of the filter elements. These particles tend
to accumulate near the upstream opening of the pores and are
frequently captured by previously deposited particles to form
chainlike aggregates. Some particles can be moved into and
I I I IIITIj -T ' I " I I I , -
UNIT 3 BOILER STEAM-FLOW 213 K LB/HR "
through the pores by the force of the gas and by impaction of
AIR-TO-CLOTH RATIO 1.73ACFM/FT2 other particles. The initial efficiency of a filter in this state is
PRESSURE DROP 4.2 IN H 2 O relatively low—on the order of 75-90%.
100 MIN CLEANING CYCLE
If the pores are small enough, and if the adhesive and co-
ELECTRICAL
AEROSOL
hesive forces acting between the particles and filter elements,
ANALYZER and among the particles, respectively, are strong enough, the
particulate aggregates will bridge the pores completely. This
accumulated dust cake forms a secondary filter of much higher
efficiency than the clean fabric.
O
Figure 6B illustrates the early stages of filtration by a fi-
s brous mat or fabric of texturized fibers. The filaments pro-
CASCADE
99.9
111
J truding from the surfaces serve several functions: they provide
IMPACTOR -
additional surface area for particulate capture, so that the
particles tend to be caught upstream of the filter body proper
(surface filtration); they provide support to prevent the par-
ticulate aggregates from collapsing into the pores, yielding a
• IM..I
more porous dust cake; and they serve as a binding structure
10
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0
99.99 to retain a residual dust cake when the fabric is cleaned. There
PARTICLE DIAMETER (jjm) is thought to be an optimum geometry of the filtering elements
Figure 5. Bag fabric penetration as a function of particle diameter. for particles of particular size, cohesivity, and adhesivity, but

January 1984 Volume 34, No. 1 85

CONTROL TECHNOLOGY NEWS
A. STEADY STATE FILTRATION BY A POROUS MEMBRANE OR
MONOFILAMENT FABRIC.
B. STEADY STATE FILTRATION BY A FIBROUS MAT OR FABRIC
OF TEXTURIZED FIBERS.
Figure 7. An established dust cake on and within the bag fabric.
no adequate method exists for defining this. The initial effi-
ciency of a texturized fabric collecting fly ash is somewhat
higher than non-texturized—on the order of 90%.
Figure 7 illustrates an established dust cake on and within
the fabric, and steady state filtration. Collection efficiency is
now generally quite high, and pressure drop may or may not
stabilize depending on ash properties and the cleaning method
used. In each example, efficiency and pressure drop are both
determined by the dust cake—not the fabric.
Figure 7A illustrates steady state filtration by a porous
membrane or monofilament fabric. The aggregates forming
the dust cake have collapsed into the pores due to mechanical
action during cleaning and to aerodynamic forces and im-
pingement of incoming particles during filtration. Also, as
filtration and cleaning cycles continue, the dust cake can
gradually bleed through the fabric and shed off into the gas
stream on the downstream side of the fabric. Further, the
particles filling the pores can cause greatly reduced porosity
and, consequently, an unacceptably high pressure drop across
the system when filtering. This phenomenon is called
"blinding" of the fabric.
Figure 7B illustrates steady state filtration by a fibrous mat
or fabric of texturized fibers. Here the particles form a porous
dust cake upstream of the fabric with very little collapsing into
the pores or bleeding through. This type of system results in
both higher efficiency and lower pressure drop during oper-
ation than that illustrated in Figure 7A.
86
Figure 8 shows cross sections of typical residual dust cakes
from utility baghouses after several months of operation.
Visual and microscopic examination of these dust cakes re-
veals that they are porous and loosely bound to the fabric,
contain a network of "fissures," and have valleys or "fold" lines
where they are thinner. These features provide paths of lower
resistance to gas flow through the thick residual dust cakes.
On a seasoned bag, residual dust cakes generally weigh 10-20
times as much as the ash deposited during an average filtering
cycle.
Bag Cleaning
In commercial applications, economics dictate that bags be
cleaned and returned to service with minimum interruption
in baghouse operation. In utility baghouses, this is accom-
plished using one of two basic methods: reverse-gas cleaning
or shake/deflate cleaning. In both methods, bag cleaning is
conducted in cycles initiated either by a predetermined
pressure drop or time interval (dwell), and each compartment
is sequentially removed from service and isolated before
cleaning can take place.
If all baghouse compartments are cleaned one after another
in rapid succession when a predetermined pressure drop is
reached, or a predetermined time interval elapses, this is called
intermittent or batch cleaning. If they are cleaned one after
another in constant, equally spaced time incrementsvthis is
called timed cleaning. Some units always have one compart-
ment or more off line and being cleaned. This is called con-
tinuous cleaning. Even continuous cleaning is conducted se-
quentially, however, and 15-30 minutes may elapse before
every compartment is cleaned.
The majority of utility baghouses use reverse-gas cleaning.
In this process, a gentle flow of filtered gas is reversed back
into the compartment and through the bags, causing the bags
to partially collapse inward. In theory, this partial collapse
action fractures and dislodges the dust cake. Rings are sewn
into the bags at nominal 4-ft spacing to prevent complete bag
collapse. This allows dislodged dust to fall freely through the
bags, the thimble and the tube sheet, into the hopper.
With shake/deflate cleaning, non-ringed bags are used and
a small quantity of clean gas is introduced as reverse flow into
the baghouse compartment to deflate the bags and allow them
to relax. They are then shaken at the top for 10^30 seconds
with a frequency normally less than five cycles per second and
an amplitude of 1-3 in. from the rest position.
Reverse-gas cleaning has historically been considered to be
more gentle than shake/deflate cleaning, thereby contributing
to longer baglife. More recently, however, results have shown
that long bag lives can be achieved with shake/deflate cleaning
as well.17 Also, shake/deflate cleaned units generally operate
with higher air-to-cloth ratios than reverse-gas units, thereby
offering potential economic advantages.
Reverse Gas Cleaning
Dust cake action during filtering and cleaning cycles in a
reverse-gas cleaned baghouse is illustrated schematically in
Figure 9. Typical design air-to-cloth ratios in reverse-gas
cleaned units are 1.6-2 acfm/ft2 and dust cake weights range
from 0.5-1.5 lb/ft2 depending on time in service and ash
characteristics.
Figure 9A shows the structure of the fabric and dust cake
during filtration. Figure 9B shows reverse-gas cleaning and
dust cake action with filtered flue gas forced backwards
through the bags at a rate of about 1.5-2 acfm/ft2. Between
the support rings, the force created by this flow causes the bags
to partially collapse and form a star-like cross section. This
action causes the dust cake to be deformed and cracked and
to partially dislodge. Pressure drop across the fabric and dust
cake with reverse flow is 0.5-1 in. of water.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
 When equilibrium is established, the forces acting to remove
the residual dust cake must be equal to those tending to retain
it. The removing forces are:
• Mechanical flexure and deformation. If the radius of the
concave arcs comprising the star pattern during reverse-
gas cleaning is on the same order as the radius of the bag
when filtering (6 in.), the perimeter of the dust cake will
expand by about 1.5% for each millimeter of dust thick-
ness when the bags collapse. If the dust cake is 0.4 in.
thick, the perimeter expands about 15%. Since the dust
cake is not sufficiently elastic, it splits and a number of
fissures form to allow the expansion. Additionally, the
dust cake is compressed, crazed, and removed from the
fold areas.
• Aerodynamic pressure. The fact that pressure drop with
reverse-gas flow is only about 10% the value of forward
flow (although 90% of the dust is retained) is a clear in-
dication that fissures open up to allow essentially unre-
stricted flow. Accordingly, the majority of the pressure
drop is believed to occur within and very near the fabric.
Figure 9B illustrates that the principal function of the
reverse-gas flow is deformation of the bags.
• Gravity. When mechanical deformation occurs in the
presence of reverse-gas flow, a fraction of the dust cake
will become completely detached. Gravity provides an
additional removing force and then, with the reverse gas,
acts to transport the loosened dust downward through the
bags into the hopper.
A. REVERSE-GAS CLEANING, 1-1 Ib/ft 2
B DEF L A T E S H A K F C L F A N I N f i , 0 3 !U f t 2
Figure 8. Cross-section of typical residual dust cakes from utility baghouses
after several months of operation.
January 1984 Volume 34, No. 1
FABRIC
FABRIC
"FOLD" LINE
DUST CAKE
FABRIC
FABRIC
A. FILTERING B. CLEANING
Figure 9. Dust cake action during filtering and cleaning cycles in a reverse-gas
cleaned baghouse.
Erosion. When reverse-gas flow is initiated, a substantial
volume of dust falls through the bags (approx. 10 lb).
Much of the removed dust consists of large agglomerates
which can collide with the bags and erode the residual dust
cakes as they fall. This is evidenced by the eroded nature
of the dust cake surface in the lower portions of the
• Acceleration. If a force of sufficient magnitude can be
applied quickly to accelerate the bag/dust cake system,
some of the dust cake can be made to fracture and fall off.
Two means to accomplish this action in a reverse-gas
cleaned baghouse are to reinflate the bags quickly, causing
them to "snap," or to use low-frequency sonic energy.
These accelerating forces are applied mostly to the dirty
fabric and its intimately bound dust. Thus, the loosely
bound particle clumps or nodules which do not react in
phase or with as much amplitude as the bags are dis-
lodged.
Forces acting to retain the dust cake are:
• Adhesion. Strong bonding forces exist between particle
and fibers when they come into contact. These may be
enhanced by the presence of moisture and surface chem-
ical reactions as the dust cake "ages." Further, the me-
chanical structure of the filter—the pores and protruding
fibers—tends to act as anchors to hold the residual dust
cake.
• Cohesion. Similar bonding forces exist between the col-
lected particles, tending to form them into a rigid, solid
unit.
It appears that the forces acting to remove the residual dust
cake increase with the thickness or weight of the dust cake,
while those tending to retain it decrease or remain the same.
Thus, after a period of stabilization, an equilibrium, residual
dust cake is established. Experience indicates that this equi-
librium corresponds to dust cakes of 0.5-1.5 lb/ft2 or 50-150
lb/bag in a reverse-gas cleaned baghouse of conventional de-
sign. (Detailed discussions of these measurements and their
implications are provided in later papers in this series.)
87
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Figure 9 also shows how heavy dust cakes act as a one-way
valve. During reverse-gasflow,fissures open up so that there
is little resistance to gasflow,hence the aerodynamic force is
minimal. During forward flow, however, the fissures close up.
Regions of low resistance toflow,such as partially closed fis-
sures and the fold lines, initially take flow greater than the
average air-to-cloth ratio, but are quickly "sealed" by the
deposition of particulate matter. As the low resistance areas
are sealed, pressure drop increases rapidly from a value of
about 1-2 to 2-4 in. of water. After this initial rise, the rate
abruptly decreases, and thereafter pressure drop rises linearly
and more slowly until a cleaning cycle is initiated, normally
at a pressure drop of 4-6 in. of water.18
FABRIC
A. FILTERING B. CLEANING
Figure 10. Dust cake action during filtering and cleaning cycles in a shake/
deflate cleaned baghouse.
Shake/Deflate Cleaning
Dust cake action during filtering and cleaning cycles in a
shake/deflate cleaned baghouse is illustrated schematically
in Figure 10. Typical design air-to-cloth ratios in shake/deflate
cleaned units are 2-3 acfm/ft2. Typical dust cake weights are
0.2-0.5 lb/ft2. Again, the dust cake is a porous structure with
a network of cracks or fissures, and occasional fold lines. A
recording of pressure drop versus time in a shake/deflate
baghouse exhibits essentially the same features as a reverse-
gas unit, but the air-to-cloth ratio corresponding to a partic-
ular pressure drop is approximately twice as great in shake/
deflate systems.
Figure 10A shows the structure of the fabric and dust cake
during filtration. Figure 10B shows the cleaning process. Al-
though bags in shake/deflate cleaned units contain no anti-
collapse rings, they retain a nominally circular cross section
because the reverse-gasflowis very low. The shaking force is
applied at the tops of the bags causing them to sway and
generating traveling waves in them. Deformation of the bags
plays a significant role in removing the dust cake. Since the
force is applied to the fabric, any dust that is not bound suf-
ficiently will be dislodged and fall into the hoppers. In steady
state operation, and as with reverse-gas cleaning, the forces
tending to remove the dust cake must be equal to those
88
tending to retain it. The removing forces are:
• Acceleration. Acceleration is due to forces applied to the
bag. It has components perpendicular and parallel to the
plane of the fabric, has a higher amplitude than the re-
verse-gas case, and is repeated many times. If the dust
cake is heavy, its inertia will cause it to fracture and shear
off.
• Mechanical flexure and deformation. Although the de-
formation may not be as great as in reverse-gas cleaning,
it is significant.
• Gravity. Similar to the reverse-gas case.
• Erosion. Similar to the reverse-gas case.
Forces acting to retain the dust cake are:
• Adhesion. Similar to the reverse-gas case.
• Cohesion. Similar to the reverse-gas case.
The dominant forces in shake/deflate cleaning are the same
as those in reverse-gas cleaning—except for acceleration,
which is much greater. Also, as in reverse-gas cleaning, the
removing forces increase as dust cake thickness increases.
Consequently, the residual dust cake on shake/deflate cleaned
bags should be much lighter. As illustrated in Figure 8, this
hypothesis is verified by experimental observations.
Pressure Drop Prediction
A critical problem related to the bag cleaning process is the
inability to predict the operating pressure drop of baghouses
even when the operating mode, ash characteristics, and fabric
construction are known. This uncertainty translates directly
into difficulties in sizing both the baghouses and fans. The
critical factors in predicting pressure drop are illustrated by
Darcy's Law:
AP
where Ap is the pressure drop,
ft is the gas viscosity,
V is the average superficial gas velocity,
L is the thickness of the dust cake, and
K is the permeability of the dust cake.
If K and L could be predicted, pressure drop could also be
predicted. However, this is not possible in that the thickness
and internal structure of the dust cakes are unpredictable and
highly dependent on system parameters. Also, K is a strong
function of particle size distribution and cohesion, and while
many attempts have been made to develop methods of cal-
culating it, most notably the work of Kozeny and Carman, no
adequate formulae exist for operating systems.19 As a result
of these limitations, careful empirical studies under actual
operating conditions are required to serve as a basis for pre-
dicting baghouse performance.
Part II in this series will appear in the February 1984 issue
ofJAPCA. It will discuss application of baghouse technology
in the electric utility industry.
References
1. R. E. Bickelhaupt, "The Influence of Ash Chemistry on Volume
Conduction in Fly Ash," Proceedings of Symposium on Control
of Fine-Particulate Emissions from Industrial Sources, January
1974.
2. M. W. McElroy, R. C. Carr, D. S. Ensor, G. R. Markowski, "Size
distribution of fine particles from coal combustion," Science, 215:
13 (1982).
3. R. M. Bradway, R. W. Cass, "Fractional Efficiency of a Utility
Boiler Baghouse, Nucla Generating Plant," EPA-600/2-75-013-a,
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, August 1975.
4. R. W. Cass, R. M. Bradway, "Weight Collection Efficiency for a
Utility Boiler Baghouse," presented at the 70th Annual Meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, June 1977.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
 5. D. S. Ensor, R. G. Hooper, R. W. Scheck, "Determination of the
Fractional Efficiency, Opacity Characteristics, Engineering and
Economic Aspects of a Fabric Filter Operating on a Utility Boil-
er," EPRI FP-297, Project 534-1, Final Report, Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, November 1976.
6. D. S. Ensor, S. Cowen, A. Shendrikar, G. Markowski, G. Wof-
finden, R. Pearson, R. Scheck, "Kramer Station Fabric Filter
Evaluation," RP1130-1, Final Report CS-1669, Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, January 1981.
7. R. M. Jensen, "Potential Improvements in Baghouse Design,"
Proceedings of the 5th International Fabric Alternatives Forum,
Arizona State University and American Air Filter, July 1981.
8. R. F. Afonso, G. B. Gilbert, "Fluid Dynamic Guidelines for Fabric
Filters," RP1129-5, Final Report, Electric Power Research In-
stitute, Palo Alto, CA, February 1984.
9. J. Clay, "Fluid Dynamic Considerations in the Design of a Fabric
Filter System," Proceedings of the Second Conference on Fabric
Filter Technology for Coal-Fired Power Plants, Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, December 1983.
10. D. Eskinazi, G. B. Gilbert, "Development of Guidelines for Op-
timum Baghouse Fluid Dynamic System Design," EPRI CS-2427,
Project 1129-5, Final Report, Electric Power Research Institute,
Palo Alto, CA, June 1982.
11. F. H. Walker, G. J. Floyd, "Operating Experience in Australia
with Fabric Filters on Power Boilers," Proceedings of the Second
Conference on Fabric Filter Technology for Coal-Fired Power
Plants, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, De-
cember 1983.
12. G. N. Bolen, "Manufacture of Glass-Fiber Yarns," Proceedings
of the Second Conference on Fabric Filter Technology for Coal-
Fired Power Plants, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto,
CA, December 1983.
13. C. B. Hotchkiss, L. F. Cox, "Fabric and Finish Selection, Manu-
facturing Techniques and Other Factors Affecting Bag Life in
the Coal-Fired Boiler Application," Proceedings of the Second
Conference on Fabric Filter Technology for Coal-Fired Power
Plants, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, De-
cember 1983.
14. R. C. Carr, W. B. Smith, K. M. Cushing, "Performance Evaluation
of Reverse-Gas Baghouses on Coal-Fired Utility Boilers," Pro-
ceedings of the Second Conference on Fabric Filter Technology
for Coal-Fired Power Plants, Electric Power Research Institute,
Palo Alto, CA, December 1983.
15. L. G. Felix, R. L. Merritt, R. C. Carr, "Performance Evaluation
of Several Full-Scale Utility Baghouses," Proceedings of the
Second Conference on Fabric Filter Technology for Coal-Fired
Power Plants, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA,
December 1983.
16. B. E. Pyle, W. B. Smith, "Fine Particle Handbook," RP781-4,
Final Report CS 3388, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo
Alto, CA, January 1984.
17. R. Chambers, "Fabric Filter Research at Southwestern Public
Service Company," Proceedings of the Second Conference on
Fabric Filter Technology for Coal-Fired Power Plants, Electric
Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, December 1983.
18. W. B. Smith, L. G. Felix, W. J. Steele, "Analysis and interpreta-
tion of fabric filter performance," Proceedings of the Second
Conference on Fabric Filter Technology for Coal-Fired Power
Plants, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, De-
cember 1983.
19. C. E. Billings, J. E. Wilder, Handbook of Fabric Filter Technol-
ogy, Volume 1, Fabric Filter Systems Study, NTIS No. P13 100
648, Dec. 1970.
Mr. Carr is Program Manager, Air Quality Control, Coal
Combustion Systems Division, Electric Power Research In-
stitute, P.O. Box 10412, Palo Alto, CA 94303. Dr. Smith is
Head, Physics Division, Environmental Sciences Research
Department, Southern Research Institute, P.O. Box 55305,
Birmingham, AL 35255.
Largest Scrubber Retrofit Program
Nearing Completion at Four Corners
When the Four Corners Power Station near Farmington,
New Mexico, entered service in 1969, the plant met all regu-
latory requirements for emissions control. In June, 1978, the
state of New Mexico enacted stricter particulate regulations.
The state followed that by enacting stricter sulfur dioxide
emissions regulations in November, 1980.
January 1984 Volume 34, No. 1
Arizona Public Service (APS), the plant operator, began an
enterprising program to comply with the new regulations.
Now, APS is nearing -completion on the largest flue gas
desulfurization retrofit in the world.
New Environmental Regulations
The Four Corners Power Station, a five-unit mine-mouth
plant, is a key generating station in the Southwest. Units 4 and
5, each rated at 745 MW net, are jointly owned by Arizona
Public Service, El Paso Electric Company, Public Service
Company of New Mexico, Salt River Agricultural Improve-
ment & Power District, Southern California Edison Company
and Tucson Electric Power Company.
Prior to December 31,1982, the state regulations required
that total particulate emissions not exceed 0.5 lb per million
Btu on Units 4 and 5. After December 31,1982, the regulations
required that total particulate emissions not exceed 0.05 lb
per million Btu and fine particulate emissions less than two
miorons (equivalent aerodynamic diameter) not exceed 0.04
per million Btu.
In addition, the state SO2 regulations required a 30-day
rolling average SO2 removal level of 72 percent for the overall
plant. The SO2 regulation is effective after December 31,
1984.
After the new laws and agreements were completed, APS
was left with a major compliance project. In addition to
upgrading the wet particulate scrubbers on Units 1, 2 and 3,
APS needed to retrofit Units 4 and 5 with both particulate and
FGD systems.
Together with United Engineers & Constructors, Inc., the
architect-engineer, APS elected to construct a fabric filter
system for particulate removal.
The Advanced Energy and Environmental Systems Divi-
sion of Babcock & Wilcox, Barberton, Ohio, received the
award to construct wet FGD systems on Units 4 and 5, uti-
lizing slurried lime as the reagent.
The system consists of ten absorber modules 39.5 ft. in di-
ameter and approximately 98 ft. high. Each module has a
patented gas distribution tray and is designed for 90 percent
SO2 removal. APS expects to meet the 72 percent SO2 removal
requirement on Units 4 and 5 with the new scrubbers. (On
Units 1,2 and 3, the SO2 removal requirement will be met by
upgrading the existing venturi scrubbers.) Each B&W module
will treat nearly 650,000 acfm of saturated flue gas in a closed
loop system.
A scrubbing train also includes lime-slurry, thickener and
waste-processing system. There are isolation dampers for each
module, as well as a bypass for reheat, four spray banks, an
integral recirculation tank and mist eliminator.
Complete management control for the B&W scrubber is
provided by a Bailey Controls 820 Analog Control System.
Coal Analysis
Four Corners burns nearly seven-million tons of subbitu-
minous-low-sulfur coal a year. Located on a Navajo Indian
reservation, the plant has easy access to the adjacent Navajo
coal mine, estimated at 1.1 billion tons. Percent sulfur ranges
from 0.6 to 1.0, with a typical value of 0.78 percent.
Unusual Welding QC
Quality control is always important, but there is a unique
part of this project that required special emphasis. The ab-
sorber towers were constructed of 317LM stainless steel, a high
chromium-nickel grade used to combat the corrosive elements.
This was the first known use of 317LM for this application.
Welding this metal required sophisticated procedures.
The B&W Construction Company, erector for the FGD
project, pre-tested welding procedures at its headquarters in
89