Materials Science and Technology

ISSN: 0267-0836 (Print) 1743-2847 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ymst20

Organic fibre modified ceramic shell moulding for

investment casting

S. Jones, C. Yuan & K. Lewis

To cite this article: S. Jones, C. Yuan & K. Lewis (2002) Organic fibre modified ceramic shell
moulding for investment casting, Materials Science and Technology, 18:12, 1565-1573, DOI:
10.1179/026708302225007772

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/026708302225007772

Published online: 19 Jul 2013.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 10

View related articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ymst20

Download by: [McMaster University] Date: 06 April 2016, At: 13:24

 Organic Ž bre modiŽ ed ceramic shell moulding
for investment casting
S. Jones, C. Yuan, and K. Lewis

Investment casting research is being carried out by the University of Birmingham sponsored by the EPSRC and a
consortium of industrial companies. The programme is aimed at developing a fundamental understanding of the
process, with a view to routinely producing sound, net shape castings. The casting of liquid metals to produce solid
objects is a manufacturing process, which has been practised for over ® ve thousand years, with investment casting
being one of the oldest known metal shaping methods. The technique itself has tremendous advantages in the
production of quality components and key bene® ts of accuracy, versatility and integrity. As a result the process is
one of the most economic methods of forming a wide range of metal components. Environmental and economic
pressures have, however, resulted in a need for the industry to improve current casting quality, reduce manufacturing
costs and explore new markets for the process. Optimisation of the mechanical and physical properties of the
ceramic shell will be fundamental to achieving these aims. This paper reports on the work carried out to determine
the applicability of the use of ® bres as reinforcement media for investment shells and to explore methods by which
the use of organic ® bres can improve ceramic shell performance. MST/5425

The authors are in the IRC in Materials Processing, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
(s.jones@bham.ac.uk). Manuscript received 11 February 2002; accepted 19 March 2002.
# 2002 IoM Communications Ltd. Published by Maney for the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016

the shell mould is achieved by removal of moisture.5

Introduction Colloidal binders produce ceramic moulds with very low
green strengths which are prone to cracking during wax
The investment casting process involves the production of removal and handling.6 This is overcome by the use of
engineering castings using an expendable pattern.1 The liquid polymer additions, either latex based for alkaline
principles can be traced back to 5000BC 2 when Early Man systems or PVA based for acidic binders. Polymers increase
employed the method to produce rudimentary tools. This
was followed by centuries of use for jewellery and artistic
components3 before the advent of the Second World War
saw the process developed for aerospace and subsequently
engineering components. 4 The term `investment’ casting
derives from the characteristic use of mobile ceramic slurry,
or `investments’ , to form a mould with an extremely smooth
surface.5 These are replicated from precise patterns and
transmitted in turn to the casting.
The basic steps in the production of an investment cast
component using a ceramic shell mould are shown in
Fig. 1. Primary and secondary ceramic slurries are prepared
from ® ne mesh refractory ® llers and a liquid binder system.
Pattern waxes are produced and an assembly is prepared
according to the required casting speci® cations (Fig. 2). The
assembly is then dipped into the primary slurry, sprinkled
with coarse refractory stucco and dried. The purpose of
the stucco is to minimise drying stresses in the coatings by
presenting a number of stress concentration centres, which
distribute, and hence, lower the magnitude of the local
drying stress. The second main purpose of the stucco is to
present a rough surface, thus facilitating a mechanical bond
between the primary coating and the back up or secondary
investment. When the primary coat has set, (air dried until
the binder gels) the assembly is systematically dipped into
the secondary slurry and stuccoed until the required thick-
ness of shell is built up. The particle size of the stucco is
increased as more coats are added to maintain maximum
mould permeability and to provide bulk to the mould. Each
coating is thoroughly hardened between dippings.
Although a small number of UK foundries are continu-
ing to use alcohol based binders, the majority of larger
companies are switching production to the use of water
based, colloidal silica binders. These binders usually con-
tain between 20 and 30 wt-% amorphous SiO 2 particles,
stabilised by Na + counter ions. Gellation of the colloid to
produce a binding phase for the refractory particles within 1 Basic principles of investment casting process6

DOI 10.1179/026708302225007772 Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18 1565
 1566 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting
a b
2 Example of standard injected wax pattern and assem-
bly for investment casting
the ceramic green strength and have a tendency to reduce
the level of `wet-back’ of moisture into previously dried
coats when new layers are added.7
Thus, a ceramic mould consists of individual layers of
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
® ne refractory material and granular refractory material
held together by a binder that has been set to a rigid gel.
Investment casting is a time consuming, labour intensive
process producing complex, high value added components
for a variety of specialised industries in a range of alloys.
Currently the moulds take between 24 and 72 h to produce
due to the need to use controlled moisture removal for
water based colloidal gellation on every coat. Drying and
strength development is the most signi® cant rate limiting
factor in reduction of lead times and production costs for
the industry. Therefore, scienti® c development within the
industry is fuelled by the need towards reduction in pro-
duction times, improvement of shell performance for the
reduction of casting scrap rates and the reduction of metal ±
mould reaction to improve as cast component surfaces.
One recently patented method for reducing shell produc-
tion times and enhancement of ceramic mould properties
in the autoclave during wax removal is the use of organic
® bre additions into ceramic slurries,8 thus negating the need
for expensive liquid polymer additions. The ® bres, known
as WexPerm*, are organic and water insoluble. They are
therefore dispersed in the binder, as opposed to being
dissolved as in the case of water soluble polymers. The ® bres
are available in a range of sizes and aspect ratios but are
typically less than 3 mm in length. Fibre length and dia-
meter determines both the slurry behaviour and the ceramic
coating characteristics. Unlike the polymer additions, ® bres
do not create foam and the presence of bubbles in the slurry
is very low, normally zero.
The ® bres have a range of unique properties, leading to
enhanced shell build and the possibility of using fewer coats
for equivalent ceramic thickness and mechanical perfor-
mance. The following experimentation was designed to
determine the properties of ® bre modi® ed shell systems and
to compare them to equivalent polymer modi® ed shells,
thus allowing the advantages and disadvantages of the use
of such a system to be speci® ed for the investment industry.
It is important that any potential new material be capable of
performing as well as, if not better than current systems.
Experimental
ORGANIC FIBRE SPECIFICATION
The ® bres used in this study are 1 mm length nylon with an
average diameter of 19 ± 21 mm in diameter. At this aspect
*Registered and patented by Wex Chemicals Ltd.
Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18
ratio of 50 : 1, the loading rate chosen was 20 g per litre
of binder liquids. Shorter ® bres can be loaded at higher
rates.
CERAMIC SHELL SPECIFICATIONS
The ceramic shell within this study was designed to be
representative of a standard shell used for aluminium
alloy casting. The slurry speci® cations are contained in
Table 1, shell build in Table 2, and sample details in
Table 3.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to view the
structure of ceramic mould sections and ® bre morphology.
The instruments used were a Jeol 840A SEM and an
ISI ± 100A SEM. Samples were mounted and gold coated
before analysis.
ROOM TEMPERATURE FLAT BAR STRENGTH
MEASUREMENT
Strength measurements were carried out in accordance
with BS 1902. Injected wax bars were used as formers for
the ceramic shells according to speci® cations given in the
`organic ® bre speci® cation’ and `ceramic shell speci® cations’
subsections above. After dipping the shells were steam
boilerclave dewaxed at 8 bar pressure for 4 min, followed
by a controlled depressurisation cycle at 1 bar min ­ 1 . Test-
pieces, of approximately 20 680 mm, were cut using a
grinding wheel and either tested green or ® red at 1000 °C for
60 min prior to testing. For hot strength measurements,
® red samples were tested at 800 °C, at a load application
rate of 5 kg min ­ 1 , in three point bend mode with an outer
span of 80 mm.
ROOM TEMPERATURE EDGE STRENGTH
MEASUREMENT
The edge, or wedge test,9 was developed at The University
of Birmingham in conjunction with Rolls Royce plc. The
test is speci® cally designed as a quality control procedure to
determine the actual strength of the ceramic shell at the
most vulnerable edges where strength and shell build are
vital to prevent cracking. Edge testing was carried out in
accordance with procedures set out in Ref. 9 (see Fig. 3).
The wedge angle used was 29°. The load was applied at a
rate of 0.25 mm min ­ 1 .
PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENT
Impervious mullite rods of dia. 10 mm, to one end of which
a 40 mm diameter table tennis ball has been attached, were
used as formers for the ceramic shells according to speci® -
cations given in the subsection above on `organic ® bre
speci® cation’ (Fig. 4). After drying, the plastic balls were
burnt out at 700 °C for 5 min at a heating rate of no more
than 3 K min ­ 1 . Shell samples were then ® red at 1000 °C for
60 min at a heating rate of 10 K min ­ 1 . Testing was carried
out in accordance with BS 1902:Section 10. 2:1994, at a test
temperature of 800 °C and with a slight adjustment of the
equation for dynamic viscosity of air.
Results and discussion
ORGANIC FIBRE MORPHOLOGY
Figure 5 shows the structure and morphology of the organic
® bre additions. The additions are nylon, with a ® bre dia-
meter of approx 20 mm and a length of 1 mm, giving an
aspect ratio of 50 6. Figure 6 shows a higher magni® cation
micrograph detailing the surface of the ® bres. Of note is
 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting 1567

3 Experimental setup for edge strength testing

Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016

5 Secondary electron SEM image of nylon ® bre

additions

SHELL BUILD COMPARISONS

Comparisons of the ceramic shell thickness achieved for
polymer modi® ed and ® bre modi® ed shell systems can be
seen in Table 4 and Fig. 7. The use of ® bres increases the
shell thickness by 0.71 mm (15%) over a primary + 4 coat
shell build, which equates to the ability to reduce the
number of secondary coats required to produce an equi-
valent shell thickness. This has signi® cant production time
and material cost implications when producing investment
shells.

Table 3 Sample speci® cations for aluminium shell

4 Schematic section through permeability testpiece Sample Speci® cation Shell build
coated with ceramic shell
1 Polymer Primary 1
Secondary 1
the relatively smooth nature of the nylon surface, which will 2 Fibre Primary 1
have implications for the relative ease of ® bre pull-out Secondary 2
during the application of mechanical force.

Table 1 Slurry speci® cations for aluminium shell preparation*

Binder Silica Polymer Fibre addition, (g L ­ 1 Refractory
Slurry Content, wt-% addition, wt-% of binder liquids) Filler loading

Primary 26 6 NA{ ­ 200 mesh zircon 77% total

­ 200 mesh fused 75% zircon
silica 25% silica
Secondary 1 22 8 NA{ ­ 200 mesh alumino-silicate 57%
Secondary 2 22 N/A 20 ­ 200 mesh alumino-silicate 57%

* All percentages are wt-%.

{NA not available.

Table 2 Shell build speci® cations for aluminium shell coating

Coating Stucco Dip time, s Drain time, s Air speed, ms ­ 1 Dry time, h

Primary 50/80 Molochite 30 60 0. 4 24

Secondary 1 30/80 Molochite 30 60 3 1.5
Secondary 2 30/80 Molochite 30 60 3 1.5
Secondary 3 30/80 Molochite 30 60 3 1.5
Secondary 4 30/80 Molochite 30 60 3 1.5
Seal 30 60 3 24

Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18

 1568 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting

6 Higher magni® cation secondary electron SEM images of nylon ® bre additions

FLAT BAR ROOM TEMP FRACTURE

STRENGTH
A comparison of the strengths achieved at room tempera-
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016

ture in the three point bend mode for the shell samples is
given in Table 5. The high green strength of Shell 1 is a
direct result of the polymer content, which is re¯ ected by
the reduction in strength as the sample is ® red at 1000 °C
and the polymer burns out. Surprisingly, ® bre reinforced
ceramic has a lower green strength than the polymer
modi® ed system (62% of the polymer strength) and an
equivalent ® red strength suggesting that the ® bre is not
in¯ uencing green strength in the manner of a standard
composite material.
In practice, however, moulds produced with ® bre addi-
tions are less susceptible to autoclave cracking8 suggesting a
higher green strength. Further detailed comparison of load
bearing capacity can be achieved using the adjusted fracture
load (AFL). 1 0 The AFL is de® ned as the load necessary
to break a normalised 10 mm wide testpiece across a 70 mm
span, thus allowing the actual thickness of the shell to 7 Image highlighting the shell thickness increase pro-
become a factor. Results are given in Table 6. It can be seen duced with organic ® bre modi® ed slurries
that the load bearing capacity of the polymer system is still
slightly higher when the moulds are un® red. When ® red, the
® bre modi® ed system has a higher load bearing capacity This suggests, as does the AFL that the ® bre modi® cation
even though both polymer and organic ® bre will have burnt should have adequate mechanical properties in the green
off at these temperatures. The AFL suggests that the ® bre state to withstand the mechanical demands of wax removal.
system will produce a ceramic shell with very little difference Figure 10 shows the stress ± strain results for the ® red
in three point bend strength from the polymer modi® ed polymer modi® ed Shell 1 specimens, tested at room tem-
system making it a viable alternative. perature. The average stress to failure is approximately
4 MPa and the average strain at failure is approximately
2 .25 610 ­ 3 . Figure 11 shows the equivalent test results for
FLAT BAR ROOM TEMPERATURE
STRESS ± STRAIN Table 5 Strength results for shell samples
Figure 8 shows the stress ± strain results for the un® red
Shell Modulus of St.
polymer modi® ed Shell 1 specimens tested at room sample Status rupture, MPa dev. r
temperature. The average stress to failure is approximately
8 MPa and the average strain at failure is approximately Shell 1 Green 7.8 0. 7
2 610 ­ 3 . Figure 9 shows the equivalent test results for the Shell 1 Fired* 4.8 0. 3
® bre modi® ed system (Shell 2), giving an average stress to Shell 2 Green 4.7 0. 4
Shell 2 Fired* 4.7 0. 5
failure of approximately 5 MPa and an average strain to
failure of 1 .5 610 ­ 3 . Though the maximum green strength
* Fired at 1000°C for 60 min.
of the ® bre system in ¯ at bar testing is lower, the actual
strain accommodated by the system is only slightly less.
Table 6 Adjusted fracture load strength for shell samples

Table 4 Shell thickness comparisons Shell Adjusted fracture Standard

sample Status load, N deviation, N
Shell Sample Thickness, St. dev.,
sample Speci® cation Status population mm mm Shell 1 Green 16. 6 1. 9
Shell 1 Fired* 10 1. 2
1 Polymer Green 10 4.6 0.26 Shell 2 Green 13. 8 1. 8
2 Fibre Green 10 5.31 0.39 Shell 2 Fired* 12. 6 1. 5

Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18

 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting 1569
8 Stress ± strain diagrams at room
un® red polymer modi® ed Shell 1
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
9 Stress ± strain diagrams at room
un® red ® bre modi® ed Shell 2
10 Stress ± strain diagrams at room temperature for ® red
polymer modi® ed Shell 1
11 Stress ± strain diagrams at room temperature for ® red
® bre modi® ed Shell 2
temperature for
the ® bre modi® ed system (Shell 2), giving an average stress
to failure of approximately 4 .5 MPa and an average strain
to failure of 1 .5 610 ­ 3 . Though the maximum strength of
both shell systems decreases due to loss of organic material,
the strain to failure remains very similar to that experienced
by the un® red ceramic. Again this suggests, as does the
AFL that the ® bre modi® cation will produce a shell with
adequate mechanical properties to withstand metal casting.
ROOM TEMPERATURE EDGE STRENGTH
The apparent reduction in green strength exhibited by
organic ® bre modi® ed ceramics may be as a result of the test
system chosen. It is necessary to compare the shell systems
using a test more speci® cally designed to indicate mould
strength during the dewax procedure. Most autoclave shell
cracking and damage occurs on the edges of components,
such as trailing edges and sharp corners, where reduced shell
build and high stress results in ceramic failure.1 1 The edge
test is designed to ascertain the load bearing capacity of the
shell in the most vulnerable thin sections and edges of the
moulds.
Table 7 gives the comparison of the edge strength data.
temperature for
Again, the ® bre-modi® ed shell appears to exhibit a lower
green strength than the polymer system. In terms of edge
strength, however, the ® bre system is exhibiting a value
which is 84% of the polymer shell which is closer than that
obtained with ¯ at bar tests. The ® red strength of the ® bre
shell appears lower (73% of polymer system), which would
be expected with a shell system containing increased poro-
sity on vulnerable edges.
The edge test results also begin to give clues as to the
mechanism by which the ® bre shells prevent autoclave
cracking. The shell build on the edges is much higher, ® bres
giving an increase of 50% of that of the polymer edge thick-
ness. This is much higher than the 15% thickness increase
exhibited on ¯ at specimens. The slurry and stucco retention
due to the presence of ® bres is easily noted during the dipping
process. Fibre modi® ed slurries have a much reduced drain
time, possibly due to ® bre alignment or electrostatic forces
Table 7 Comparison of edge strength results for shell
systems
Edge strength, Edge thickness,
Shell Status Stucco MPa (mm)
1 Green Fluid bed 1.58+ 0.22 2.49+ 0.23
1 Fired* Fluid bed 1.44+ 0.26 2.43+ 0.26
2 Green Fluid bed 1.32+ 0.18 3.51+ 0.35
2 Fired* Fluid bed 1.15+ 0.19 3.63+ 0.51
* Fired at 1000°C for 60 min.
Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18
 1570 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting

Table 8 Comparison of AFL edge strength results for using linear regression. The results are tabulated in Table 9.
shell system In the un® red state, the ® bre shell has a lower modulus
Shell Adjusted Standard
and therefore will be softer and more likely to deform. This
sample Status fracture load, N deviation, N reduced stiffness may be preventing elastic cracking during
dewax and allowing the ® bre shell to deform slightly with-
Shell 1 Green 1. 7 0.3 out failure. Unlike the polymer shell, the ® bre shell does
Shell 1 Fired* 1. 4 0.2 not reduce its modulus during the ® ring cycle. Again,
Shell 2 Green 2. 8 0.6
Shell 2 Fired* 2. 6 0.6
this may be advantageous in the casting cycle where high
metal weights require a strong shell, which should undergo
* Fired at 1000°C for 60 min. minimum deformation while the metal is still liquid. The
higher modulus may also result in a stiffer shell, which is
easier to remove after casting.
generated by friction in the slurry. Reduced drain times
lead to increased slurry coat thickness, which in turn allows
the pick up and retention of extra stucco grains.
The normalised AFL results for the edge strength are FLAT BAR HIGH TEMPERATURE (800°C)
given in Table 8. These results show clearly that the load STRENGTH
bearing capacity of the ® bre-modi® ed shells is much higher The strength at 800 °C for the polymer modi® ed shell is
on the vulnerable edges where the majority of autoclave tabulated in Table 10. The average strength at 800 °C is
cracking takes place. In the green state the shells have a 65% 2 .8 MPa, which is 58% of the ® red strength at room tem-
higher load bearing capacity. In the ® red state, the strength perature. As before, the AFL normalises the data, giving
increase is equivalent to 86% higher than the polymer a load bearing capacity for this shell system of 5 .4 N at
system. Thus, due to the increased shell build on the edges 800 °C. The strength at 800 °C for the ® bre modi® ed shell is
of components, the ® bre systems have a much higher load tabulated in Table 11. The average at 800 °C is 2 .0 MPa,
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016

bearing capacity in both the green and ® red states. The
increase is suf® cient for the shells to be produced with fewer
coats and still maintain an equivalent, if not superior,
strength and performance in both the green and ® red states.
APPARENT YOUNGS MODULUS E
As the stress ± strain results exhibit elastic behaviour for the
shell systems, taking only the straight line elastic portion of
the plots into account, it is possible to calculate an apparent
Young’s modulus (measure of the stiffness of a material)
which is 43% of the ® red strength at room temperature. As
before, the AFL normalises the data, giving a load bearing
capacity for this shell system of 6 .2 N at 800 °C.
The hot strengths for both shell systems are approxi-
mately equivalent when measured using standard ¯ at bar test
methods, suggesting no difference in mechanical properties
during the casting cycle. The AFL for the ® bre modi® ed
shell is slightly higher, giving a slightly higher load bearing
capacity for the ® red shell. Therefore, it will be possible to
reduce the number of coats applied to ® bre-modi® ed shells
and still maintain an equivalent hot strength.

Table 9 Comparison of Young’s modulus results for shell systems

Average youngs Standard
Sample Description Status modulus, GPa deviation r , GPa

1 Polymer modi® ed Green 4.359 0.439

1 Polymer modi® ed Fired 2.610 0.387
2 Fibre modi® ed Green 3.668 0.491
2 Fibre modi® ed Fired 3.365 0.676

Table 10 Flat bar strength at 800°C for the polymer modi® ed Shell 1
Sample Status, °C Thickness, m Width, m Max. load, N MOR, MPa psi AFL, N

1 800 0.00438 0.02149 11.6 3.0 428. 49 5. 7

2 800 0.00446 0.01951 9.8 2.7 384. 56 5. 3
3 800 0.00458 0.02026 12 3.0 430. 01 6. 2
5 800 0.00437 0.01837 10 3.0 434. 11 5. 7
6 800 0.00437 0.02037 9.6 2.6 375. 83 4. 9
7 800 0.00432 0.02014 9.8 2.7 397. 07 5. 1
8 800 0.00449 0.02087 10 2.5 361. 96 5. 0
Average 0.00442 10.4 2.8 401. 7 5. 4
1.0 0.2 29. 3 0. 5

Table 11 Flat bar strength at 800°C for the ® bre modi® ed Shell 2
Sample Status, °C Thickness, m Width, m Max. load, N MOR, MPa psi AFL, f~0.1

1 800 0.00534 0.02089 10.5 1.9 268.43 5.3

2 800 0.00601 0.02127 12.9 1.8 255.71 6.4
3 800 0.00594 0.01846 10.6 1.7 247.84 6.0
4 800 0.00552 0.01798 13.2 2.5 366.92 7.7
5 800 0.00572 0.0199 13.4 2.2 313.42 7.1
6 800 0.00601 0.02065 12.5 1.8 255.22 6.4
7 800 0.00506 0.02053 9.7 1.9 281.03 5.0
8 800 0.00561 0.01942 11 1.9 274.09 5.9
9 800 0.00556 0.01991 14.4 2.5 356.30 7.6
Average 0.00565 11.7 2.0 282.8 6.2
1.4 0.3 39.7 0.9

Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18

 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting 1571
12 Comparison of ® red permeability at 800°C for shell
samples
FLAT BAR HIGH TEMPERATURE (800°C)
STRESS ± STRAIN
Figure 12 shows the stress ± strain results for the polymer
modi® ed Shell 1 specimens (® red) tested at 800 °C. The
average stress to failure is approximately 2 .8 MPa and the
average strain at failure is approximately 0. 18%. Figure 13
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
shows the equivalent test results for the ® bre modi® ed
system, giving an average stress to failure of approximately
2 .0 MPa and an average strain to failure of 0 .28%. The
strengths of the two systems are approximately equivalent
at casting temperatures. However, the strain accommodated
by the ® bre modi® ed shell is 0.1% higher at casting tem-
peratures suggesting that the shell would be less likely to fail
during the casting process due to shell wall movement.
FIRED PERMEABILITY
During casting, liquid metal at high temperature is poured
into the ceramic mould and allowed to cool. The mould
itself is full of air and this is displaced by incoming
liquid metal. It is important that this air leaves the cavity
quickly and completely to prevent trapping and subsequent
porosity, bubbles and more seriously mis-run or `non-® ll’ of
areas of the components where trapped air has produced a
positive back pressure and prevented ¯ ow of liquid metal.
There are several mechanisms by which air is removed:
direct displacement through the pouring cup; absorption
into the alloy; and through the permeation of air through
the open porosity network of the ceramic shell. Permea-
bility of the shell is the most important factor, with most
investment shells having a minimum of 30% open porosity
in the structure.6 Mould ® ll is improved by increasing the
open porosity and hence the permeability of the ceramic
shell. A comparison of the permeability of the shell samples
at 800 °C after previously being ® red at 1000 °C to simulate
casting conditions can be seen in Table 12 and represented
graphically in Fig. 12. The addition of 1 mm nylon ® bres
dramatically increases the ® red permeability by a factor of 3
at aluminium alloy casting temperatures.
The permeability is unaffected by time at temperature
and remains consistent throughout the test. This is of great
bene® t to the casting process, allowing increased transport
of air displaced from the mould cavity and providing
a consistent data input for computer simulations of the
Table 12 Permeability results at 800°C for shell samples (® red at 1000°C for 60 min prior to testing)
Shell Number Temperature, Test duration,
sample of samples °C min
Shell 1 3 800 5 1.612
10
15
Shell 2 3 800 5 5.793
10
15
Materials Science and Technology
13 Secondary electron SEM image of green fracture sur-
face of ® bre modi® ed ceramic Shell 2 showing intact
® bres protruding from the surface
casting cycle. The slightly higher standard deviation does,
however, suggest that the use of ® bres produces a slightly
more inconsistent shell structure. These results suggest that
the ® bre system will produce a ceramic shell with greatly
increased ® red permeability from the polymer modi® ed
system making it a enhanced alternative.
MORPHOLOGY OF GREEN AND FIRED
FRACTURE SURFACES
Un® red and ® red fracture surfaces of ® bre modi® ed shell
samples were analysed using SEM to determine ® bre
alignment and the effect of organic ® bre additions during
fracture. Figure 13 shows the green fracture surface with
® bres, which appear to have been pulled from the ceramic
network. This is as expected with a composite system of this
nature, where the energy required to remove ® bres in this
manner increases the strength required to break the sample
and ultimately the strength.
However, Fig. 13 also illustrates that the ® bres appear
to be intact, with the end chopped as per the virgin ® bre
(Fig. 5). This suggests that there was very little resistance
and little force required to pull the ® bres from the matrix,
which explains the relatively low green strength recorded for
these samples. The low resistance is undoubtedly a result of
the very smooth nature of the nylon ® bre surface, illustrated
earlier in Fig. 6 and again in Fig. 14 where the ® bre cavity
after pull out has very smooth walls. Figure 15 shows the
® red fracture surface of the ® bre modi® ed shell sample. The
cavities left behind by the volatilisation of the nylon during
the ® ring process can be clearly seen. The connected nature
of this porosity enhances the porosity of the ® red shell,
providing a great deal of connected pathways through the
ceramic and greatly increasing the permeability of the cera-
mic during casting.
Summary and conclusions
It is becoming imperative that the investment casting indus-
try improves current casting quality, reduces manufacturing
costs and explores new markets in order to remain competi-
tive. Optimisation of the mechanical and physical properties
of the ceramic shell will be fundamental to achieving these
Permeability, Standard deviation,
m2 610 ­ 1 3 m2 610 ­ 1 3
0.183
1.601 0.152
1.625 0.126
0.239
5.458 0.332
5.435 0.334
December 2002 Vol. 18
 1572 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
14 Secondary electron SEM image of green fracture sur-
face of ® bre modi® ed ceramic Shell 2 showing ® bre
pull-out from opposing surface
aims. Production of the mould is time consuming, currently
taking between 24 and 72 h depending upon the compo-
nent, due to the need to use controlled moisture removal.
Drying and strength development are the most signi® cant
rate limiting factors in the reduction of lead times and
production costs for the industry.
The recently patented method of incorporating organic
® bres into the binder to improve performance and reduce
shell production times is proving successful in foundry trials.
The most common ® bre additions are nylon with a diameter
of 20 mm and a length of 1 mm, giving an aspect ratio of
50 6. These ® bres are designed to act as a composite rein-
forcing agent, increasing green strength to prevent cracking
during autoclave wax removal and burning out during ® ring
to leave increased porosity within the ceramic structure.
The use of ® bres increases the shell thickness by a factor
of 15% over that of a comparable system using a latex
modi® ed binder. This equates to the ability to reduce the
number of coats applied to the wax, which has signi® cant
production time and material cost implications for foun-
dries. A comparison of strengths at room temperature,
measured in three point bend mode, suggests that the ® bre
addition produces a shell system with a slightly lower load
bearing capacity in the green state but still high enough to
make the shell a viable alternative.
The apparent loss of green strength, a factor which is not
seen in industrial practice, may be a result of the test system
chosen as most autoclave cracking occurs on the edges
of components where shell build is an important factor.
Another factor responsible for this may be the smooth nature
of the nylon ® bre surface, appearing to result in very easy
® bre pull-out from the ceramic matrix. With little resistance
there will be little extra energy expended for fracture and the
shell will remain weak. Though the maximum green strength
of the ® bre system in ¯ at bar testing is lower, the actual strain
accommodated by the system is only slightly less. This
suggests, as does the AFL, that the ® bre modi® cation will
have adequate mechanical properties in the green state.
The edge, or wedge test,9 was developed at The Univer-
sity of Birmingham in conjunction with Rolls-Royce plc.
The test is speci® cally designed as a quality control proce-
dure to determine the actual strength of the ceramic shell
at the most vulnerable edges where strength and shell build
are vital to prevent cracking. In terms of edge strength,
Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18
15 Micrographs of ® red fracture surface (SEM) showing
cavities left behind by volatilised nylon ® bres
the ® bre system is exhibiting a value which is 84% of the
polymer shell which is closer than that obtained with ¯ at
bar tests. The ® red strength of the ® bre shell appears lower,
which would be expected with a shell system containing
increased porosity on vulnerable edges.
The edge test results also begin to give clues as to
the mechanism by which the ® bre modi® ed shells prevent
autoclave cracking. The shell build on the edges is much
higher, ® bres giving an increase of 50% of that of the
polymer edge thickness. This is much higher than the 15%
thickness increase exhibited on ¯ at specimens. The slurry
and stucco retention due to the presence of ® bres is easily
noted during the dipping process. Fibre modi® ed slurries
have a much reduced drain time, possibly due to ® bre align-
ment or electrostatic forces generated by friction in the
slurry. Reduced drain times lead to increased slurry coat
thickness, which in turn allows the pick up and retention of
extra stucco grains.
The normalised AFL results show clearly that the load
bearing capacity of the ® bre modi® ed shells is much higher
on the vulnerable edges where the majority of autoclave
cracking takes place. In the green state the shells have a 65%
higher load bearing capacity. In the ® red state, the strength
increase is equivalent to 86% higher than the polymer
system. Thus, due to the increased shell build on the edges
of components, the ® bre systems have a much higher load
bearing capacity in both the green and ® red states. The
increase is suf® cient for the shells to be produced with fewer
coats and still maintain an equivalent, if not superior,
strength and performance both green and ® red.
The hot strength for both shell systems is approxi-
mately equivalent when measured using standard ¯ at bar
test methods, suggesting no difference in mechanical proper-
ties during the casting cycle. The AFL for the ® bre modi® ed
shell is slightly higher, giving a slightly higher load bearing
capacity for the ® red shell. Therefore, it will be possible to
reduce the number of coats applied to shells and still maintain
an equivalent hot strength. The strengths of the two systems
are approximately equivalent at casting temperatures. How-
ever, the strain accommodated by the ® bre modi® ed shell is
0 .1% higher at casting temperatures suggesting that the shell
would be less likely to fail during the casting process.
Another signi® cant advantage of the ® bre additions
appears to be the increased porosity and ultimately per-
meability of the ceramic shell after ® ring. The addition of
® bre increases the permeability at casting temperatures by a
factor of 3, which will be an enormous bene® t when reducing
defects associated with air entrapment. The permeability is
unaffected by time at temperature and remains consistent
throughout the test. This is of great bene® t to the casting
process, allowing increased transport of air displaced from
the mould cavity and providing a consistent data input
for computer simulations of the casting cycle. These results
suggest that the ® bre system will produce a ceramic shell
with greatly increased ® red permeability from the polymer
modi® ed system making it a enhanced alternative.
 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting 1573

Further work willbe needed to quantify the completebene® ts
of this development in shell technology but all the initial results
are suggesting that the use of organic ® bre reinforcement will
have enormous time, cost, and weight saving implications for
the standard investment casting foundry.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the ® nancial
support of the EPSRC through the grant GR/M60101
(FOCAST) and the industrial partners of this project
(irc.bham.ac.uk/epsrc/focast/Who_we_are.html).
10. j. vandermeer: Proc. 10th World Conf. on `Investment
References
11. s. p. leyland, r. hyde, and p. a. withey: Precast 95, Proc. 8th
1. p. r. beeley and r. f. smart: `Investment casting’ , 1st edn; 1995,
London, The Institute of Materials.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
2. p. r. taylor: Proc. 17th Annual BICTA Conf., September
1983; 1983, Birmingham, BICTA.
3. e. l. kotzin: `Metalcasting and molding processes’ ; 1981, Des
Plaines, IL, American Foundrymen s Society.
4. s. o. barnett: Foundry Trade J. Int., 1988, 11, (3), 33 ± 37.
5. s. jones and p.m. marquis: Br. Ceram. Trans., 1995, 94, 68 ± 73.
6. s. jones: `Improved sol based ceramic moulds for use in invest-
ment casting’ , PhD thesis, The University of Birmingham, UK,
May 1993.
7. s. jones and s. p. leyland: Proc. 22nd BICTA Tech. Conf.
on `Investment casting’ , Bath, UK, September 1995; 1995,
Birmingham, BICTA.
8. d. duffey: Proc. 25th BICTA Conference, Cheltenham, UK,
June 2001; 2001, Birmingham, BICTA.
9. r. hyde, p. withey, and s. p. leyland: in Proc. 9th World
Conference on `Investment casting’ , San Francisco, USA, Sept
1996; 1996, Dallas, TX, Investment Casting Institute.
casting’ , Monte Carlo, Monaco, May 2000, Paper 3.
Int. Symp. on `Investment casting’ , Brno, Czech Republic, May
1995.

Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18