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Characterization of natural fiber and composites - A review

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Characterization of natural fiber and composites − A review

TP Sathishkumar, P Navaneethakrishnan, S Shankar, R Rajasekar and N Rajini
Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 2013 32: 1457 originally published online 8 July 2013
DOI: 10.1177/0731684413495322

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Review Article
Journal of Reinforced Plastics
and Composites

Characterization of natural fiber 32(19) 1457–1476

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DOI: 10.1177/0731684413495322
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TP Sathishkumar1, P Navaneethakrishnan1, S Shankar2,

R Rajasekar1 and N Rajini3

Abstract
The natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite materials offered extensive range of properties which are suitable for
large number of engineering application. The natural fibers have been abundantly available in the world. It has unique
properties compared to synthetic fiber and reduces the plastic usage. This article reports the extraction process of
natural fibers, characterization of natural fibers, and preparation of natural fiber-reinforced composites. The mechanical
properties such as tensile, flexural, impact, and dynamic properties as well as thermal and machinability properties of the
composites with and without chemically treated fibers were reported. The water absorption capability of the composites
and its effect on mechanical properties were also reported.

Keywords
Natural fiber, mechanical properties, thermal properties, dynamic properties

mechanical and thermal properties. Synthetic polymers

Introduction
The functional graded and tailor-made properties
materials have been developed for the past three decades.
These materials have been widely used in the system for
comfortable driving and to reduce the energy consump-
tion. The polymer-based composite materials have been
of growing interest and are used for various applications.
Environmental issues have resulted in considerable
interest in the development of new composite materials
based on biodegradable resources. The thrust on
developing innovative and weight less material from
locally available, cheaper and renewable sources was of
greater interest. In recent years, there was a growing
interest in the use of natural plant fibers as reinforcing
components. Presently, the annual production of natural
fibers in India was approximately 14.5 million tons com-
pared to world production of 45.5 million tons. These
fibers were reinforced with various matrixes such as
polyester, epoxy, vinyl ester, phenol-formaldehyde, etc.
It was used as an alternative for synthetic fibers. The
natural fibers have been classified into many types such
as bast, leaf, seed, fruit, and wood fiber. These fibers
were traditionally used for various purposes such as
rope, roofing, house hold appliance, bandage, etc. This
revolution had an inherent advantage for the environ-
ment because of the biodegradability of these materials.
The natural fiber-reinforced composites have good
have been replaced with natural fiber composite
materials for automotive, aerospace composites, and
building materials. The main advantages of these natural
fiber-reinforced composites are high-specific strength
and modulus, availability, low cost, light weight, recyc-
lability, biodegradability, lack of health hazards, and
non-abrasive nature.
Extraction and characterization of natural
fibers
Extraction of natural fibers
The naturally available plants were having number of
lignocellulose fibers. These fibers can be considered as
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
Tamilnadu, India
2
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
Tamilnadu, India
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kalailangam University,
Tamilnadu, India
Corresponding author:
TP Sathishkumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu
Engineering College, Perundarai, Erode, Tamilnadu 638 052, India.
Email: tpsathish@kongu.ac.in

Downloaded from jrp.sagepub.com by Marimuthu Uthayakumar on January 9, 2014

1458
naturally occurring composites. It consisted mainly of
lignocellulose fibril with embedded in lignin matrix
(resin). These cellulose fibrils were aligned to form
fibers in long length irrespective of its origin and
nature of the plant structure.1 Sisal fibers were hard
fibers that are available in the leaves of the sisal plant
(family of Agave sisalana). The native of sisal fiber was
North and South America, and now it is widely grown
in Africa, West India and Far East.2 The sisal fiber was
extracted from the leaf using mechanical decorticator.
In this process, the bundles of leaves were fed in
between rotating rollers. The hard surface was cursed
and removed which remained sisal fibers. These bundles
of fiber were thoroughly washed in water for cleaning
the fiber surface. In this mechanical process, about 2–
4% of long fibers bundles were obtained.3 Similarly, the
Sansevieria cylindrica fibers were separated from the
Sansevieria cylindrica leaves. The decorticated fibers
were dried in the sunlight for 24 h to remove the mois-
ture content.4 The sisal and roselle fibers were extracted
using water retting process. The bundles of tied sisal
plant leaves and stems of roselle were retted in water
for three to four days. Then the liquefied leaves were
thoroughly washed in running water to remove the
hard portion of the leaves which remains sisal and
roselle fibers.5 Agave Americana leaves were cut from
agave Americana plant and boiled in water till they
become soft. Then the fibers were removed by squash-
ing the softened leaves in running water for dissolved
soft tissue.6 Also, the sea grass (Zostera marina) plants
were kept in boiled water for extracting the sea grass
fiber.7 Ripe coconut husks were soaked in the tap water
containers for five months, to decompose the pulp on
the shell for removing the husk easily. After water
retting, the wet husks were beaten with a hammer for
separating the coir fibers from the shell. These coir
fibers were combed in a carding frame to separate the
fibers into an individual state.8 The green husk coir
fibers were extracted by mechanically from the green
husk of coconut. Before the extraction of fibers, the
green husk bales were soaked in water for three to
seven days for softening of the outer shell and to
remove the coloring matter.9 The coconut leaf sheath
fiber was a member of palm family (Arecaceae). The
mat form of leaf sheathes were collected from the coco-
nut trees and dipped in water for a week, and thor-
oughly washed in fresh water and distilled water. This
was dried in sun light for a week to get pure mat
sheaths fiber.10 The Curaua plant leaves were plucked
from Curaua tree and the fibers were extracted by
simple water retting process.11 The source of vakka
fiber was the foliage of the tree. The waste leaves that
fell on the ground was dried for two to three days in
shade. It was immersed in a water tank for 15 days and
loosed top layers were removed. Again this was
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Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(19)
immersed in another water retting tank for three
days. Then the fibers were completely remains from
the sheaths. Similarly, the bamboo fibers were extracted
within three days. The date fibers were extracted from
pinnate leaves and the surface layer of stalks were cut
off with a knife and stems were dried in the shade for
five days. This stems were shocked in water retting tank
for four days before the stems were beaten with round
mallet.12 The date pits fiber were ground into powder
form and put in a tray-sieve equipped with a shaker for
screened to the average size of 0.15 mm. Later, this was
put in a vacuum oven for 24 h to remove surface mois-
ture.13 Okra fibers were extracted from a monocotyle-
don plant. The fresh plants were kept in a closed area
within 15–20 days and the stems degraded sufficiently
to enable fiber extraction. The fibers were isolated in
microbial degradation of stems and washed three times
in deionized water for getting fibers.14 The culms of
elephant grass were cut at their base and nodes were
trimmed. These culms were dried in shade for a week
and shocked in water retting for a period of 10 days.
Then a plastic mallet was used to beat them in order to
loosen and separate the fibers. Also, these stems were
shocked in water containing 1 N NaOH and fibers were
extracted.15 Agave fibers were extracted from succulent
plant belonging to Agavaceae family. The agave leaves
were shocked in water retting tank for two weeks for
loosening of the top layer of the fibers and the fiber was
removed by washing in water.16,28 After the extraction
process, the fibers were washed thoroughly in clean
water to remove the surplus wastes such as chlorophyll,
leaf juices, and adhesive solid. These fibers were dried in
sun light for two to three days to remove the moisture
content.
Physical properties of natural fiber
The dried natural fibers were chopped into various
lengths for studying the physical properties and various
chemical compositions. The physical properties such as
diameter or cross-sectional area and density of the
fibers were measured before studying the mechanical
properties of the fibers. The diameter of the natural
fibers such as bamboo, banana, date, palm, coconut,
sisal, and vakka was measured by the Fresnel diffrac-
tion method using a He–Ne laser as the monochromatic
light source. The diffraction pattern of fiber peripheries
was obtained from the image of fiber surface. By mea-
suring the image width, the diameter of the fiber was
drawn using CATIA 5.0. The mean diameter was cal-
culated by repeating this process for different angular
rotations of the fiber such as 0 , 45 , 90 , and 135 .12
The optical microscope was used to measure the diam-
eter of seven non-wood fibers such asabaca, pineapple,
Sansevieria trifasciata, sisal, coconut husk, kenaf, and
Sathishkumar et al.
ramie at five randomly selected locations. The fibers
were cut into lengths of 20–25 mm interval and the
image of the fibers was measured using laser beam at
X300 magnification, and the cross-sectional area of
these fibers was measured using Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) micrographs at 1000  magnifica-
tion. These two images were compared to analyze the
error of the fiber area.17 The diameter of elephant grass
and banana fibers was measured by using an optical
microscope.15,26 The field emission SEM was used to
measure imperfect circular cross section of sisal fiber
through the length. The four images were taken at
10 mm fiber length interval and the images were post-
processed using ImageJ software for outlining the fiber
cross-section to computed area.3 Similarly, the cross-
sectional area and shape of the Sansevieria cylindrica
fibers were measured.4 Also, the diameters of the sea
grass,7 coconut leaf sheath,10 okra,14 and Phormium
tenax23 fibers were measured by SEM image. The
Curaua fibers diameter was measured in profile pro-
jector and micrometer caliper.11 Also, the micrometer
was used to measure the coir fiber diameter with differ-
ential length interval.29 A sample of 100 fibers was ran-
domly taken from an agave fiber bundle and the
diameter was measured using the air wedge method.28
The Weibull statistical analysis was used to find out the
mean diameter of the jute fiber for calculating the fiber
strength.83 The 25 hemp fiber specimens each 20 mm
long were cut and the SEM images of fibers were
taken along fiber length for measured the fiber diam-
eter. Fifty readings were recorded for each fiber speci-
men and the mean, standard deviation, and standard
error were calculated.79
The physical density of natural fibers determines the
weight of the natural fiber-reinforced composites. The
density of Sansevieria cylindrica fiber was measured
using a pycnometer procedure. The dried fibers were
cut into lengths of 5–15 mm and introduced into the
pycnometer for 24 h on desiccator at controlled atmos-
pheric of 18 C. The samples were impregnated in tolu-
ene for 2 h to evacuate the micro bubbles from the fiber.
The hydrostatic weight of the fibers with toluene was
measured using simple weight fraction ratio. The density
of the fiber was 0.915 g/cm3.(4) This method was used to
measure the density of the bamboo, banana, date, palm,
coconut, sisal, and vakka12 and elephant grass fibers.15
The density of seven non-wood fibers such asabaca,
pineapple, Sansevieria trifasciata, sisal, coconut husk,
kenaf, and ramie was calculated by weight to volume
ratio. The volume of the fiber was obtained from the
length of the fiber which was measured using a ruler,
and the fiber diameter was obtained by optical micros-
copy. The mass and volume ratio can determine the fiber
density.17 Similarly, the density of the kenaf and rice
husk was calculated from mass to volume ratio of the
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1459
fibers. The mass and volume of the fibers were measured
from laboratory digital balance and graduated cylinder,
respectively.18 One gram of agave Americana fiber was
completely immersed in water and volume displacement
was noted, and the ratio of weight and volume obtained
determines the density of the fiber.28 The low-density
sisal fiber-reinforced with epoxy resin had higher specific
strength composites which can be comparable with
glass fiber epoxy composites.1 The stiffness values of
low-density sea grass fibers were lower than of E-glass
fibers.7 The physical properties of various natural fibers
have been reported in Table 1.
Chemical composition of natural fiber
The natural fibers consisted of cellulose micro-fibrils in
an amorphous matrix of lignin and hemicellulose. The
lignocellulose cell wall can be considered as naturally
occurring composites structure of spirally oriented vari-
ous chemical composites.1 Chemical compositions such
as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, wax, ash, pectin, and
moisture content vary with various natural fibers. The
place of the plant growth, plant growth rate, and plant
tissue determine the percentage of chemical compos-
itions in fiber. The strength and stiffness of the plant
and plant fibers depended on the cellulose content. The
cellulose content of the Sansevieria cylindrica fiber,4
non-wood fibers such as kenaf, reed, miscanthus,
switch grass, cotton, and wood fibers like olive and
almond tree57 has measured by Kurshner and
Hoffer’s method. Before the extraction of cellulose con-
tent in the sisal fibers, the fibers were washed in distilled
water for removing the impurities. The sisal fibers were
dried at 60 C in oven after aging with 95% ethanol.30
The lignin content of the sea grass,7 Sansevieria cylin-
drica, kenaf, reed, miscanthus, switch grass, cotton
fibers and other wood materials was measured accord-
ing to the Klason lignin method. The hemicellulose was
measured according to standard NFT 12-008. The
sample of fiber was heated with hydrobromic acid for
extracting the hemicellulose.4 The wax content of the
natural fiber was determined by the Conrad method
with Soxhlet extraction.4,57,82 The bonding strength of
the fiber in matrix determines the wax content of the
fibers. The low wax content improves the properties of
the composite materials.4,57 The ash content of the fiber
was measured with weight difference of fibers and
burned fibers.91,23 The pectin content of the cotton
fiber was measured by enzymatic degradation and sub-
sequent analysis of galacturonic acid.82 The moisture
content of the above fibers was determined by the
normal weight loss method. The fibers were heated
until constant weight and weight difference of the
samples were calculated the moisture content.
The microfiber angle of fiber was measured from the
1460 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(19)

Table 1. Physical properties of various natural fibers. scanning electron microscopic image of the fiber,91,23
and the chemical composition of Phormium tenax leaf
Density Diameter
Fiber name (g/cm3) (mm) Reference fibers was compared with other natural fibers. The
lignin content of Phormium tenax was higher than
Kenaf 0.25 70–250 18 other fibers with lower tensile properties. The chemical
Rice husk 0.50 70–250 18 compositions of various natural fibers were studied by
Rachis 0.61 350–408 1 various authors24,29,31 and reported in Table 2.
Rachilla 0.65 200–400 1
Petiole bark 0.69 250–650 1
Spatha 0.69 150–400 1 FTIR spectrum of natural fiber
Sisal leaf fiber 0.76 122–135 17 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spec-
Vakka 0.81 175–230 12 tra of the Sansevieria cylindrica fibers were recorded by
Elephant grass 0.817 70–400 15 Sreenivasan et al.4 with a scan rate of 32 scans per
Abaca leaf fiber 0.83 114–130 17 minute and the wave number region from 400 to
Cocount husk fiber 0.87 117 to 125 17 4000 cm1. Various bands were obtained: the band at
Sansevieria ehrenbergii 0.887 10–250 112, 113 3400 cm1 was attributed to cellulose, 1740 and
Alfa 0.89 – 24 1510 cm1 was attributed to lignin, and 1612 cm1
Sansevieria leaf fiber 0.89 83–93 17 was attributed to hemicelluloses of C ¼ O bonds.
Talipot 0.89 200–700 1 Davies et al.7 reported that the bands around 1600
Sansevieria cylindrica 0.915 230–280 4 and 1610 cm1 were assigned for lignin and pectins of
Date 0.99 155 to 250 12 sea grass fiber and also the bands around 1034–
Bamboo 0.91, 0.6–1.1 240–330 12, 24 1057 cm1 were for cellulose content. Obi Reddy
Palm 1.03 400–490 12 et al.10 concluded that the bands around 1734 and
Palmyrah 1.09 20–80, 70–1300 1, 26 1248 cm1 were assigned to hemicellulose of untreated
Root 1.15 100–650 1 leaf sheath fibers. In alkali treatment fiber, these bands
Coconut or coir 1.15, 1.15 100–160, 100–450 12, 20 were found to be almost absent which indicate the elim-
Agave 1.20 126–344 28 ination of the hemicellulose to a larger extent. Herrera-
Date palm 1.20 – 24 Franco and Valadez-Gonzalez62 concluded that the
Henequen 1.20 – 24 band around 1730 cm1 was corresponding to hemicel-
Bagasse 1.25 200–400 24 25 lulose, which disappeared when the fiber was treated in
Isora 1.30 – 24 dilute NaOH aqueous solution. This mercerization
Kenaf bast fiber 1.31 65–71 17 removed the waxy epidermal tissue, adhesive pectins
Banana 1.35 60–80 50–250 12, 20 and hemicelluloses, which made the fiber rough.
Ramie bast fiber 1.38 46–54 17 Liu et al.63 reported that after alkaline treatment of
Pineapple leaf fiber 1.32, 1.44 53–62, 20– 80 17 26 native grass fibers, the vibration peak at 1737 cm1 was
Jute 1.3–1.46 40 –350 21, 25 assigned to CO stretching vibration of carboxylic acid
Piassava 1.40 – 24 or ester; this disappeared due to the removal of hemi-
Curaua 1.40 170 11, 24 cellulose. The peak at 1515 cm1 was assigned to the
Wheat straw 1.45 – 19 benzene ring vibration of lignin and it was removed
Sisal 1.45 50–300 2, 20 after alkaline treatments. The peak at 1254 cm1
Kapok 1.47 22–65 27 belongs to a CO stretching vibration of the acetyl
Hemp 1.48 – 21 group of lignin component and it was reduced. Lu
Flax 1.4–1.5 – 21, 81 and Oza107 concluded that after alkaline treatment of
Abaca 1.50 – 24 hemp fiber, the chemical compounds have been elimi-
Ramie 1.50 50 2, 25 nated and reduced, and fiber surface obtained was
Softwood kraft 1.50 – 21 rough in nature. De Rosa et al.14 analyzed the FTIR
Sea grass 1.50 5 7 spectrum of okra fiber with various chemical treatments
Oil palm 1.55 – 24 such as sodium carbonate, acetic acid, and sodium
Cotton 1.5–1.6 – 21 chlorite followed by acetylation with acetic acid,
Coconut tree leaf sheath – 140–990 10 sodium chlorite, and sulfuric acid with potassium per-
Okra – 61–93 14 manganate, sodium dodecyl sulfate, and sodium chlor-
Phormium tenax – 100–200 23 ite followed by 1% sodium hydroxide. In these various
treatments, the peak band of various chemical groups
reduced and eliminated lignin, hemicellulose, wax and
various functional groups containing oxygen.

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Sathishkumar et al. 1461

Table 2. Chemical composition of various natural fibers.

Hemi Microfibrillar
Fiber name Cellulose (%) Lignin (%) cellulose (%) Pectin (%) Wax (%) Moisture (%) Ash (%) angle ( ) Reference

Sansevieria ehrenbergii 80 7.8 11.25 0.45 – 10.55 0.6 19 112, 113

Kenaf 45–57 21.5 8–13 0.6 0.8 6.2–12 2–5 2–6.2 18, 23
Jute 61–71.5 11.8–13 17.9–22.4 0.2 0.5 12.5–13.7 0.5–2 8 21, 91
Hemp 70.2–74.4 3.7–5.7 17.9–22.4 0.9 0.8 6.2–12 0.8 2–6.2 21, 23, 110
Phormium tenax 45.1–72.0 11.2 30.1 0.7 0.7 10 –– – 23
Flax 64.1–71.9 2.0–2.2 64.1–71.9 1.8–2.3 1.7 8–12 – 5–10 23
Agave 68.42 4.85 4.85 – 0.26 7.69 – – 40
Bamboo 26–43 1–31 30 – – 9.16 – – 12
Sea grass 57 5 38 10 – – – – 7
Ramie 68.6–91 0.6–0.7 5–16.7 1.9 – – – 69–83 21, 24, 91
Abaca 56–63 7–9 20–25 – 3 – – – 19, 24
Alfa 45.4 14.9 38.5 – 2 – – – 24
Wheat straw 51 16 26 – – – – – 19
Sisal 78 8 10 – 2 11 1 20–25 2, 20, 72
Sansevieria cylindrica 79.7 3.8 10.13 – 0.09 3.08 – – 4
Oil palm 65 17.5 10.12 – 4 – – – 24
Henequen 60 8 28 – 0.5 – – – 24
Curaua 73.6 7.5 9.9 – – – – – 11, 24
Coconut tree leaf sheath 27 27.7 14 – – 4.7 – – 10
Piassava 28.6 45 25.8 – – – – – 24
Kudzu 33 14 11.6 – – – – – 24
Cotton 82.7–90 – 3 – 0.6 7.85–8.5 – – 19, 21
Nettle 86 – 10 4 24
Rice husk 38–45 – 12–20 – – – 20 – 18
Oil palm 65 29 – – – – – – 24
Isora 74 23 – – 1.09 – 24
Oat 31–48 16–19 – – – – 6–8 – 29, 85
Coniferous 40–45 26–34 – – – – – – 22
Coir 37 42 – – – 11.36 30.45 12, 20
Banana 83 5 – – – 10.71 11–12 12, 20, 91
Petiole bark 46 12 – – – – – 20–21 1
Rachis 42.75 26 – – – – – 28–37 1
Rachilla 42 16 – – – – – 35–39 1
Coniferous 40–45 26–34 – – – – – – 85
Deciduous 38–49 23–30 – – – – – – 85

around 86 nm. Sreenivasan et al.60 concluded that the

X-ray diffraction test of natural fiber
Obi Reddy et al.10 reported that the crystallinity index
of the coconut leaf sheath fibers was determined by X-
ray diffraction, and computed index values for
untreated and alkali-treated fine fibers from inner mat
fiber of 37.1% and 44.2%, and from coarse fiber of
26.7% and 28.2%, respectively. Sreenivasan et al.4
reported that the two peaks were obtained at
2y ¼ 15.4 and 22.5 which was attributed to cellulose
I and IV. The crystallinity index was around 60% when
compared with the other fibers. Also, crystallite size
was estimated using Scherrer’s formula, which was
fiber was subjected to various chemical treatments such
as alkaline, benzoyl peroxide, potassium permangan-
ate, and stearic acid. The crystallinity index and size
varied and increased. The crystallinity index was 60%
for untreated, 62% alkaline, 66% benzoyl peroxide,
82% potassium permanganate, and 73% stearic acid.
This showed that the amount of cellulose content was
increased in treated fibers when compared with
untreated fibers. The crystallinity size of fiber calculated
was as follows: 86% for untreated, 87% alkaline, 89%
benzoyl peroxide, 93% potassium permanganate, and
91% stearic acid.

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1462
Thermal properties of natural fiber
Thamae and Baillie6 investigated the thermal stability
of the agave Americana fiber with varying temperatures
using Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)/Differential
Thermogravimetric (DTG) analysis and reported that
initial weight loss in fibers may be associated with loss
of water content. The raw fibers have higher moisture
content which resulted in lower onset and peak degrad-
ation temperature. The NaOH- and silane-treated
agave Americana fiber decreased the hemicellulose,
pectin, and moisture content, and the peak degradation
temperature was shifted from 335 to 363 C. The onset
degradation temperature was shifted from 288 to
315 C. The higher peak intensity in treated fiber was
associated with high crystallinity of cellulose. Obey
Reddy10 reported that the thermal stability of coconut
leaf sheath fiber was improved by treating the fiber with
5%NaOH. The degradation temperature was shifted
from 280 to 285 C. De Rosa et al.14 analyzed the ther-
mal stability of untreated and treated okra fibers. The
DTG curve showed that the degradation temperature
became lower for treated fiber than raw fiber, and the
untreated fiber peak temperature of 358.6 C which was
higher than raw fiber. Yussuf et al.18 reported that the
thermal stability of kenaf fiber was higher than rice
hush fiber. This is because the cellulose content in
kenaf was higher than rice husk. The DTG peak deg-
radation temperature was shifted to higher temperature
region. Yi et al.34 concluded that during TGA, the sisal
fiber lignin content was degraded in the temperature
range from 60 to 200 C and up to 350 C, and most
of the cellulose was decomposed by thermal depolymer-
ization of hemicellulose and the cleavage of the glyco-
sidic linkage of cellulose at 350 C. Similarly, Bakare
et al.35 concluded that the slender weight loss was due
to the moisture present in the fiber at 100 C. The region
between 250 and 480 C was associated with the decom-
position of cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose. Kumar
et al.37 investigated the thermal stability of banana fiber
with and without NaOH treatment. After chemical
treatment of the fiber, the peak degradation tempera-
ture was shifted to 360 C compared to raw fiber peak
temperature of 348 C.
Mechanical properties of natural fibers
The mechanical properties of natural fibers such as ten-
sile strength, modulus, and elongation at breaks have
been determined after measuring the cross-sectional
area and diameter of fiber. The sisal fibers were cut
into four different gauge lengths 10, 20, 30 and 40 mm
for measuring the tensile properties with a 250 N load
cell using MTS Systems. The test was conducted in dis-
placement control at a rate of 0.1 mm/min. The tensile
strength was independent of the gauge length of sisal
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Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(19)
fiber. The Young’s modulus of sisal fibers of corrected
for machine compliance was approximately 7 GPa. The
strain-to-failure was decreased when the gauge length
was increasing, and Weibull modulus was decreased
from 4 to 3.6. The fiber length increased the number
of flaws and these can be easily linked with each other
during testing. It may play an important role in con-
trolling the strain-to-failure.3 The tensile properties of
Sansevieria cylindrica fibers were measured based on
ASTM D 3822-01 standard with 1.0 kN load cell at
various gauge length of 10, 20, 30, and 40 mm. The
average values of strength and modulus of 20 samples
were tested at each gauge length. The corrected for
machine compliance was calculated. Also, the stain-
to-failure was controlled by increasing the gauge
length of fiber.4 The agave Americana fibers were trea-
ted with 1 N NaOH solution and 0.05% (w/w) triethox-
yvinylsilane, and the tensile strength was studied. The
average tensile strength of boiled-mercerized, silane-
treated fibers was higher than raw, boiled-untreated
and boiled-mercerized fibers. But the standard devi-
ation increased with treatments. Weibull modulus
with different estimators was estimated and the modu-
lus was decreased by various fiber treatments.6 The sea
grass fibers were bonded in cardboard window and
place in MTS tensile testing machine. The tensile prop-
erties were measured with 2 N load cell at a load rate of
10 mm/min. The eight samples were tested and the
mean strength of 573 MPa and modulus of 19.8 GPa
was obtained. Gu8 analyzed the tensile strength of the
coir fiber with NaOH treatment in various concentra-
tions. The raw coir fiber strength was higher compared
NaOH-treated fiber strength. A decrease in the fat,
lignin, and pectin content and increase in the cellulose
content were observed in the treated coir fibers. Hence,
the maximum strength was obtained in 2% NaOH-
treated fiber and maximum elongation at break was
obtained in 10% NaOH. Obi Reddy10 investigated
the coconut leaf sheath fiber treated in 5% NaOH solu-
tion and observed improvement in the tensile proper-
ties. This is because the fibrils became more compact
and close packing of the fibers with increased cellulose
content led to improved tensile properties. Monteiro
et al.11 measured the tensile strength of the curaua
fibers with different embedded lengths of 100 samples.
The fiber strength was increased with increasing
embedded lengths. Critical embedded length was
obtained at 38.83 mm with less standard deviation.
According to Kelly and Tyson equation, the shear
strength of 3.4 MPa was obtained with 10 mm gauge
length and 0.17 mm diameter of fiber. Murali Mohan
Rao and Mohan Rao et al.12 reported that the average
of five samples were taken for measuring the tensile
properties of vakka, date, bamboo, palm, coconut,
banana, and sisal fibers. The maximum tensile strength
Sathishkumar et al.
was obtained in banana fiber and maximum modulus
was obtained in bamboo fiber. The maximum specific
tensile properties were obtained in banana fiber.
De Rosa et al.14 analyzed the tensile properties of
okra fibers according to ASTM D 3379–75 on a Lloyd
dynamometer LR 30 K with 20 N load cell. The raw
and various treated fibers were cut into a gauge
length of 10 mm and a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min
was used. The tensile strength of 10% NaOH-treated
fiber was high when compared with other treated fibers
and the Young’s modulus was higher in raw fiber.
Weibull models values were lower in treated fiber
than raw fiber. Murali Mohan Rao et al.15 measured
the tensile strength of elephant grass fiber with 50 mm
gauge length of 0.2 mm/min cross head speed. The fiber
was mounted on stiff cardboard with epoxy resin for
measuring the fiber strength in testing machine. The 10
specimens were tested to get valid average. Tensile
strength and modulus of chemically extracted fiber
were higher than normal water extracted elephant
grass fibers. Also, Munawar et al.17 analyzed the tensile
properties of seven non-wood fibers according to
ASTM D 3379–75. The fibers bundles were glued in
paper frame with 10 mm gauge length. The total
number of test specimen was in the range of 139–194
for each sample. The strength, specific tensile strength,
and modulus of ramie bast fiber were higher than other
fibers. Joseph et al.20 reported that increasing the gauge
length of the sisal fibers decreased the tensile strength
and elongation at break, but the modulus value showed
an increasing trend. Also, increasing the testing speed of
fibers decreased the tensile strength and increased the
modulus at 50 mm gauge length. Mylsamy and
Rajendran28 reported that the tensile force of 5%
NaOH-treated agave Americana fiber was higher than
raw and 10% NaOH-treated fibers. The higher amount
of cementic materials was reduced, and the cellulose con-
tent in 10% NaOH treatments was also reduced. The
tensile properties of various natural fibers were reported
by various authors21,22,24,31 and reported in Table 3.
Study related to preparation of natural
fiber-reinforced polymer matrix
composites
Jayabal and Natarajan9 prepared the coir fiber-rein-
forced polyester composites using simple hand lay-up
method. A layer of polyvinyl acetate release agent was
coated on the male and female die surfaces before the
mold. The non-woven randomly oriented short coir
fibers were pre-impregnated with the matrix material
consisting of unsaturated polyester resin, cobalt octoate
accelerator, and Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide
(MEKP) catalyst in the ratio of 1:0.015 in the female
die. The impregnated layers were placed in the resin
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1463
matrix of 360 mm  360 mm and male die kept closed
under pressed heavily for 1 h. After 1 h, the composites
were solidified with thickness of 3 mm and carefully
removed from the mold. Then the composites were
cured at room temperature for 24 h.
The short Sansevieria cylindrica fibers were spread
between two mild steel plates. The steel roller was
used to achieve a uniform distribution of fibers in the
mold. The prepared matrix solution was degassed
before pouring. The degassed matrix solution was
poured on the fiber and closed steel mold was kept in
a hydraulic press under pressure for 3 h. The composite
sheet was solidified in a mold with a size of
300 mm  150 mm  3 mm.51 The chopped sisal fibers
(30 mm fiber length) were arranged in mold in the
form of random mat and pressed by hydraulic press.
The isophthalic polyester resin was mixed with cobalt
napthenate and methyl ethyl ketone peroxide. This
solution mixture passed through resin transfer molding
(RTM) techniques in the closed mold under a pressure
of 1 kg/cm2. The sample was subjected to cure for 12 h
and post-cured for 4 h at 80 C. Finally, the composites
plate was obtained.50
De Rosa et al.23 prepared the randomly oriented
short Phormium tenax leaf fiber-reinforced epoxy com-
posites using aluminum mold with a dimension of
250 mm  250 mm. Before processing, the mold was
coated with a thin layer of a release agent (polyvinyl
alcohol) and then the short fibers, randomly arranged
like a mat, were placed in the mold. The resin and
hardener mixture was poured into the mold. Then the
closed mold was kept under hydraulic press and it was
left to cure for 24 h at room temperature. Also, the
quasi-unidirectional composites were manufactured in
the same way. The continuous fibers were aligned by
hand before being soaked in the resin. The fiber weight
fraction was controlled by using known weights of fiber
and matrix. After the completion of the curing cycle,
the composite laminate panel was removed from the
mold. Murali Mohan Rao et al.15 fabricated the unidir-
ectional elephant grass fiber-reinforced polyester matrix
composites with hand lay-up method. Fiber deform-
ation and movement should be minimized to yield
good quality, unidirectional fiber composites. At the
time of curing, a compression pressure of 0.05 MPa
was applied on the mold and the composite specimens
were cured for 24 h. The specimens were also post-cured
at 70 C for 2 h after removing from the mold.
The coir fiber and polypropylene filament were
chopped into length of 10 mm and mixed. This mixture
was carded in a carding frame for preparing the nets.
These nets were laminated with predetermined thick-
ness in the die which was placed in the heat press,
and 15 MPa pressure was applied on the laminate
with heating temperature of 190 C to fabricate the
1464 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(19)

Table 3. Mechanical properties of various natural fibers.

Gauge Tensile Tensile Elongation

Fiber name length (mm) strength (MPa) modulus (GPa) at break (%) Reference

Rachis – 74.26 2.31 13.5 1

Rachilla – 61.36 2.34 8.1 1
Petiole bark – 185.52 15.09 2.1 1
Spatha – 75.66 3.14 6 1
Sansevieria ehrenbergii 50 278.82 9.71 2.81 112, 113
Vakka 100 549 15.85 3.46 12
Elephant grass 50 185 7.40 2.5 15
Abaca leaf fiber 10 418–486 12–13.8 – 17
cocount husk fiber 10 126–148 3.1–4.3 – 17
Sansevieria rifasciata 10 526–598 13.5–15.3 – 17
Alfa 100 350 22 5.8 24
Talipot 47 143–263 9.3–13.3 2.7–5 1
Bamboo 100 503 35.91 1.40 12, 24
Sansevieria cylindrica 10–40 585–676 0.2–11.2 11–14 4
Date 100 309 11.32 2.73 12
Palmyrah 43 180–215 7.7–20 7–15 1, 26
Palm 100 377 2.75 13.71 12
Root – 157 6.2 3 1
Coconut or coir 100 500 2.5 20 20
Agave – – – – 6, 28
Date palm – 97–196 2.5–5.4 2–4.5 24
Henequen – 430–570 11.1–16.3 3.7–5.9 24
Bagasse – 290 11 – 24
Isora – 500–600 – 5–6 24
Kenaf bast fiber 10 427–519 23.1–27.1 – 17
Pineapple leaf fiber 10 609–700, 400–627 23.7–30.3, 14.8 0.8–1.6 17, 26
Banana 150 600 17.85 3.36 12, 20
Ramie bast fiber 10 849 28.4 3.6 – 17
Curaua 10 158–729 – 5 11, 24
Piassava – 134–143 1.07–4.59 21.9–7.8 24
Sisal 50 530–640 9.4–22 3–7 2, 20
Kapok 45–64 1.73–2.55 2–4 27
Hemp – 550–900 70 2–4 110, 21
Jute 60 393–773 10–30 1.5–1.8 21
Flax – 345–1500 27.6–80 0.2–3.2 23, 81
Sea grass – 453–692 3.1–3.7 13–26.6 7
Ramie 220–938 44–128 2–3.8 24
Softwood kraft – 1000 40 4.4 22
Abaca 100 400 12 3–10 24
Oil palm 248 3.2 25 24
Cotton – 400 5.5–12.6 7.0–8.0 21
Roselle 50 147–184 2.76 5–8 5
Coconut tree leaf sheath 50 46.4 2.3 2.84 10
Okra 50 184–557.3 8.9–11.8 4–8 14

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Sathishkumar et al.
composites. The volume fraction 60% of coir fiber was
carefully controlled during the mixing of the two ingre-
dients. The dimension of the composites was
300 mm  300 mm.3 Polymer pellets with high-density
polyethylene and polystyrene were ground into small
particles. These particles were mixed with date pits
powder. This mixture was dry mixed with khlaas and
sekari with different weight percentage which was a
waste part of the date. This blend was melt mixed for
10 min at 160 C and then injected into a pre-dried
vacuum mold for making polymer/date pit composites
as described by Alsewailem and Binkhder.13 Crushed
and mixed kenaf/rice husk were filtered and sized
approximately 70–250 mm. These precipitated fibers
were kept in the desiccator for minimizing the moisture
content. After drying, the particulate fibers were care-
fully added to biodegradable polymer and blended in a
mixer for 15 min in order to achieve homogenous. The
compound was filled in extruder hopper and screw
extruder was used to inject the mixture in the mold
for preparing the composites.18
Mechanical properties of untreated
natural fiber-reinforced composites
Sathishkumar et al.112 investigated the mechanical
properties of snake grass fiber-reinforced polyester
composites that were prepared using simple hand lay-
up method with various fiber volume fraction and fiber
length. The optimum fiber length of 30 and 150 mm was
obtained in tensile properties and flexural properties.
Sathishkumar et al.113 also investigated the snake
grass with coir/banana fiber-reinforced hybrid compos-
ites prepared with various layering pattern and various
relative volume fraction. The maximum tensile strength
was obtained in snake grass/banana composites at 20%
volume fraction and flexural strength was obtained in
snake grass/coir fiber composites at 25% volume frac-
tion. The SEM image of tensile and flexural fracture
zone was used to study the fiber pull outs. Jayabal
and Natarajan9 investigated the randomly oriented
green husk coir fiber-reinforced polyester composites
that were prepared by simple hand lay-up method
with different fiber lengths of 20, 100, and 150 mm
and various fiber contents of 10, 20, and 30%. The
mechanical proprieties of polyester composites were
differed with the coir fiber length and weight contents.
The regression models were developed with the help of
experimental data. The maximum tensile strength was
obtained at 50 mm fiber length, flexural strength at
150 mm, and impact strength at 136 mm. The results
showed that fiber content had major role on the mech-
anical properties than the fiber length. Sreenivasan
et al.51 investigated the Sansevieria cylindrica fiber-
reinforced polyester composites that were prepared
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1465
with various fiber weight content of 10, 20, 30, 40,
and 50% and fiber length of 10, 20, 30, and 40 mm.
The optimum fiber weight content of 40% was obtained
in the detail discussion of mechanical properties at
10 mm fiber length composites. The fiber wetting was
higher in higher fiber loading which increased the mech-
anical properties. At 50% Wf of fiber decreased the
mechanical properties which was due to insufficient
binder in the system. By varying the fiber length, an
optimum fiber length of 30 mm was obtained from
mechanical properties at 40%Wf of fiber. If fiber
length excited at 30 mm, the stress transfer in the com-
posites was not uniform which is due to fiber agglom-
eration. The fiber pull out was discussed with SEM
image at fracture zone of specimen. Venkateshwaran
et al.46 investigated the randomly oriented banana
fiber-reinforced polyester composites that were pre-
pared by simple hand lay-up method with different
fiber lengths of 5, 10, 15, and 20 mm and various Wf
of 8, 12, 16, and 20%. The 10 and 15 mm fiber length
composites have maximum tensile strength at 12%Wf,
but maximum Young’s modulus was obtained in
10 mm fiber length composites. The maximum flexural
strength was obtained in 15 mm fiber length composite
and the maximum impact strength was obtained in
20 mm at 16%Wf. Joseph et al.20 reported that the
hydrophilic nature was decreased by the chemical
treatment on fiber. The tensile and modulus of longitu-
dinally and randomly oriented solution mixed sisal
fiber-reinforced composites with polyester and other
resins were compared. Normally, the fiber weight con-
tent increased the tensile properties and it depends on
the type of the resin. Athijayamani et al.5 observed that
the tensile and flexural properties of the water absorbed
sisal/roselle fiber composites were lower when com-
pared with dry fiber composites. The impact strength
was reduced with the higher fiber content and length at
dry and wet conditions. The Hirsch model and regres-
sion model were used to predict the mechanical proper-
ties of hybrid composites. It showed that the statistical
model was better than the theoretical (Hirsch) predic-
tion. A comparison between experimental and pre-
dicted values showed a good agreement.
Laranjeira et al.48 investigated the longitudinal and
randomly oriented jute/isophthalic polyester compos-
ites that were prepared by simple hand lay-up method
followed by compression mold process with 10, 20, 30,
40 and 50% Wf. The tensile and impact strength of
randomly oriented fiber composites was found to be
an intermediate between those obtained with long-
fiber oriented composites in all fiber loading. The trans-
verse properties decreased with increasing the fiber Wf.
Sebe et al.49 investigated the non-woven mat hemp
fiber/polyester composites that were prepared using the
resin transfer molding technique with various fiber Wf
1466
of 10, 20, 30 and 40%. The fiber Wf increased the flex-
ural and impact strength. The maximum fiber Wf was
obtained in 40%. De Rosa et al.23 investigated the
mechanical properties of random and unidirectional
oriented Phormium tenax leaf fiber epoxy composites
with 20% Wf of fibers. The tensile and flexural modulus
of the short and long fiber composites was higher than
the neat resin. Hence, these properties were found to be
higher in long fiber compared to short fiber composites.
Sindhu et al.52 investigated the coir fiber isophthalic
polyester composites that were prepared with 10, 15,
20, and 25 mm fiber length at 30% fiber loading. The
maximum tensile strength and elongation at break was
obtained in 20 mm fiber length composites. The water
inclusion was used as a main source for degradation
behaviors of coir fiber polyester composites. The
stress versus strain curve of the composites gradually
decreased with increasing the water aging period.
Maria et al.65 prepared the homogeneous mixture of
sisal fiber polypropylene composites using injection
molding process. The tensile and flexural strength was
higher at 30% fiber weight content. Chow et al.84 ana-
lyzed the effects of water immersion treatment on the
tensile and impact behavior of composites. With
increasing immersion time, the tensile modulus and
strength was decreased continuously, and the impact
strength was improved initially and decreased with
increasing immersion time until reaching the maximum.
Andersons et al.32 prepared the polymer matrix com-
posites laminates by vacuum infusion technique with
three layer of flax fiber fabric. The tensile stress distri-
bution function was derived which was related to fail-
ure of the specimen size with fiber Vf.
Bakare et al.35 investigated the mechanical proper-
ties of with and without water ageing of sisal fiber-
reinforced rubber seed oil-based polyurethane
composites with various fiber Wf. The fiber Wf
increased the yield force and strength of the composites.
A maximum tensile and flexural strength of 118 MPa
and 103 MPa was obtained at Wf of 30 and 25%,
respectively. After water aging for 30 days, the tensile
strength decreased to 104 MPa. The flexural strength
was increased to 125 MPa because the water molecules
may act as a plasticizer agent in composite material
which increased the flexural strain for the composites.
Mohanty and Nayak38 investigated the 6 mm short
bamboo fiber-reinforced HDPE that was prepared in
a torque rheometer with various fiber Wf of 10, 20,
30, and 40%. The maximum tensile and flexural
strength was obtained at 30% fiber weight content.
But the maximum impact strength was obtained at
20% fiber Wf. At higher fiber loading, the insufficient
filling of matrix content reduced the mechanical proper-
ties. Byoung-Ho Lee et al.100 analyzed the void content
of the long and discontinue kenaf and jute fiber
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Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(19)
polypropylene composites with various Wf of fibers.
The optimum Wf of 40 and 30% were obtained from
tensile strength values of jute and kenaf fiber compos-
ites. The predicted tensile strength values were increased
continuously with Wf of fibers. Gonzalez-Murillo and
Ansell87 studied the effect of joint geometry on the
strength on the unidirectional agave fiber-reinforced
epoxy composites. Three joint configurations such as
single lap joints, intermingled fiber joints, and laminated
fiber joints were investigated with the joint overlap from
5 to 50 mm. The 50 mm overlap laminated fiber joints
reached higher tensile strength of the composites.
Mechanical properties of treated natural
fiber-reinforced composites
Li et al.21 reported the natural fibers that were sub-
jected to various chemical treatments such as alkali,
silane, acetylation, benzoylation, acrylation, maleated
coupling agents, isocyanates, permanganate, and
others. These treatments were aimed to improve the
adhesion between the fiber/polymer matrix. Chemical
treatments have activated the hydroxyl groups and
remove moisture content from the fibers which made
rough surface. This increased the fiber/matrix contact
area for improving the composite strength. The water
absorption was reduced with better interfacial inter-
action between the treated fiber/matrix. Sreenivasan
et al.60 analyzed the Sansevieria cylindrica fiber that
was treated with 2% alkali which was a primary treat-
ment of other chemical treatments such as benzoyl per-
oxide, potassium permanganate, and stearic acid. The
maximum mechanical properties were obtained in 0.5%
potassium permanganate-treated fiber composites. This
reduced the fiber pull out at fracture zone of the speci-
men from SEM image. Sreekumar et al.50 analyzed the
5% NaOH pretreated sisal fiber-reinforced polyester
composites. The obtained results were compared with
composites of other treated fiber such as thermal, per-
manganate, benzoylation, and silane. The surface of
treated fiber was rough in nature and made good inter-
facial bonding between fiber and resin. The maximum
mechanical properties were obtained in 0.02% KMnO4
and 0.05% benzoylation-treated sisal fiber composites.
Murali Mohan Rao et al.15 reported that the max-
imum tensile properties of alkali-treated elephant grass
fiber polyester composites were higher than permanga-
nate-treated fiber composites. Gu8 investigated the vari-
ous concentrations of NaOH-treated coir fiber
polypropylene composites. The maximum mechanical
properties were obtained in 6% NaOH-treated coir
fiber. Thiruchitrambalam et al.61 concluded that
the maximum mechanical properties of banana/kenaf
polyester hybrid composites were obtained in sodium
lauryl sulfate-treated fiber than NaOH treated.
Sathishkumar et al.
Herrera-Franco and Valadez-Gonzalez62 suggested
that silane with 2% NaOH primary-treated henequen
fiber polyethylene composites have maximum tensile
properties than NaOH-treated fiber composites.
However, the maximum flexural properties were
obtained in NaOH-treated fiber composites. Joseph
et al.64 also suggested that the NaOH-treated randomly
oriented sisal fiber polypropylene composites provided
better tensile properties than the permanganate and
maleic anhydride treatments. The Young’s modulus
of the composites lies in between the modulus of longi-
tudinal and transverse direction of longitudinal-
oriented fiber composites. Soleimani et al.66 concluded
that 5% NaOH-treated flax fiber-reinforced polypro-
pylene composites have higher mechanical properties
than bleached and raw fiber composites. After treat-
ments, the higher cellulose content in fiber improved
the stress transfer between fibers which led to higher
mechanical strength. John and Venkata Naidu67 con-
cluded that the mechanical properties of 2% NaOH-
treated sisal/glass composites were higher than the
untreated ones. Venkata Subba Reddy et al.68 con-
cluded that the maximum tensile strength of 1%
NaOH-treated bamboo/glass fiber composites with
fiber content ratio of 20/20% was higher than the
fiber ratio of 10/30% and 30/10%. Raghu et al.69 ana-
lyzed the chemical resistance tests of 2% NaOH-treated
silk/sisal fiber polyester-based hybrid composites.
Jannah et al.54 investigated the mechanical properties
of 1%, 3%, and 5% NaOH-treated banana woven fiber
polyester composites and concluded that the optimum
mechanical properties were found at 1% NaOH treat-
ment. Ibrahim et al.70 analyzed the mechanical proper-
ties of 2, 4, 6, and 8% NaOH-treated kenaf fiber-ecoflex
composites and concluded 4% NaOH treatment fiber as
the optimum treatment. Arif et al.71 manufactured the
polyethylene composites with 2%, 6%, and 10% NaOH-
treated oil palm empty fruit punch fiber. The maximum
flexural strength was obtained in 2% NaOH treatment
fiber, and the maximum tensile strength was obtained in
6% NaOH treatment fiber. Also, tensile and flexural
strength was higher in 5% and 3% silane-treated fiber
composites. Noorunnisa Khanam et al.74 investigated
the 2% NaOH-treated coir fiber-reinforced unsaturated
polyester composites. The mechanical properties of trea-
ted coir/silk fiber composites were higher than untreated
composites containing 20 mm fiber length. In all treated
and untreated conditions, if fiber length exceeds more
than 20 mm in the composites, the mechanical properties
start to decrease. Sever et al.75 investigated that the jute
fibers that were subjected to 2% alkali and 1% oligo-
meric siloxane treatment. Treated jute/low density poly
ethylene (LDPE) composites were prepared by compres-
sion molding method. The resulted mechanical proper-
ties were found to be higher in 1% oligomeric siloxane
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1467
compared the alkali-treated fiber-reinforced composites.
Thamae and Baillie6 analyzed the waste agave
Americana fiber that was treated in 1 N NaOH and
0.05% silane by boiled method. The results showed
that the fiber surface was rough in nature and improved
the bonding strength in HDPE resin. Tensile and shear
strength of boiled NaOH-treated fibers/HDPE compos-
ites were higher than others. Padmavathi33 analyzed the
longitudinal-oriented sisal fiber epoxy composites that
were fabricated with compression molding process.
The various concentration of NaOH (2, 9, 18, 28, and
38%) treated sisal fiber epoxy composites was obtained
the maximum mechanical properties in 18% treated fiber
at 40% Vf of fiber.
Bisanda76 studied the compressive strength of vari-
ous Vf of 0.5 N NaOH-treated sisal fiber epoxy com-
posites and concluded that the maximum strength was
obtained at 55% Vf. Gonzalez-Murillo and Ansell77
concluded that the 0.06 M NaOH-treated henequen
fiber epoxy composites did not show much improve-
ment in tensile stress of untreated ones. Santos et al.41
investigated the peach palm fibers that were treated
with various chemicals such as H2O2, 5% NaOH, and
C3H3N. The maximum mechanical properties were
obtained in NaOH-treated fiber polyester composites.
Zaman et al.78 analyzed the various concentrations of
KMnO4 and urea-treated jute fiber polypropylene com-
posites that were prepared at 45% Wf. The results
showed that 0.05% KMnO4-treated jute polypropylene
composites depicted maximum mechanical properties.
Li et al.2 reported the sisal fibers that were subjected to
various chemical treatments such as alkali, isocyanate,
peroxide, permanganate, silane, benzol, acetylated,
thermal, and acetic acid. The treated sisal fiber compos-
ites were normally higher than untreated ones. After
chemical treatment, the fiber chemical composition
such as cellulous, hemicellulose, lignin, wax, and mois-
ture content changed, and good interfacial bonding
existed between the fiber and resin. Mohanty and
Nayak38 prepared the bamboo/HDPE composites
with various weight percentages. A maximum tensile
strength of 25.47 MPa and flexural strength of
27.86 MPa was obtained at 30% weight percentage.
But the maximum impact strength of 69.62 J was
obtained at 20% weight percentage. At same weight
content, the tensile and flexural strength of Maleic
anhydride grafted polyethylene (MAPE)-treated
bamboo/HDPE composite was higher than pure resin
and untreated fiber composites of 28.54 MPa and
53.76 MPa, and the impact strength was lower than
control.
Silva et al.105 analyzed the tensile properties of 10%
NaOH-treated short and long sisal fiber polyurethane
composites. The treated woven mat sisal fiber compos-
ites improved three times compared to the untreated
1468
composites. Lu and Oza107 treated the hemp fiber with
2% NaOH and prepared the vHDPE composites at
30% of fiber content which was appeared to be an
optimized content for both tensile and flexural strength.
However, the tensile strength of hemp–rHDPE reached
a maximum value of 60.2 MPa at 40% Vf of fiber and it
showed a 34% improvement compared to that of
hemp–vHDPE composites. Joseph et al.20 reported
the chemical treatments such as sodium hydroxide, iso-
cyanate, permanganate, and peroxide that were carried
out to improve the bonding in the sisal fiber-polymer
interface. It was observed that the treatments enhanced
the tensile properties of the composites considerably.
Ganan and Mondrago et al.56 investigated the fique/
polyester composites that were prepared with various
fiber treatments such as alkaline, maleic anhydride, and
acrylic acid. The maximum flexural strength was
obtained in alkaline-treated fiber composites at 60%
fiber content. Kutlay et al.75 concluded that the inter-
laminar shear strength of jute fiber was improved by the
chemical treatment. Mominul Haque et al.42 reported
that the 5% NaOH-treated palm fiber-reinforced poly-
propylene composites have higher tensile modulus than
untreated fiber composites. But the tensile strength
decreased with increase in the fiber weight content.
The maximum flexural properties were obtained at
30% weight content of fibers. Ramli et al.44,59 investi-
gated the mechanical properties of oil palm fiber-
reinforced polypropylene composites with the addition
of various concentrations of maleated polypropylene as
a coupling agent. The composites containing 3% cou-
pling agent and 30% Wf of fiber have higher tensile and
flexural strength and modulus, but flexural and impact
strength was higher at 4% coupling agent and 40% Wf
of fiber. Also, Kalam et al.43 investigated the mechan-
ical properties of oil palm fruit bunch fiber-filled poly-
propylene composites that were dependent on the
pulverized size of the fiber. The fiber sizes were 100,
125, 180, and 250 mm. The composites were prepared
by injection molding process. The fiber grain size
increased the tensile and flexural strength of the com-
posites at fiber size of 250 mm. The fiber grain size of
100 mm was obtained the maximum impact strength.
Kumar et al.45 investigated the mechanical proper-
ties of 2% NaOH-treated coir fiber-reinforced phenolic
composites and the optimum Wf of 60% was obtained
from the mechanical properties. Quazi Shubhra et al.80
compared the mechanical properties of pure polypro-
pylene, jute/polypropylene, and silk/polypropylene
composites at 20% Wf of fibers. Tensile strength and
modulus of silk/polypropylene composites were higher
than pure polypropylene and jute/polypropylene com-
posites. The silk composites gained 153 and 39%
improvement in tensile strength and modulus over the
matrix. The silk/polypropylene composites had 35 and
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Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(19)
1.33% improvement of tensile strength and modulus
over the jute composites. Also, the flexural and
impact results showed similar improvements. Udaya
Kiran et al.86 investigated the tensile strength of sun
hemp, sisal, and banana fiber-reinforced polyester com-
posites with various fiber lengths of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
and 70 mm and weight content. The maximum tensile
strength was obtained at 30 mm sun hemp and banana
fibers in 54% weight content of fiber, and at 30 mm
sisal fiber in 51% weight content. The optimum fiber
length of 30 mm was obtained in the above three fibers.
Zhong et al.89concluded that the flexural strength and
modulus of the sisal fiber-reinforced urea-formaldehyde
composites decreased with increasing the fiber weight
content more than 30%. Also, the specific strength was
decreased.
Dynamics properties of natural
fiber-reinforced composites
The dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a tool that
has been widely employed for investigating the dynamic
and viscoelastic behavior of polymer composite mater-
ials. This has been used to determine the relevant
stiffness and damping characteristic of unfilled and
fiber-filled reinforced composite materials for various
applications. It was an effective method to study the
relaxations in pure polymer and fiber-filled polymer
with various fillers, fillers content, and filler dimensions.
Therefore, the dynamic behavior of the materials under
various conditions of stress, temperature, frequency,
and different phase composition of fiber-filled compos-
ites has been determined. During DMA, the various
dynamic parameters such as storage modulus (E0 ),
loss modulus (E00 ), and damping factor or dynamic
factor (tan d) have been obtained with respect to tem-
perature increment and time. From this analysis, the
results of damping factor (d) were an inherent of the
constituents. The damping factor was obtained by the
following empirical relation (equation (1)).93
tan c ¼ Vf tan f þð1  Vf Þtan m ð1Þ
where dc, df, and dm were the damping factors the fiber
and the polymer matrix of the composite, respectively,
Vf and Vm ¼ (1  Vf) were the Vf of fiber and matrix.
During analysis, the molecular chain of the polymer
moved very rapidly with increasing temperature. The
frozen segment of polymer moved and it dissipated
excess energy as heat (Maries Idicula et al. 2005). In
fiber-filled polymers, the molecular moment has been
slowdown and it dissipated low energy. This led to
low damping factor for fiber containing system.
Increase in Vf of the fiber in the composite shows
decrease in damping factor as the fiber tremendously
Sathishkumar et al.
resists the heat flow. The rule of the mixture was used to
analyze the mechanical properties of the composites, as
well as the damping properties. The damping factor of
fiber in the above equation was very difficult to obtain.
Therefore, the rule of mixture was used to calculate the
damping factor of composites (tan dc) by Nielsen equa-
tion (equation (2)) as follows.94
tanc ¼ tanm ð1  Vf Þ
where the tan dm was damping factor of matrix and Vf
was fiber volume fraction of the composite. The E0 of
the fiber-filled composites had been obtained with
respect to temperature. The E0 defined the martial stiff-
ness with effect of fiber filled. The Einstein’s equation
(equation (3)) was used to obtain the E0 of the fiber
composites.96
Ec ¼ Em ð1 þ Vf Þ
where Ec and Em was E0 of composites and matrix. The
activation energy (
E) of the relaxation process for
each of the samples was calculated by Arrhenius equa-
tion (equation (4)) as follows.96
f ¼ f0 expð
E=RTÞ
where f and f0 were the measuring frequencies in Hz
and experimental constants, R and T were gas constant
(3.184 kJ/mol K) and temperature at tan d peak,
respectively. These factors and values were essential
to study the composite material under dynamic condi-
tions. Pothan et al.95 investigated the dynamic proper-
ties of 30 mm length of banana fiber-reinforced
isophthalic unsaturated polyester composites that
were analyzed with various fiber Vf of 10, 20, 30 and
40%, respectively, at 0.1, 1, and 10 Hz. At low tempera-
ture region, the E0 of the neat polyester was higher than
that of fiber-filled polyester. The temperature above Tg,
the E0 of composites was higher than neat resin. The E0
decreased with incorporation of fiber up to the Vf of
30%. The tan d peak was shifted to higher temperature
regions. In increasing frequency, the Tg value was
shifted to higher temperature supports good fiber/
matrix interaction which was proved in tan d and E00 .
Maries Idicula et al.96investigated that the fiber Vf
increased the E0 values at above Tg region compared
to the matrix and the maximum modulus was obtained
at 40% Vf of 30 mm short banana/sisal hybrid fiber-
reinforced polyester composites. Increasing the fiber
Vf shows decrease in tan d peak intensity and increase
in peak width. The maximum peak width was observed
for 40% Vf of fibers containing composites. Dipa Ray
et al.97analyzed the untreated and 5% NaOH-treated
jute fiber-reinforced vinyl ester composites with various
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1469
fibers Vf. The E0 and E00 values of composites were
higher than neat vinyl ester. Composites containing
35% Vf of 4 h treated fiber depict maximum E0 and
E00 than 8 h treated fiber composites. Thi-Thu-Loan
Doan et al.98 concluded that the E0 and E00 of neat
resin was lower compared to composites in glassy and
rubbery region. Increase in Vf of the fiber in the com-
posites shows increase in E0 and E00 for the blended
ð2Þ matrix system compared to pure. In tan d curve, the
amorphous part in polypropylene of a and b transition
peak was lower for all composites that resulted to better
adhesion between fiber and matrix. Dipa Ray99 modi-
fied the unsaturated polyester resin with Styrene-
butadiene (SBR) latex and the damping property was
enhanced significantly with the presence of latex par-
ticles. The maximum damping was obtained in 10%
weight content of SBR latex blend matrix in 50% fly
ash composites. Mohanty and Nayak38 investigated the
ð3Þ maximum E0 obtained in 6 mm length of treated
bamboo fiber-reinforced high-density polyethylene
composites. Similarly, the tan d peak was reduced
with the addition of fiber in the resin. In treated fiber
composites, the tan d peak was lower compared to
untreated fiber composites and virgin HDPE.
Chantara Thevy Ratnam et al.101 modified the polyvi-
ð4Þ nylchloride (PVA) resin by blending with epoxidized
natural rubber (ENR) of various proposition. The E0
of PVA/ENR was higher than oil palm empty fruit
bunch (OPEFB) composites within the glassy region.
In addition to OPEFB fiber in PVA/ENR, the decreas-
ing trend of E0 of composites was shifted to higher tem-
perature region. Manikandan Nair et al.102 concluded
that the tan d peak was reduced and the width of the
peaks was increased. Here, the Tg of composites was
shifted to higher temperature region compared to neat
polystyrene. But the E0 and E00 of benzoyl chloride-
treated sisal fiber composites have shifted the Tg value
compared to untreated, acetylated-treated and M-
polystyrene maleicanhydride (PSMA)-coated fiber
composites. This was due to better adhesion between
fiber/matrix. Jawaid et al.103 showed that the E0 value
of OPEFB and jute fiber (4:1) hybrid composite was
lower than 1:4 ratio of fiber composite. The tan d
peak height was lower in Empty fruit bunch
(EBF):jute (1:4) fiber hybrid and jute fiber composite,
which showed lower damping and good fiber/matrix
adhesion. Sharifah H Aziz and Ansell115 investigated
the E0 of NaOH-treated hemp and kenaf fiber polyester
composites. They reported that E0 was found consider-
ably higher for the treated fiber composites compared
to untreated fiber composites. Also, the lower tan d
peak was obtained in treated hemp fiber polyester com-
posites compared to untreated ones. Pothan and
Thomas104 reported the enhancement in E0 and reduc-
tion in E00 for the chemically modified sisal fiber
1470
composites. The 0.25% NaOH pre-treated silane A125
and 1% NaOH-treated sisal fiber polyesters composites
showed higher E0 at lower temperature of glassy state
than control. At above Tg, the maximum E0 was
obtained in silane-treated fiber composites. Silva
Ueki105 reported that the E0 of neat matrix and short
sisal fiber composites show similar results in lower tem-
perature and at above Tg, the E0 value was higher than
control. The tan d peak value was lower and shifted to
lower temperature region. In untreated woven fiber
composite, the intensity of tan d was found higher got
shifted to higher temperature. Wielage et al.106 ana-
lyzed the dynamic properties of treated and untreated
flax and hemp fiber-reinforced polypropylenes compos-
ites. The increasing flax fiber content in polypropylene
composites showed increase in E0 and decrease in the
loss factor. In 2% NaOH-treated flax fiber composites,
E0 and tan d was lower than untreated ones. Na Lu and
Shubhashini Oza107 concluded that the E0 and E00 of
treated hemp fiber virgin high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) composites were higher compared to recycled
HDPE composites. Sarawut Rimdusit et al.108 investi-
gated that the maximum E0 was obtained in 50%
weight content of coconut fiber in the PVA/
Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA) composites. The
Tg values were shifted to higher temperature region
with increase in fiber weight content. Hence, the add-
ition of fiber in resin leads to higher temperature sta-
bility. Sang Muk lee et al.92 reported that the addition
of silk fiber in composites increased the E0 . The max-
imum properties were obtained in 50 wt.% of silk fiber.
Further increase in fiber loading to 60 wt.% showed
decrease in E0 of the composites to larger extent, which
was due to insufficient binder in the composites. The
optimum weight content of silk fiber Poly-(butylene suc-
cinate) (PBS) composites was obtained in 50 wt.%. This
was due to shifting of Tg and tan d peak to a larger
extent. Mylsamy and Rajendran28 concluded that the
agave fiber epoxy composites E0 was decreased with
increasing fiber length in treated and untreated condi-
tions. The maximum modulus was obtained in treated
fiber composites. Above Tg, the maximum E0 was
obtained in NaOH-treated fiber composites of 3 mm
fiber length compared to others. Hence, the long fiber
interlocking was very low compared to others. The tan d
peak value was lower in composite containing 3 mm
fiber length. Mohanty et al.88 studied that the E0 values
for treated jute fiber high-density polyethylene was
higher than untreated and pure resin in glassy and rub-
bery region. Also, the fiber E00 and tan d values were
found to be low in treated fiber composites. Sreekumar
et al.72 concluded that the NaOH-treated fiber compos-
ites have higher mechanical properties than other fiber
composites and decreased the thermal conductivity of
the composites.
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Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(19)
Water absorption of untreated and
treated natural fiber-reinforced
composites
Thi-Thu-Loan Doan et al.98 reported that the percent-
age of moisture gain of jute polypropylene composites
was studied according to Fick’s law. The equilibrium
moisture absorption and diffusion coefficient were cal-
culated from the slope of the linear line of water
absorption curve which was the mass of water absorp-
tion versus square root of time period. The Vf increased
the diffusion coefficient and weight gain. At the same
fiber content, the chemically modified composite show
lower values of diffusion coefficient and equilibrium
water content than the respective non-modified com-
posites. But these results were low in pure polypropyl-
ene. Athijayamani et al.5 reported that the
preconditioned roselle/sisal polyester composites were
sized and edges were sealed with resin. These samples
were subjected to moisture absorption for five days.
The percentage of moisture absorption increased with
increasing fiber weight content. The maximum absorp-
tion was absorbed at 100 mm fiber length composites
compared to 50 mm fiber. Silva and Ueki105 absorbed
that the percentage of water absorption was higher in
short sisal fiber polyurethane composites compared to
woven bidirectional fiber composites at 27% weight
content of fiber. But the alkaline-treated woven mat
fiber composite has low water absorption than others.
Sreekumar et al.50 investigated the water absorption
of treated and untreated sisal fiber-reinforced polyester
composites. The percentage of water absorption was
analyzed with three conditions such as 30, 60 ,and
90 C. The temperature increased the water absorption.
The raw fiber composites absorbed higher water com-
pared to treated fiber composites which was due to the
presence of high amount of hemicellulose, lignin, wax,
and large number of porous tubular structures was filed
by resin. The NaOH treatments was activated the hydro-
xyl groups of cellulose unit by breaking the hydrogen
bond, and followed to other treatment the fiber becomes
more hydrophobic in nature leading to good fiber/
matrix interaction. This was lower the water absorption
capability. The kinetic of water absorption was lower in
treated fiber composites. The diffusion coefficients based
on the Fickian law, sorption, and permeability coeffi-
cients were discussed. Muhamad F Arif et al.71 con-
cluded that the 3% silane-treated Oil palm empty fruit
bunch (OPEFP) fiber/HDPE composites were lower
water absorption than 10% NaOH, 5% acrylated, and
untreated fiber composites. Bisanda76 concluded that Vf
of the sisal fiber increased the water absorption. In 0.5 N
NaOH-treated sisal fiber composites was lower absorp-
tion than untreated composites with immersing time of
32 and 72 h.
Sathishkumar et al.
Haydar U Zaman et al.78 reported that the percentage
of water absorption of 0.03% KMnO4-treated jute fiber
polypropylene composites was lower compared to
untreated fiber composites. But the 0.03% KMnO4
and 1% urea-treated jute fiber polypropylene compos-
ites obtained lower absorption than untreated and
0.03% KMnO4-treated jute fiber composites.
Kushwaha and Kumar73 examined the kinetics of
water absorption of bamboo/glass fiber-reinforced
epoxy and polyester resin. Hybridization of fibers
resulted in decrease of the moisture uptake from 26%
to 16% compared to bamboo fiber epoxy composite and
from 35% to 17% compared to bamboo fiber polyester
composite. Venkateshwaran et al.46 investigated water
absorption of the banana fiber-reinforced polyester
composites with various fiber length and Wf. The fiber
content increased the moisture uptake. The maximum
water absorption for the composites was around 5%
for various fiber length and Wf.
Dhakal et al.53 investigated that the water absorp-
tion of laminated hemp fiber-reinforced polyester com-
posites were studied using de-ionized water. The fiber
Vf increased the water absorption in the composites
with respect to immersing time. Also, the acceleration
of water absorption becomes increased by boiled water
ageing. This was due to degradation in the fiber–matrix
interface and the existing state of water molecules.
Chittaranjan Deo and Acharya55 studied the percent-
age of moisture absorption tests of lantana camara
fiber-reinforced epoxy composite with three different
environmental conditions such as steam, saline water,
and sub-zero temperature. The saturation time of water
absorption was approximately 60 h for steam and 70 h
for saline water and sub-zero temperature treatment.
The diffusion coefficient was increased with fiber Wf.
At 40%Wf, the diffusion coefficient was less in sub-
zero temperature treatment. Depaksh gulati90 con-
cluded that the water absorption of treated hemp
fiber composites was lower than untreated fiber com-
posites with varying time period.
Thermal stability and machinability
of untreated and treated natural
fiber-reinforced composites
Mohanty and Nayak38 analyzed the thermal stability of
bamboo/HDPE composites by TGA/DTG analysis.
The initial decomposition temperature was shifted to
higher temperature of 356 C compared to bamboo of
210 C and resin of 348 C. Also, similar results were
obtained in 10%, 50%, and final weight loss. After
MAPE treatment, the weight loss temperature was
shifted to higher temperature region which was due the
better adhesion between the fiber and matrix. Chantara
Thevy Ratnam et al.101 concluded that the onset
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1471
temperature and peak value of OPEFB fiber-reinforced
Poly vinyl chloride (PVC)/ENR composites obtained
were similar to the results of unfilled PVC/ENR
blends. Sang Muk Lee et al.92 reported that the thermal
stability of silk/poly-biocomposites was likely to be an
intermediate between the matrix and silk fiber depending
on the chopped fiber weight content. Below 350 C, the
thermal stability of the composites decreased with
increasing the weight content of fiber, whereas above
350 C it increased with increasing the fiber content.
Thamae and Baillie6 analyzed that 1 N NaOH and
0.05% silane-treated waste agave Americana fiber/
HDPE composites has good thermal stability, the per-
centage of weight loss was higher and derivative weight
loss was lower for treated fibers, which led to good
thermal stability. Mohanty and Nayak38 investigated
thermal stability of the bamboo/HDPE composites
with and without NaOH-treated fiber. The dehydration
and degradation of lignin occurred at 40–210 C and
maximum percentage of cellulose was found to decom-
pose at 380 C. After treatment, the initial decompos-
ition temperature was shifted to 370 C compared to
raw fiber decomposition temperature of 356 C.
Tajvidi and Takemura39 investigated the thermal stabil-
ity of various natural fiber polypropylene composites.
The kenaf fiber composite decomposed very slowly
than other fiber composites because of higher cellulose
content in the fiber. The maximum degradation tem-
perature of 356.9 C was obtained compared to other
fiber composites. Also, the DTG peak was shifted to
higher temperature region. Milanese et al.40 investi-
gated that the onset temperature of the sisal/phenolic
composite was found be intermittence between the fiber
and pure resin. Also, the DTG peak degradation tem-
perature of fiber and pure resin were 70.4 and 31.5 C,
but the composite was found to be 42.7 C, which was
intermittence between them. Agung et al.36 investigated
the thermal stability of abaca fiber-reinforced high-
impact polystyrene composites with various concentra-
tions of maleic anhydride and impact modifier.
Initially, the maximum and final decomposition tem-
peratures of impact modifier composites have higher
thermal stability compared to maleic anhydride-modi-
fied composites. Mohanty et al.88 concluded that the
thermal stability of the jute fiber/HDPE composites
was increased by the treated fiber reinforcement.
Jayabal and Natarajan58 investigated the optimum
cutting parameter for the drill process of coir fiber-rein-
forced composites with various cutting speed and feed.
The Nelder–Mead and genetic algorithm method was
used to find out the optimum drilling parameter from
the trust force, torque, and tool wear. Mylsamy and
Rajendran28 analyzed the thrust force of untreated
and NaOH-treated agave fiber epoxy composites with
various lengths. The thrust force was higher in 3 mm
1472
fiber length NaOH-treated composites. Increasing the
fiber length decreased the thrust force.
Application of natural fiber-reinforced
composites
Satyanarayana et al.1 reported that the natural
fiber-reinforced composites have been used for
many applications. Sisal-epoxy composite has been
used for making cylinders, coir fiber polyester compos-
ites has been used for helmet, roofing, and post box, and
banana fiber polyester composites has been used for
voltage stabilizer, projector cover, mirror casing, and
paper weight. Mathur47 reported the potential use of
sisal, jute, and coir fiber-reinforced with various resin
composites. The chopped sisal/jute mats unsaturated
polyester resin composites have been used for laminates
and panels. The door shutters were prepared by bonding
of the jute/sisal laminates face with plastics wood slab.
The door frames have been prepared from jute hessian
cloth and phenolic resin by pultrusion technique. These
composites were subjected to impact indentation and
shock resistance test which resulted that no damage
and crack was occurred. The roofing sheets were pre-
pared by coir with cement materials for various thick-
ness and lengths. High-pressure compression molding
sheets were prepared with sisal/glass fiber epoxy com-
posites for replacing the asbestos-cement sheet.
Holbery and Houston22 reported that the vehicle
interior parts such as glove box, door panels, seat cov-
erings, seat surface/backrest, trunk panel, and trunk
floor were made up of wood/cotton fibers, flax/sisal
with thermoset resin, leather/wool backing, coconut
fiber/natural rubber, cotton fiber, cotton with
Polypropylene/Polyethylene Terephthalate (PP/PET)
fibers and cotton fiber-reinforced composites. The
exterior part of floor panel mat was made up of flax
with polypropylene composites. Sapuan et al.109 fabri-
cated the multipurpose table using banana trunk fiber-
woven fabric-reinforced composite. The eight design
concepts such as characteristic, stability of product,
cost of manufacture, ease of manufacture, reliability
of service, ergonomic to user, low setup time, and
ease to carry and light were used to make the table.
Marsh111 reported that the flax/polypropylene compos-
ites were used to replace the car interior parts. The
modern door and inner trim panels have molded
using mats of 60% natural fiber in a pre-perg polyur-
ethane resin.
Summary of the literature review
From the above literature discussion, the following
conclusions are obtained.
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Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(19)
. The natural fibers have been extracted by various
retting method and the characteristics are studied
using SEM, optical microscope images, micrometer,
FTIR, and XRD test. The thermal stability of the
fibers was measured using TGA/DTG analyses. The
chemically treated fibers have higher chemical,
mechanical, and thermal properties than raw fibers.
. The randomly and longitudinally oriented short nat-
ural fiber-reinforced composites were prepared using
various manufacturing method. Mostly the simple
hand lay-up method followed by compression mold-
ing process has been used to prepare the short and
long fiber-reinforced composite with various Wf and
Vf, and various fiber lengths. The static properties
were studied to optimize the fiber weight or volume
fraction and fiber length. The theoretical predication
was compared with experimental values. The natural
fibers treated with various chemicals at different con-
centrations improved the interfacial bonding
between the fiber and matrix which enhanced the
mechanical and thermal properties. The SEM
image at fracture zone of the composites confirmed
the fiber matrix bonding, fiber pull outs, and fiber
delamination.
. The dynamic properties of natural fiber-reinforced
composites have been analyzed with various
volume and Wf of fiber, different fiber length, and
frequency. The activation energy was calculated for
all composites. The treated fiber composites have
higher thermal stability than untreated fiber
composites.
. The thrust force was increased with fiber Wf and
various treated fibers in the composites. The opti-
mum drilling parameters such as drilling speed and
delamination factor have obtained for various
composites.
. The treated fiber composites decreased water
absorption and kinetic of water of absorption. This
was due to higher surface contact area of fiber/
matrix which was less permeability of water in fibers.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding
agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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