Territoriality: A Neglected Sociological Dimension

Author(s): Stanford M. Lyman and Marvin B. Scott

Source: Social Problems, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Autumn, 1967), pp. 236-249
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social Problems
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236 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

colleagues'perceptionsof her intrinsic reportthatevenon suchsimpledaily

as well as herexchangevalue,and her activities as findingsomeoneto have
acceptance intothe "club." Perhaps it lunchor takea coffeebreakwith,or
is amongthesefactorsthatthereis a findingsomeonewithwhomshe can
basis for complaintand indignation. chewoveran idea,or on largerissues
Fromcomments thatrespondents have such as findinga partnerwithwhom
writtenon their questionnaires and she can sharea researchinterest, the
fromconversations with womenfac- womanPh.D. has a specialand lower
ulty members,we suggestthat the status.Perhaps,then,it is in matters
"problem"whichbothersthe woman suchas thesethatshe has achievedless
Ph.D. whois a fulltimecontributor to than full membership in the "club,"
her professionis that she is denied and she is leftwitha feelingthatshe
manyof theinformal signsof belong- belongsto a minority groupwhichhas
ing and recognition.These women notgainedfullacceptance.

TERRITORIALITY: A NEGLECTED SOCIOLOGICAL

DIMENSION*

STANFORD M. LYMAN ANDMARVIN B. SCOTT

SonomaStateCollege

or the attemptto control space, is conceived as a fundamental

Territoriality,
human activity.Distinguished are four types of territory(viz., public territories,
home territories, and body territories),threetypesof terri-
interactionalterritories,
torial encroachment(viz., violation,invasion,and contamination),and three types
of reactionto encroachment(viz., turfdefense,insulation,and linguisticcollusion).
Certaingroups are spatiallydeprivedof free territory-thatis, the ecological con-
ditionsthataffordopportunitiesfor idiosyncrasy and expressionof desiredidentities.
In responseto thisabsenceof freespace, spatiallydeprivedgroupsrespondto various
kinds of body manipulation,body adornment,and body penetration(i.e., the modi-
ficationof inner space).

All livingorganismsobservesome sense-whetherlearnedor instinctive

that is, some to theirspecies-in whichcontrolover
sense of territoriality,1
* We are gratefulto Donald Ball and
Edwin Lemertfor their criticalreading of
the manuscript.
1 The conceptof territoriality was intro-
duced into sociologicalanalysisin the twen-
ties under the label of "the ecological
school." For an early statementsee Robert
E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess, and R. D.
McKenzie, The City,Chicago: Universityof
Chicago Press, 1925. For a summaryand
bibliographyof the school see Milla Aissa
Alihan, Social Ecology, N.Y.: Columbia
UniversityPress, 1938. An updated version
of this school is foundin JamesA. Quinn,
Human Ecology,N.Y.: Prentice-Hall,1950,
and Amos H. Hawley, Human Ecology, A
Theoryof Community Structures,N.Y.: The
Ronald Press,1950.
Originatingin animal studies, "territori-
ality"still looms large as an organizingcon-
cept in ethology.For a summarystatement
see C. R. Carpenter, "Territoriality:A
Review of Concepts and Problems,"in A.
Roe and G. Simpson,editors,Behavior and
Evolution, New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1958, pp. 224-50.
For a challenging argumentthat socio-
logical investigationcan fruitfullyemploy
the techniques of comparativeethology-
especiallyto such subjectsas territoriality-

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 Territoriality 237

space is deemedcentralfor survival.2 normatively discrepantbehaviorand

Althoughman'sdomination overspace maintenance of specificidentities-are
is potentially unlimited, in contempo- intimately connected withtheabilityto
it
rarysociety appears that men ac- attachboundaries to space and com-
knowledge increasinglyfewer free mandaccessto or exclusionfromterri-
territories forthemselves.3 tories.
Free territory is carvedout of space In American societywhereterritorial
and affords for
opportunities idiosyn- encroachment affectsnearlyall mem-
and
crasy identity. Central to the mani- bersof society,certainsegments of the
festationof these opportunities are populationare particularly deprived,
boundarycreationand enclosure.This namely,Negroes,women,youth,and
is so becauseactivities thatruncounter inmatesof variouskinds.With these
to expectednormsneed seclusionor categories in mind,thispaperre-intro-
invisibility to permitunsanctioned per- ducesa neglecteddimensionof social
formance, and becausepeculiariden- analysisimportantto understanding
tities are sometimesimpossibleto deprivedgroups.
realizein theabsenceof an appropriate Our strategyis twofold:first,to
setting.4Thus the opportunities for bringtogether undera newsetof orga-
freedomof action-with respectto nizingconcepts thenotionsof typesof
see Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox, "The territory,
of
types territorial encroach-
Zoological Perspective in Social Science," ment, and of
types responsesto en-
Man, I., 1, (March, 1966), esp. p. 80. croachment; and second,to specify the
Only very recentlyhave sociologists re- reactions of spatiallydeprivedgroups.
vived ecological thinkingto include a truly
interactional dimension. The outstanding
THE TYPES OF TERRITORIES
contributoris, of course, Edward T. Hall.
See his The Silent Language, Garden City, We can distinguishfour kindsof
N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., 1959, and The
Hidden Dimension, Garden City, N.Y.:
territories,
namely,public territories,
Doubleday and Co., 1966. For a masterful
home territories,
interactionalterri-
applicationof the conceptof territorialityin toriesand bodyterritories.
interactional terms see Erving Goffman,
Asylums, Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday PublicTerritories
and Co., AnchorBooks, 1961, pp. 227-248.
In a slightlydifferent vein see the interest- Public territories
are those areas
ing effortsof Robert Sommer,"Studies in wherethe individualhas freedomof
Personal Space," Sociometry,22 (Septem-
ber, 1959), pp. 247-60, and the writingsof
access,butnotnecessarily of action,by
Roger Barker, especially his "Roles, Eco-
virtueof his claim to citizenship.5
logical Niches, and the Psychologyof the are officially
These territories open to
Absent Organism," paper presentedto the all, butcertain and
images expectations
conferenceon the PropositionalStructureof of appropriatebehaviorandof thecate-
Role Theory,Universityof Missouri, 1962.
2 For the argument that human terri- goriesof individuals
who are normally
torialityis a natural ratherthan a cultural perceivedas using these territories
phenomenonsee RobertArdrey,The Terri- modifyfreedom. First,it is commonly
torial Imperative, New York: Athenum,
expectedthatillegalactivities and im-
1966, pp. 3-41.
3 The idea of "free territory" is derived 5 The term "citizenship" is used in a
fromGoffman,loc. cit. sense similar to that employed by T. H.
4 See Erving Goffman,The Presentation Marshall in Class, Citizenship and Social
of Self in EverydayLife, Garden City,N.Y.: Development,Garden City, N.Y.: Double-
Doubleday AnchorBooks, 1959, p. 22. day AnchorBooks, 1965, esp. pp. 71-134.

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238 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

permissiblebehaviorwill not occur unseemlypersons from territories

in publicplaces.Sincepublicterritorieswhichtheydo notregularly habituate,
are vulnerable to violationin bothre- or whentheyrestrict certaincategories
spects,however, policemen arecharged of personsto specific areas.7
withthetaskof removing lawbreakers Publicterritories arethusambiguous
fromthe sceneof theiractivities and with respectto accorded freedoms.
restrictingbehavior in publicplaces.6 First,the official rightsof accessmay
Second,certaincategories of persons be regularly violatedby local custom.
areaccordedonlylimitedaccessto and Second,statusdiscrepancy maymodify
restrictedactivityin publicplaces. It activityand entrance rights. For
is expected,forinstance, thatchildren example,theambiguity in the distinc-
will not be playingin public play- tion betweenminorsand adultsis a
groundsaftermidnight;that lower- sourceof confusion and concernin the
class citizenswill not live-although regulationof temporaland access
theymightwork-in areasof middle- rightsto thosewhosestatusis unclear.
classresidence;and thatNegroeswill Finally,activitiesonce forbiddenin
notbe foundleisurely strolling on the public may be declaredpermissible,
sidewalks of white neighborhoods,thusenlarging thefreedom of theterri-
thoughtheymightbe foundlayingthe tory;or activities oncelicitmaybe pro-
sewerpipe underthestreets. scribed,thusrestricting it. Hence dis-
Since the rightsof such discrepant playof femalebreastsis nowpermitted
groupsto use theseterritories as citi- in San Francisconightclubs, butnoton
zens sometimes contradicts the privi- the streetsor beforechildren.Nude
leges accordedthemas persons,such swimming enjoyspolice protection at
arenotinfrequently
territories thetest- certaindesignated beaches,but watch-
inggroundsof challenges to authority.ing nude swimmersat these same
The wave of sit-ins,wade-ins,and beachesis forbidden to thosewho are
in
demonstrations raciallysegregated attired.
restaurants,publicbeaches,and schools
constitute an outstandingrecentex- Home Territories
ample.Informalrestrictions on access Home territories areareaswherethe
to publicterritories oftenviolateunen- regularparticipants have a relative
forcedor as yetuntested rights of citi- freedom of behavior and a sense of
zens.Sincetheinformal delineation of intimacy and controloverthearea.Ex-
some of theseterritories impliesthe amplesincludemakeshift club houses
absenceof certainpersons,theirpres- of children, hobo jungles,and homo-
ence standsout. Policemenfrequentlysexual bars. Home and public terri-
becomeallies of locals in restrictingtoriesmaybe easilyconfused.In fact
citizenshiprightswhen theyremove "the areas of public places and the
6 See HarveySacks, "Methods in Use for
areasof hometerritories arenotalways
the Productionof a Social Order: A Method clearly
in
differentiated thesocialworld
for Warrantably Informing Moral Char- andwhatmaybe defined andusedas a
acter" Center for the Study of Law and publicplace by somemaybe defined
Society,Universityof California,Berkeley,
1962; and Aaron Cicourel, The Social Or- 7 See JeromeSkolnick,Justice Without
ganization of JuvenileJustice,unpublished Trial, New York: John Wiley, 1966, pp.
manuscript. 96-111 et passim; and Sacks, op. cit.

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 Territoriality 239

and used as a home territory by to a formally freeterritory byvirtueof

others."8Thus, a home territory that discovery, regularusage, or peculiar
also may be used as a public one is relationship. Thus certainrestaurants
definedby its regularuse by specific becomehometerritories to thosewho
personsor categories of personsandby are impressedwith their firstmeal
the particular"territorial stakes" or there;to thosewho eat thereon spe-
"identity pegs" that are found in such cificoccasions, suchas luncheons, birth-
places.The styleof dressand language days,or aftersportingevents;and to
amongthepatronsat a barmayimme- those who are intimatewith the
diatelycommunicate to a homosexual waitress.
thathe has arrivedin hometerritory, Loss of home statusmay be occa-
while a heterosexualpasserbywho sionedbythedeathor resignation of a
pauses for a drinkmaybe astonished sponsor,byviolationof thepreviously
or outragedwhen he is accostedfor established usages,by rejection, or by
sexualfavorsfromthestranger seated conquest.Erstwhile "regulars"at a bar
next to him. Large-scaleclandestine maydiscover theyareno longerwarmly
brotherhoods indoctrinatetheirmem- greetednor eligiblefor a freedrink
bers in secretcodes of dressand de- whenthe diesor whentheir
proprietor
meanorso thatregardless of theirlater
patronagebecomesirregular.Homo-
travelsthey can unobtrusively com- sexuals may desert a "queer bar"
municatetheirfraternalidentityand whenit becomesa
placewhichhetero-
ask forassistancefromone anotherin sexuals
frequent observedeviant
to
otherwisepublic places. Home terri- behavior.
tories sometimesenjoy a proactive It is becauseof theiroffi-
precisely
status,beyondthepresenceof theirin- conditionthatpublicareas
cially open
habitants,in the form of reserved arevulnerable to conversion intohome
chairs,drinking mugs,signsor memo- territories. The rulesof opennessare
rabiliathatserveto indicatespecialand broad and ambiguousso
reserved distinctions. sufficiently
that restrictions on time,place, and
Home territories maybe established mannerare difficult to promulgate and
by "sponsorship"or "colonization." nearly to enforce. Armed
An exampleof the formeris found impossible
with a piece of chalk childrencan
in themerchant emigrants fromChina the public sidewalk into a
whoestablished caravansariesin certain change traffic.
gameboard blockingpedestrian
quartersof Occidentalcities which Despite buildingcodes and parental
servedas publictradingestablishments convertaban-
admonitions youngsters
butalso as livingquarters,employmentdoned buildingsor newlybegunsites
agencies,meeting places,and courtsfor intoforts,clubs,and hideaways.10
theirLandsmainner.9 Colonizationoc-
curswhena personor grouplaysclaim 10toIndeed, childrenare among the most
regular and innovative creators of home
8 Sherri Cavan, "Interaction in Home fromthe space and materialavail-
territories
Territories,"BerkeleyJournalof Sociology, able to the public in general. Speaking of
5 (1963) p. 18. their peculiar tendencyto violate the rules
9 See StanfordM. Lyman,The Structure governing trespass, William Prosser has
of Chinese Society in NineteenthCentury aptlyobserved,"Children,as is well known
America, unpublished, Ph.D. dissertation, to anyone who has been a child, are by
Berkeley:Universityof California,1961. nature unreliable and irresponsiblepeople,

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240 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

But childrenare not the onlycolo- streetsas publicterritories, youthsre-

nizerson thepubliclands.Beggarsand solvethedilemmabyredefining adults
hawkers will stakeouta "territory" on as non-persons whoseseemingly viola-
thesidewalksor amongtheblocksand tivepresence on theyouth's "turf"does
occupyit sometimes to the exclusion not challengethe latter'sproprietor-
of all otherssimilarly employed.The ship. Streetsare most vulnerableto
idle and unemployedwill loiteron colonizingin thismannerand indeed,
certainstreetcorners, monopolizing the as the earlystudiesof the Chicago
space,and frightening offcertainre- sociologists illustrated so well, streets
spectable typeswiththeirloud,boister- andknotsof juxtaposed streetsbecome
ous, or obscene language, cruel jests, unofficial home areas to all those
and suggestive leers.Membersof racial groupswho requirerelatively secluded
and ethnicgroupscolonizea portion yetopenspacein whichto pursuetheir
of the cityand adorn it with their interests or maintaintheiridentities.12
peculiar institutions, language, and
rulesof conduct."Ethnicenclaves, like Interactional Territories
certainnotorious homosexual barsand Interactional territoriesreferto any
prisonson open-houseday,are often area wherea socialgathering mayoc-
"on display"to non-ethnics who thus cur.Surrounding anyinteraction is an
grantlegitimacy to the colony's claim invisible boundary, a kind of social
forterritorial identity. membrane.'1 A partyis an interactional
Among the most interesting ex- territory,as are the severalknotsof
amples of colonizing on the public people who formclustersat parties.
lands are thoseattempts by youthsto Everyinteractional territoryimplicitly
stake out streetsas home territoriesmakesa claimof boundary maintenance
open only to membersof theirown for the durationof the interaction.
clique and defendedagainstinvasion Thusaccessand egressaregoverned by
byrivalgroups.Subjectalwaysto offi- rulesunderstood, thoughnot officially
cial harassment bypoliceand interfer-promulgated, bythemembers.
ence by otheradultswho claim the Interactional territoriesare charac-
mobile
teristically and fragile.Partici-
who are quite likelyto do almost anything.
In particular,they have a deplorable ten- pants
in a conversation mayremainin
one place, strollalong, or moveperiod-
dency to strayupon land which does not
belong to them,and to meddle with what icallyor erratically. Theymayinterrupt
they find there." "Trespassing Children," onlyto resumeit at a latertimewith-
California Law Review, (August, 1959), outpermanently breaking theboundary
p. 427. or the Even
11 Ethnic groups in the process of as- disintegrating group.
similationsometimesdiscoverto theiraston- where "settings" required the
are for
ishmentthatthe isolated slum whereinthey interaction, mobility need not be dys-
have traditionallyand unwillinglydwelt is functional if the itemsappropriate to
in fact a home territory possessed of cher-
ished values and irreplaceablesentiments. 12 HarveyW. Zorbaugh,The Gold Coast
A militantNegro thus writes: "For as my and the Slums, Chicago: Universityof Chi-
son, Chuck,wrote me afterexposureto the cago Press, 1929. See also JaneJacobs,The
Negro communityof Washington: 'I sud- Death and Life of Great American Cities,
denly realized that the Negro ghettois not N.Y.: Vintage Books, 1961, pp. 29-142.
a ghetto.It is home.'" JohnOliver Killens, 13 See Erving Goffman, Behavior in
Black Man's Burden, New York: Trident Public Places, N.Y.: The Free Press of
Press, 1965, p. 94. Glencoe, 1963, pp. 151-165 et passim.

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 Territoriality 241

thesettingaremovable.Thus chemists governmasturbation, or theappearance

maynot be able to completea discus- and decorationof skin. Moreover,
sion withoutthe assistanceof a lab- rightsof othersto touchone'sbodyare
oratory, butchessplayersmayassemble everywhere regulated, thoughperhaps
or disassemble the game quite readily modernsocietiesimposegreater restric-
and in the most crampedquarters. tionsthanothers.15
Similarly,so long as Negroes were Bodyterritory is also convertible into
chattelslavesslaveholders might move home territory. The most common
themanywhere wheretheirservicesor methodis marriagein a monogamous
appearance wereneeded. societyin whichsexual accessto the
The fragility of interactional terri- femaleis deemedtheexclusive rightof
tories is constantly being tested by the husband so long as he exercises
parvenusand newcomers. The latter, propriety with respectto his status.
evenwhentheypossesscredentials en- Ownership, however, is notnecessarily
titlingthemto entrance intotheinter- or alwayscoterminous withpossession,
actionalcircle,break down ongoing so thatsexual rivalrymightcontinue
interactionand threaten it byrequiring illegitimately aftera maritalchoicehas
all to startoveragain,end it instead, beenmadeand eruptin trespass on the
and begina new subjectof common husband's sexual property.16 Under
interest, Parvenusare situationswhere women are scarce,
or disintegrate.14
a greaterthreatsince theirpresence such as nineteenth-century overseas
breakstheboundaries of theinteractionChinese communities in the United
and challenges theexclusiveness of the States,sexualproperty was institution-
group.They maybe repulsed,or ac- alized throughorganizedprostitution,
ceptedfully,thoughthe latteris less and thefewChinesewivesamongthe
likelythanthegrantingof a "tempo- homeless men were carefullyse-
raryvisa,"i.e.,rightsto interactforthe cluded.17
instantoccasionwith no promiseof Body space is, however,subjectto
equal rightsin thefuture. creativeinnovation, idiosyncrasy, and
destruction. First, the body may be
BodyTerritories markedor marredbyscars,cuts,burns,
In certainof its
Finally,thereare body territories,and tattoos. addition,
whichincludethe space encompassed parts may be inhibitedor removed
bythehumanbodyand theanatomical withoutits completeloss of function.
spaceof thebody.The latteris, at least
themostprivateand in- 15 Talcott Parsons notes that "the very
theoretically, factthataffectionate bodily contactis almost
violateof territories belonging to an completelytaboo among men in American
individual.The rightsto view and societyis probablyindicativeof [the limited
touchthebodyare of a sacrednature, nature of intra-sex friendship] since it
subject to great restriction. For in- stronglylimits affectiveattachment."The
Social System,Glencoe: Free Press, 1951,
a
stance, person'srights to his own
p. 189. For an empiricalstudyand analysis
bodyspaceare restricted wherenorms of touchingrelationssee Erving Goffman,
"The Nature of Deferenceand Demeanor,"
14 An excellentillustrationof the several AmericanAnthropologist, 58 (June, 1956),
facets of this process and attendantissues pp. 473-502.
in social gatheringsis found in David Ries- 16 See Kingsley Davis, Human Society,
man, et al., "The VanishingHost," Human New York: Macmillan, 1948, pp. 19-193.
Organization,(Spring, 1960), pp. 17-27. 17 Lyman,op. cit.,pp. 97-111.

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242 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Thesemarkings havea meaning beyond tween acquaintances or strangers.A

thepurelyanatomical. Theyareamong personwho persistsin violatingthe
theindicatorsof statusor stigma.They extraterritorialspaceof anotherof the
can be signs of bravadoas was the samesexmaybe accusedof tactlessness
duelingscaramongGermanstudents, and suspected of homosexuality,
while
or of criminalityas is a similarscaron uninvitedintersexinvasionmayindi-
Italiansand Negroesin America.Loss cate unwarranted More-
familiarity.'9
of an eyemaypreventone's entrance over,eyecontactand visualpersistence
into dental school,but at least one can be a measureof externalspace.
clothingmanufacturer regards one- Thus two strangersmay look one
eyed men as statussymbols forstarched anotherover at the properdistance,
shirts.Tattoosmaymemorialize one's butas theynearone another,propriety
mother or sweetheart as wellas indicate requiresthattheytreatone anotheras
one's seafaringoccupation. non-personsunlessa directcontactis
The humanorganism extra- goingto be made.20
exercises
rightsoverbothinternal
territorial and Controlover "innerspace" is the
externalspace. In the latterinstance quintessence and free-
of individuality
the space immediately surrounding a dom. Violationsof "innerspace" are
personis also inviolate.18 Thus con- carriedout by domination, rangingin
versations among friends are ecologi- intensity perception morethan
from of
cally distinguishable from those be- is voluntarily
revealedto persuasion
and ultimately Demonstra-
hypnosis.21
18 The perceptionsof Simmel on this
19 An interesting dilemmain this respect
subjectsurpassall othersand we are indebted
to his work.Thus Simmelhas noted: "In re- arises for the deaf and myopic.In attempt-
gard to the 'significant'[i.e., "great"] man, ing to appear as "normals" theymay over-
thereis an innercompulsionwhich tells one step another'sterritorialspace and thus call
to keep at a distanceand whichdoes not dis- attentionto the very stigma they wish to
appear even in intimaterelationswith him. conceal. On the problemsof those who are
The only typeforwhom such distancedoes stigmatized see Goffman, Stigma, Engle-
not existis the individualwho has no organ wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
for perceivingdistance. . . The individual 1963.
who fails to keep his distancefroma great 20 Goffmanrefers to this as "civil in-
person does not esteem him highly,much attention."See Behavior in Public Places,
less too highly (as might superficiallyap- op. cit.
pear to be the case); but, on the contrary, 21 Compare the remarksby Simmel, op.
his importune behavior reveals lack of cit., p. 321. "In the interestof interaction
proper respect.. . The same sort of circle and social cohesion, the individual must
whichsurroundsa man-although it is value- know certainthingsabout the otherperson.
accentuated in a very differentsense-is Nor does the otherhave the rightto oppose
filledout by his affairsand by his character- this knowledgefroma moral standpoint,by
istics. To penetratethis circle by taking demanding the discretionof the first: he
notice,constitutesa violationof personality. cannot claim the entirelyundisturbedpos-
Justas materialpropertyis, so to speak, an session of his own being and consciousness,
extensionof the ego, thereis also an intel- since thisdiscretionmightharmthe interests
lectual private property,whose violation of his society.. . But even in subtlerand
effectsa lesion of the ego in its verycenter." less unambiguous forms, in fragmentary
Georg Simmel, "Secrecy and Group Com- beginningsand unexpressednotions,all of
munication,"reprintedin T. Parsons,et al., human intercourserests on the fact that
Theories of Society,New York: The Free everybodyknows somewhatmore about the
Press of Glencoe, 1961, p. 320. For an other than the other voluntarilyreveals to
updated statementof Simmel's point see him; and those things he knows are fre-
Goffman,Behaviorin Public Places, op. cit. quentlymatterswhose knowledgethe other

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 Territoriality 243

tion of idiosyncrasy with respectto Invasionof a territory occurswhen

"innerspace" is exemplified by the thosenot entitledto entranceor use
modifications possiblein thepresenta- nevertheless crossthe boundariesand
tion of self throughthe uses of the interrupt, halt,takeover,or changethe
severalstimulants and depressants. social meaningof the territory. Such
invasions, then, may be temporary or
TERRITORIAL ENCROACHMENT
enduring.
We can distinguish threeformsof Contamination of a territoryrequires
territorialencroachment: violation,in- thatitbe rendered impurewithrespect
vasion,and contamination. to itsdefinition andusage.Choleramay
Violationof a territory is unwar-
require that a portionof the citybe
ranteduse of it. Violatorsare those
quarantined. a racial caste society
In
who have repulsedor circumventedthe sidewalks
maybe contaminated by
those who would deny themaccess. low caste
personswalkingupon them.
Violatorsare also, by virtueof their Home territories be contaminated
may
acts, claimantsin some sense to the by pollutionor destructionof the
territory they have violated. Their "home" symbols.OrthodoxJewsmay
claim,however, mayvaryin scope,in- destroy theirdinnerware whenan un-
tensity,and objective.Childrenmay warymaid has accidentally mixedthe
violatethegravesof the dead by dig- milk and meat dishes.Heterosexuals
ging "for treasure"in the cemetery,who regularlycongregateat a bar
butunlikeghouls,theyarenotseeking sometimes discontinue theirpatronage
to removethe bodies for illicitpur- when knownhomosexuals
begin fre-
poses.Someterritories maybe violated, quentingthebar. (This exampleillus-
however,merelyby unwarranted en- tratesa continuum in the processof
tranceintothem.Amongtheseare all territorial encroachment frominvasion
thoseterritoriescommonly to to contamination.)
restricted Interactional terri-
categoricalgroups such as toilets, toriesmaybe contaminated by sudden
harems,nunneries, and publicbaths-- odors,
especiallyif theyemanatefrom
areascommonly restrictedaccording to one of theinteractants, or byindiscreet
sex. Otherterritoriesmaynotbe neces- language,e.g., obscenity, amongthose
sarilyviolatedbypresencebutonlyby forwhomidentification withsuchlan-
innovativeor prohibiteduse. Thus a loss of face or a
guage constitutes
someparents regardfamily-wide nudity reduction in status.23
as permissible, but hold that sexual
or intercourse ology, (November, 1949), pp. 254-261. Re-
interest amongany but printedin Parsons, et al., Theories of So-
themarriedpair is forbidden. Interac- ciety,op. cit.,pp. 157-163.
tionalterritoriesareviolatedwhenone 23 Here perhaps it is worth noting that
or moreof the legitimate interactantslanguage has a "tactile" dimension,in the
behavesout of character.22 sense that to be "touched" audially by cer-
elevated or reduced in
tain termsis to be
person (were he aware of it) would find status.For SouthernNegroes to be publicly
undesirable." See also Goffman,The Pre- addressed as "Mr.," "Miss," and "Mrs.,"
sentationOf Self in EverydayLife, op. cit., and by last names is consideredso relevant
pp. 1-16. for removal of caste barriers that legal
22 The structuralpropertiesand param- action to require these usages has been
etersof interactionalterritories
in unserious undertaken.We may also note that genteel
gatheringshave been admirablypresented persons are polluted by audial contactwith
by Georg Simmel. See his "The Sociology slang, obscenity,and, on occasion,idiomatic
of Sociability,"American Journal of Soci- expression.

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244 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Contamination of bodilyterritoriesactorsare not privilegedto interact,

occurswheneverthe immediate space e.g., crowdedbuses. At othertimes
of or aroundthebodyis polluted.The bodies contaminated by impermissible
removalby bathingof materialin- contacts arerestored to theirpurestate
voluntarily attachedto theskinconsti- byapologies.
tutesa ritualizedpurification rite of Body space may be contaminated
considerableimportance in industrial bya kindof negativecharismatic con-
societies.24However,body space may tact wherebyobjects which,though
be contaminated in many ways, by neutral in themselves, carrycontaminat-
smell,look,touch,and byproximity to ing effect whentransferred directlyto
contaminated or
persons things. The the body. Thus a comb or toothbrush
sensitivitywithrespectto touchillus- maynotbe lentor borrowed in certain
tratesthe complexnatureof thiscon- circlessinceto use someoneelse'stools
tamination and also itspeculiarlysocial of personalhygieneis to contaminate
character.The rules regardingtouch oneself.Typically, whenclothing, espe-
are highlydevelopedin Americanso- ciallyclothingthatwill directly touch
cietyand are clearindicators of social the skin,is lent,it is properforthe
distance between individuals and lenderto assuretheborrower thatthe
groups.25Typically, older people can is
apparel dean, and that it has not
touchyoungerones,but suspicionsof been worn by anyonesince its last
sexual immorality modifysuch con- cleaning.26 A more strikingexample
tacts.Womenwhoare friendsor rela- involvestheruleof someshopsforbid-
tives may greetone anotherwith a dingNegroesfromtrying on clothes-
lightkiss (commonly calleda "peck") theirskin being regardedas a sourceof
on the cheek,but not on the lips. pollution.Similarly, drinking fromthe
Men who are long absent may be sameglassas anotheris discouraged as
greetedby male friends and relatives a matter of hygieneamong the middle
witha heartyembraceand a touching classand as a sourceof pollutionif it
of the cheeks,but the embracemust occursamongpersonsof different races
not be overlongor tender.Indeed, or castes.
"rough-housing," mock-fighting, and
are commonlyem- REACTION TO ENCROACHMENT
pseudo-hostility
ployedin masculineaffective relation- We have already suggestedthat
ships.Touchwhichwouldotherwise be something relation
of a reciprocal exists
contaminating is exemptfrom such betweenthe territorial types.For ex-
designation whenit takesplacein situ- ample,a publicswimming pool-while
ationsof intensesocialaction,e.g., on officiallyopento all persons-might be
a dancefloor,or in situationswhenthe conceived bycertainregularusersas an
24 See Horace Miner,
exclusivearea.Strangers seekingaccess
"Body Ritual
Among the Nacirema," American Anthro- 26 Robin Williams has shown that one
pologist,55, No. 3, 1956. test of social distance among the races in
25 Note such phrases as "I wouldn't America is their unwillingnessto try on
touch him with a ten-footpole"; "she's clothingat an apparel shop when theyhave
under my skin"; "he's a pain in the neck," witnessedthatclothingtriedon and rejected
and "Look, but don't touch." For the rules by members of another-and supposedly
regardingtouch see Erving Goffman,"The inferior-race. Robin Williams, Strangers
Nature of Deference and Demeanor," op. Next Door, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-
cit. Hall, 1964, pp. 125-130.

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 Territoriality 245

by virtueof theirdiffusecivic rights on theirown occupancy. Unwarranted

mightbe challengedby thosewhose intrusionon interactional territories
sense of peculiar proprietyis thus maybe countenanced if theunwelcome
violated.Such a confrontation (some- guest indicateshis willingnessto be
timescalled"whenpushmeetsshove") presenton thisoccasionalonewithno
could resultin retreaton the partof futurerightsof reentry, or to listen
thepartyseekingadmittance, flighton onlyand notto interrupt theproceed-
the partof thosefavoringdenial,or ings.Bodiesusuallyinvulnerable tofeel
strategy and tactics on the part of the and by
probe strangers may be violated
contending partiesto expandthearea if circumstances renderthe act physi-
of legitimate accesson the one hand, callysafe,sociallyirrelevant, or emo-
and withholdentirelyor restrict the tionallyneutral.Thus femalenurses
meaningof entry on theother. maymassagetheirmale patientswith
Of course,the occupantsof a terri- mutualimpunity, andstriptease dancers
torymay extend its use to others whose may perform unclothed upon a raised
presenceis not regardedas a threat. stageout of reachof the audience.28
The mostcommonsituationis thatin However,all suchcontacts willtendto
whichcommonusage will not destroy be definedas territorial encroachment
or alterthe value of the territory.27 when the claimantsthreatenoblitera-
When public territories have been tion,monopoly, or fundamental altera-
colonizedby userswho do not fully tionof a Under
territory. these condi-
the who embroider tions,theholdersof territoryare likely
monopolize space,
it by theirpresence,or whose occu- to react to unwelcomeclaimantsin
pancystillallowsforotherpublicand termsof turfdefense,insulation,or
colonizingusages, the colonistswill linguistic collusion,
not be seriouslyopposed.Delinquent
gangswhooftendefinethestreets of a TurfDefense
neighborhood as a home territory do Turf defenseis a responsenecessi-
notusuallyregardthepresenceof local tatedwhentheintruder cannotbe tol-
adultsandchildren as an encroachmenterated.The animalworldprovidesa
multitudeof exampleswhichare in-
27 Our usage is similarto that employed structive with respectto the human
in describingthe relationshipsin plant-com- Here we may be content,
munities."The majorityof individualsof a
situation.29
are linked bonds other however, to confineourselvesto the
plant-community by
than those mentioned-bonds that are best humanscene.WhenChinesemerchants
described as commensal. The term com- sought"colonizing"rightsamongthe
mensalism is due to Van Beneden, who urbanmerchants of San Francisco,
wrote 'Le commensal est un
they
simplement
compagnonde table'; but we employit in a 28 Ann Terry D'Andre, "An Occupa-
somewhatdifferent sense to denotethe rela- tional Study of the Strip-DancerCareer,"
tionship subsistingbetween species which paper delivered at the annual meetingsof
share with one anotherthe supply of food- the Pacific Sociological Association, Salt
materialcontainedin soil and air, and thus Lake City,Utah, 1965.
feed at the same table." RobertE. Park and 29 See Ardrey, op. cit., p. 210, who
Ernest W. Burgess, Introductionto the writes: "Biology as a whole asks but one
Science of Sociology,Chicago: Universityof question of a territory:is it defended?De-
Chicago Press, 1921, p. 175. (adapted from fensedefinesit. Variabilitybecomesthe final
Eugenius Warming, Oecology of Plants, description."See also Konrad Lorenz, On
London: Oxford UniversityPress, 1909, Aggression, New York: Harcourt, Brace
pp. 12-13, 91-95.) and World, 1966, pp. 33-38 et passim.

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246 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

were welcomedand honored.A few professors fromstudents, and doctors

yearslater,however, theappearance of frompatients.33 Bodilyinsulation char-
Chineseminersin the whiteAmeri- acteristically takes the formof civil
cans'cherished gold fieldscalledforth inattention and maybe occasionedby
violent altercationsand forced re- a subordinate's inabilityto repelinva-
movals.30In contemporary American siondirectly. Another common formof
citiesdelinquent gangsarmthemselves insulationinvolvesuse of body and
withrocks,knives,tireirons,and zip facialidiomto indicateimpenetrability.
guns to repel invadersfrom other It maybe effected by theuse of sun-
streets."3Among the "primitive" glasses,34or attainedaccidentally, by
Kagorothechoiceof weaponsis esca- dintof culturally distinctperceptions
latedin accordance withthesocialdis- of facial gestures,as, for example,
tanceof thecombatants; poisonspears oftenhappensto orientalsin Western
and stratagems are employedexclu- settings.35 It can also be attainedby
sively against hostile strangersand consciousefforts in the management
invaders.3a2 and control of the mouth,nostrils, and
Turfdefenseis an ultimate response, especially the eyes.36
however.Othermoresubtlerepulsions
or restrictionsare availableto propri- Linguistic Collusion
etors wishingto maintainterritorial Linguistic collusioninvolvesa com-
control. plexsetof processes bywhichtheterri-
torialintegrity of the group is reaf-
Insulation is labelledas
firmedand the intruder
Insulationis theplacement of some an outsider.For example,the defend-
sortof barrierbetweenthe occupants ing interactants may engage one an-
of a territory and potentialinvaders.
The narrowstreets, steepstaircases,and 33 It is now a commonplaceof sociologi-

regularizeduse of Cantonese in
dialects cal irony that persons thus insulated are
vulnerable once the insulating material is
Chinatownsserve notice on tourists removed or
ubiquitously available. Thus
thattheymaylook over the external non-cornswill insult officersin clubs when
trappings of Chineselife in the Occi- both are out of uniform,psychiatristswill
dentalcitybutnot easilypenetrate its be mistakenfor patientsat dances held in
room of an insane asylum,
innerworkings. Distinctuniforms dis- the recreationwill
and students adopt an inappropriate
tinguishingstatus,rights, and preroga- familiaritywith professors not wearing a
tivesserveto protectmilitary officerscoat and tie.
fromtheimportunities of enlistedmen, 34 See Goffman, Behavior in Public
Places, op. cit.,p. 85 for a succinctaccount
30 See Mary Coolidge, Chinese Immigra- of the elementsof thisprocessas a formof
tion,New York: HenryHolt, 1909, pp. 15- civil inattention.
26, 255-56. 35 Kathleen Tamagawa, Holy Prayersin
31 See Lewis Yablonsky, The Violent a Horse's Ear, New York: Long, Smith,
Gang, New York: Macmillan,1962, pp. 29- Inc., 1932, pp. 144-151 et passim.AndreM.
100 for a good ethnographyof urbangangs. Tao-Kim-Hai, "Orientalsare Stoic," in F. C.
For an analyticaltreatmentsee FredericM. Macgregor,Social Science in Nursing,New
Thrasher,The Gang; Chicago: University York: Russell Sage, 1960, pp. 313-326.
of Chicago Press, 1927, pp. 97-100, 116- 36 See Georg Simmel, "The Aesthetic
129. Significance of the Face," in Kurt H. Wolff,
32 See M. G. Smith, "Kagoro Political editor, Georg Simmel 1858-1918, Colum-
Development,"Human Organization,(Fall, bus: Ohio State UniversityPress, 1959, pp.
1960), pp. 137-149. 280-281.

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 Territoriality 247

other in conversationand gestures Homosexualsengagedin flirtations in

designedto so confusetheinvaderthat a "gay" bar may exaggeratetheir
he respondsin a mannerautomaticallyfemininity when heterosexuals enter
labelling him eligible for either exclu- the establishment. Such stageddisplays
sionfromthegroupor shameful status call attention to the exclusiveculture
diminution. In one typicalstrategy the of the interactants and suggestto the
defending interactants will speak to outsider that he is bereftofthecardsof
oneanother in a languageunfamiliar to identity to
necessary participate.
the invader.Ethnicenclavesprovide
numerousexamples.Jewishand Chi- REACTION TO THE ABSENCE OF
nese storekeepers will speak Yiddish FREE SPACE
and Cantoneserespectively to their Thereare somesegments of society
clerkswhendiscussing prices,bargain- thataresystematically deniedfreeterri-
ing rights,and productqualityin the tories.One outstanding exampleis that
presenceof alien customers. Negroes of lower-classurban Negro youth.
mayengageone anotherin a gameof Theirhomesare small,cramped,and
"thedozens"in thepresence of intrud- cluttered and also serveas specialized
ing whites,causingthelatterconsider- areasof actionforadults;theirmeeting
able consternation and mystification.37
placesareconstantly undersurveillance
And teenagersdevelopa peer group
by theagentsof law enforcement and
argot (frequentlyborrowed from social workers;and, when in clusters
Negro and jazz musician usages) on the street,theyare oftenstopped
whichsetsthemapartfrombothchil- for and booked"on suspi-
questioning
drenand adults,and which,inciden- cion" the
by seemingly ever-present
tally,is mostfrequently citedas proof
police.38
for the claimthata distinctive youth What is the conditionof
culturedoes existin theUnitedStates. Negro
youth in particularappearsto be an
In anotherrecognizable strategy, the
exaggerated instance of thetrendwith
participants continue to engage in the to denial of freedomamong
same behaviorbut in a more exag- respect in Thus it has been
youth general.
geratedand "staged" manner.Mood thatyouthare adriftsome-
suggested
and tone of the voice are sometimes wherebetweenhumanism andfatalism,
regulatedto achievethis effect. Thus
i.e., between situations in whichthey
personsengagedin conversation may feeltheyhavecontrolovertheirdesti-
intensify theirtone and includemore niesand thosein whichsuchcontrolis
intra-group gestureswhenan outsider in thehandsof forcesoutsideyouth's
entersthearea.Professors mayescalate individual and influence.39In
direction
theuse of jargonand "academese"in one responseis to seek
sucha situation
conversations in the presenceof un- to maximizethe area of the
invitedstudentsor other"inferiors." freedom,
situationsin whichone can exercise
37 The usual situation is quite the re- libertyand license,the timesone can
verse, however. The "dozens" and other be cause ratherthan effect.Among
verbal contest forms are most frequently
used by Negroes within the ethnic enclave 38 See Carl Werthman,Delinquency and
out of earshot and view of whites. See Authority,M.A. Thesis, Universityof Cali-
Roger D. Abrahams, Deep Down in the fornia,Berkeley,1964.
Jungle,Hatboro,Penn.: FolkloreAssociates, 39 David Matza, Delinquency and Drift,
esp. pp. 41-64. New York: JohnWiley, 1964.

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248 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

lower-class youththecarvingof home whichinvolvelittleor no bodycontact

outof thespaceprovidedas but are nevertheless
territories suggestiveof the
publiconesis commonand has already mostintimate and forbidden formsof
been noted.Note also, however,the eroticinteraction. Further,male youth
frequencywith which youth-created-enjoined from verbal scatological
hometerritories aresubjectto invasion, formsbycustoms and byrulesof pro-
violation,and contamination and the priety-havedevelopeda gesturelan-
relativevulnerability of youthhome guagebywhichtheycan communicate
to suchencroachments.
territories the desiredobscenity withoututtering
Exercising freedomoverbody terri- it.
toryprovidesa morefruitful approach Adornment of the bodyis another
to thoseforwhompublicterritories are response.40 By covering,uncovering,
deniedand hometerritories difficultor marking, anddisfiguring thebodyindi-
impossible to maintain. The bodyand viduals can at least partlyovercome
its attendant innerand externalspace whateverloss of freedomtheysuffer
havean auraof ownership and control fromotherencroachments. Both the
aboutthemthatis impressed upon the French "bohemians" of thenineteenth
incumbent. The hypothesis we wishto century and the disaffected American
suggesthereis thatas otherformsof Negro youths of the twentiethhave
freeterritory are perceivedto be fore- exhibitedthemselvesas "dandies,"41
closedby certainsegments of the so- whiletheasceticDoukhobors ofBritish
ciety,thesesegments, or at leastthose Columbiadisrobeentirely andinpublic
elementsof the segmentsnot con- whenchallengedby authority.42 Body
strainedby othercompellingforces, spacemayalso be attended byfillingin
will utilizemorefrequently and inten- the apertures in nose,mouthand ears
sivelytheareaof bodyspaceas a free by rings,bones,and otheremblematic
territory.Threeformsof suchutiliza- artifacts;by markingupon the skin
tion are prominent:manipulation,withinksandtattoos;and bydisfigure-
adornment, and penetration. ments, scars,andseverance of non-vital
rests the factthat members.An alternativemode of
Manipulation upon thatappearsto be directed
the body is adjustablein a greater adornment,
numberof ways than are positively definitely againstelementsof the core
sanctioned and thatby modifying the culture, is the refusalto use instru-
of theself one can establish mentsof personalhygiene.We have
appearance noted how these instruments
identity,and flauntconventionwith alreadya
bothease and relativeimpunity. Thus acquire peculiaraspectof the per-
sonal charismaof the user so that
children,separatedfromone another
for beingnaughtyand enjoined from 40 Many suggestiveessayson this
subject
conversation, may sitand "make faces" can be found in Dress, Adornment,and the
at oneanother, conforming to theletter Social Order, in M. E. Roach and J. B.
of theirpunishment but violatingits Eicher, editors,N.Y.: JohnWiley, 1965.
41 See Cesar Grana, Bohemian vs. Bour-
principle.Teenagers,deniedapproval geois, New York: Basic Books, 1964, and
forthe verysexualactivity forwhich Harold Finestone,"Cats, Kicks, and Color,"
theyarebiologically prepared, and also Social Problems,5, 1 (1957), pp. 3-13.
enclosedmoreand morefromprivate 42 See Harry B. Hawthorn,editor, The
of British Columbia, Van-
usageof publicterritories forsuchpur- Doukhobors
couver, B. C.: The Universityof British
poses, have developed dance forms Columbia and Dent & Sons, 1955.

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 Territoriality 249

people do not customarily borrowthe freedom and situatedaction.Although

comb,toothbrush, and razorof another theearlyschoolof ecologyin American
unless the contamination that occurs sociologyprovideda possibleavenue
thereby is neutralized. Here, however, forthiskindof exploration, itspracti-
adornment occursby simplynotwash- tionersappear to have eschewedthe
ing,combing, shaving, cutting thehair, interactionist and phenomenological
etc. Like public nuditythis formof aspectsof the subjectin favorof the
assertiveness andreaction to oppression economicand thebiotic.Nevertheless,
has theadvantageof inhibiting a like muchof theirworkneedsto be exam-
response amongthosewhoareoffended inedafreshforthecluesit providesfor
bytheappearancecreatedthereby, but, understanding thenatureand function
unlike strippingin public, has the of spaceand theorganization of terri-
addedadvantageof beinglegal. tories.Similarly theworkdone by the
Penetration refersto theexploitation students of non-human animalassocia-
and modification of innerspacein the tion providesclues to conceptforma-
searchfor free territory. One might tionand suggestions forresearch. Here
hypothesize that the greater the sense we may mention several potentially
of unfreedom, thegreaterthe exercise fruitful areas.The firstinvolvescross-
of bodyliberty so thatpenetration is an culturalstudiesof territoriality. Such
escalatedaspectof manipulation and studieswould attemptto describein
adornment.There is, as it were, a greaterspecificity the constituent fea-
seriesof increasing gradations of body turesof typesof territoriality, theways
space. The ultimateeffortis to gain in whichtheyvary,and theirinterrela-
freedom bychanging one'sinternal en- tionships.Using a cross-cultural per-
vironment. The simplestformof this spectivewould also serve to specify
is cultivating a vicarioussenseof being genericformsof reactions to territorial
away,of transporting theselfoutof its encroachment and to establishhow
existentialenvironment by musing, certaincontexts one typeof
predispose
daydreaming,or relapsing into a responserather thananother. A second
reverie.43 However,voluntary reorgani- area of research wouldfocuson a va-
zationof theinnerinvironment can be
of deviantbehaviors(e.g., crime,
assistedby alcohol and drugs. Con- riety
juvenile drugaddiction)
temporary collegeyouthsometimes par- withthedelinquency,
of understanding the
takeof hallucinogenic and psychedelic purpose
the territorial
drugsin orderto make an innermi- part of suchbehaviors.
variableplays the
in
gration(or "takea trip"as the pop- etiology Finally,we
ularidiomhas it). may suggest that micro-sociological
studiesof territoriality-which areper-
CONCLUSION
haps more amenable to rigorousre-
The conceptof territoriality offers a searchdesign-maybe extrapolated to
fruitfulapproachfor the analysisof an analysisof macro-sociological in-
43 Goffman,Behavior in Public Places, quiries,especially in therealmof inter-
op. cit.,pp. 69-75. nationalaffairs.

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