-

~~ I , , \ , , I(,
~ \. A:t S) ~ ~ n L.OJ o
I ~ I • • - ~ ~~ , id ,cia/A~ ,g
"
9J~~ .
~~e
~~ ~ ~2 tg - WY )~ I 11 I ~ A-;tlb) ~ II ~A ~f bl l+ ~A~~ '
~ (

~ \-~~~ I ~CW \ (A '± ~) ~ -t ~ A :r +r(AN\ 13, I \ '

~ ~~ le -1- 1~ -t~ At ¼f > ( I \/ (

,
.
' 'I

+Civv) 'W ~ dl _f ~ ~ 0
~o . Co '
0~
2....

1...levvi 2$ ~' 0 '/2- JU. I ri-

, ,I . -
I]
'X I I
)l

ti3/2- ' t\2-/2-

,, ' '/2- CJ
~( -9 ) !;: .- ~ ~ 1-
~ '

1,.(i3 1\ I , ,-
~( -e ) ~ ,~ , 'Yr6 ·. ·1-
I
)_ ~
I ~
r~,- ,ei') 'i ~ WY )
I I
s ' 1
i-C1/V) 0
,I I I •

1-
I
·, ;;~,) ,0
D I
~ (n -0 ) =- -~ ~ ..l. I 1 \

l
~ [1!__ -f, ) =- ~
. . 'i/,r-~ ,r-2- 2-
\_:L )· 5,-U:.: ~

~(t-8) cc~
X ~ -
')_ 2-/~ 2.;~
,,
1.
;

I' . l I )
' I ,'I ' '
<
\
I

'
~e ., NJ.1.D.. ➔ a___ ~ b
__..:.a ;..,__ -==1 r c_ , r < , ' . ' r
I
\ , I ·,

\-wlA yV\ ,\~ ~(_

?<' '

{
' ' \ I

' j
I l 9 ' I I'
I /. ,, :
 ~ f ~ $ .~ ~ a P ~ .
• ' I,' /, I I

~~ , ' ' :T"" d.n-1 I :,··1 , f~~ "7 'GI)7 I I •

)< Q,11, ·, , ;'
'I
"::.: ·. '. ·,. '

lJ /, I I
l (

• I I( <' ('

I ) ~
:'
I I ' I I j ,
,- i , :·

.. '. )<'l '\ /,, . .X

fJ~ lit,. 1 6f_ {~+-'.i):-+ (1- '1
a~o J JON1 ~ ~ <){_ = ..:t_
~b \ ·
(1
-o··-r· --- \) ~- --· ,17,, ti 1 1 ( ,l

~- --) ( - - - - - x - - - )( -'H- - x· - - -
. P(x) AA ~ ki Cx-a.,) c)t-~; 10

~ Id ' '

.a )I
At,v,\~ ➔ t P~~~ Pl"-)) 'f_ (?t-<0+ f(~ !

)\' X
-----X
'Ev~ f U M ~ ~ bl--x) ~ b(x)
odo. l=U M~ ~ b(-x) ~ - tl "1/
• Ir a ::, II. the graph has shape r-1 or ; . If a < 11 i1 is ~ or \ .

• E\rff)I cubic ·pc,lynonuai must ,c ut th,c .r-a~i•:i al l~~.Eil on~cij and so l;rns. ul least one reu l zero.

• for a cuh:1c or UW fom1 P(J:) =

,ti{.c - ,a:)(.e - 1:1)(~· - 1)
wbc:re o ,; f31 1 E .R. du: grJ,11h has thrue di5:1inct ;T-·inlcrroepls
corresponding ro the lhroo distinct ze1:1os a~ fJ~ anti '"1. Th( girnph
"'"fnsses over or cub the ;r~::nis at th~~ poin~.
• for a cubic of die fbnn P (x) =
,t1( ,;r - o. ) 2(x - {I,) "'1here
£11 a E R, lhe ,graph touches the J·-axis. 11, n und ru11 1 it 01 /l

• For a cubic of Lhc folilll P {x) = a(.t• -

o)J. J" r.= !Ft th!: graph
has only one x~imte:rcept11 a . The graph is hori1:.i0ntal at dlis pninl.

• For a, cu'hic or 1
+
the :fittffl1 P(;r.) - (r - l\ )(r.,;r·1 + br i') \J,•hen::
tl. < U~ there is only one x .. interrcc:pt. o . The gmph cuts tlie
.T•WliS ,'11 Lhis point.
When y = [f(x)] 2 is graphed from y = f( x ):
• The points with y-coordinate O or 1 are invariant.
• The graph of y = [f(x)] 2 touches the x -axis at its x -intercepts.
• The graph of y= [f(x )] 2 lies above or on the x-axis for all x.
• The vertical asyn1ptotes of y = J(x ) are also vertical asymptotes of y = [f(x)] 2 •
• When -1 < f( x ) < 1, y = [f(x)] 2 is closer to the x-axis than y = f( x).
• When I f (x) I > 1, y = [J(x)] 2 is further from the x-axis than y = f( x ).
 :c if z ~ 0
The absolute value of :z: is Iz I = {·•..-z if z < o

or alternatively I a: I - ·v'iil
To obtain the graph of y = I/ (x) I from the gm:ph. of y = f(x):
• 'keep the graph for / (,x) ~ 0
• reflect the graph in the x·~axis for / (x) < 0,, discarding w'hat was there
1

• points ,on the x-ax.is are invariant~

To obtain the grapb of y = f(f x J) fro·m the grap.b of y = /'(x):
• discard the graph for x < O
• ref1 ect the graph for x ;;: 0 in the· y-axis~ keeping, what ·w as th.e re
1

• points on the y-ax.is are invariant..

• I x I ~ 0 for all x • I -x I = I x I for all :r:
2
• I x 1 = x 2 for all x • I xy I = I x 11 y I for all x and y

• ~ : ; / for all x and y , y =/; 0 • I x - y I = Iy - x I for all x and y .

 ax+b
For a function of the fonn y· = . , C, 4
r 10.··•"'
cx2 ·+ d:z:+ e··
• tb.e bo.r.izontal asymptote is y =0
• the vertical as,ympto·tes are the zeros of the d,enominator cx 2 ·+ dx + 1e .
To help us describe graphs of the form y = ax""+ bx+ c
dx + e , we use polynomial division to write them in
r
the form y = px + q + - -
dx +e
• The function is undefined when dx + e = 0, so An oblique usyn1ptote is an
the graph has the vertical asymptote x =-: . asyn1ptote which is neither
vertical nor horizontal.
r
• As Ix I -+ oo, the term - - -+ 0, and so
dx+ e
the graph gets closer to the line y = px + q. The
graph has the oblique asymptote y = px + q.
To decompose a rational function into the sum of partial fractions, we follow the following procedure:

Step J: Factorise the denominator.

Step 2: Write a sum of partial fractions with the factors as denominators and unknown numerators.
Step 3: Multiply both sides by the denominator.
Step 4: Find the unknown numerators by substituting the zeros of the denominators.
 R~
Tht! lillumber of pemlullltions on n di fler-enl symbots Lllken r arl a Lime is
(r, - r)! ~
511,iJp'.posc rhcre ire n 1 or the firs·1 symbol. ·u2 of the second symbol, ...., and u,,, of lhe rth (nnd fin1,il)
('n., + n2 + na + ... , + n,)I
symbol. Th..: tota1 number or cllbting1.Lisi,abk permutation,~ is
n1t n~] n;1! n• • J1 r !
For n E Q,

.
where (n)
.,. -- n(n- l )(n - 2 ) .... (n-r + I ) is the binomial coefficient for n E 0~ , r E z+,
r.1
and (~) = 1.
bx
The interval of convergence for which the expansion converges is < 1, which means
a
a a
- -b <x< -b .
 y y

~~·..~!..(~,4)
(0,1)
(- 72,72
1 1) ,. .............................. (1 1) (-~, 4) ..........
72,72
(- 1,½ ... ..... 1.~)
.' '
''
'' '
-
(-1, 0) (1, 0) X (-1, o) l (1, 0) X
''
''
''

(_fl _! fl
2 '
_!)
2
(-:½' - ~) ··············· ················ ( ' -:½)
~
2 ' 2
1 ..... .... fl
(0, - 1)
(- 2,- 2 (0, -1) 2,- 2)
To• !iOlvai qu11d1mic iDL1q.111li1ies we LJS~ lll-lll follgwijrig ~

ii Mike tfu!; RAS Z:ffa ~ mifiiil,f:l! I.I] lfflllS 10 lhc UffiS.

• F-uU,1 fiu.-10.rl.110> l'tiie. IL ti S.
• Onw ,I sign dl:&,gnm ror • ltlS.
• Ddcfl'n1.a~ l~ '\liih.im~ RXfnln:dl fJ'iilffl tJx; 'loiJ ll 1d bipm.
GEOMETRIC. TEST OR l'1ERTICAL UNE TEST FOR FUNCTIONS
Sup!X)se ,.,.i: dmw all po-ssiTul~ \'!!!'ID.cal Jinl'IS iln lllti!- grnph of II r:ehition.
• 11 ,:;:icl] line cu~ lhL? _gn,ph .J1 mos.I cneu, Lfli!U lihi.1 l~lailon ts D J umitf l1fJ
• Ir~• l~J:'i~ one hTic i:11L-. 1111: grnp1, m{I,~ ahr1n ,mi:,:, th.cin 1hic 1i1:l1Jhm I~ nnl ,;1 lunctijlilin,
 ti
• the hcrire0nlal asymptote i1 JJ ,r1

• F« ~ l1mi!;u,oo 1¥iliCfffl m d'i1t fam, II= ~ '. wt.enc, r y,

!'l,;f' lf/,
,t
i. ·the \,-mi~~ ~ptote ls z s:i
,.
: .. thl: lbcnmm.al nympmt:G 11:!1.
Ir / (:1") has ilLTI lann1 ru-tion,. this lflfW IRlOetJO!l·:
• tS ,i:kooted 1- 1' ~ .r I

• must sa•isly Ule. \ ' ~ I lmc· !!;!Sit

• hBs a. emur;ih ~mcl, IS. ihc rdlrtzlion illf" IJ = J( ..r) in lite: l.llfilE: ll = .l"
■1 ;li';lliidti::1 If [.I J- 1 1(.r: ~- r 11nd (j- • :i])(.r~ - r

~ hei I!fflelWn fl .Z iJ ~uiUcd the ht~hlll) hln,uin bei.:!UIHC'" II [\, ,t.. (Jft\tJ1
rn,...-1:M!. 100! wli,,cr, 1bi mtersc 1~ room.I, f .c. 11} m~p:!I oom l.~ J.
• For y = - f (x), we refl ect y = f (x) in the x -axis.
• For y = J (-x), we reflect y = f (x) in the y -axis.
 1
When y = -/(,;)
- is graphed from y = f(x):
. f I
• the zeros of y = f (x ) become vert,cal asymptotes o y = / (,;)

• the vertical asymptotes of y = f (x) become zeros of y = fl,;)

• the local maxima of y = J(x) correspond to local minima of y = /(~)
1
• the local minima of y = f (x) correspond 10 local maxima of y = - -
f( x)

• when f (x) > 0, ! (~) > 0 and when f (x) < 0, / (~) < 0
1
• when f (x)--, 0, - - --, ±oo and when f (x)--, ±oo, - 1- --, 0.
/(x) f( x)
tan x is zero whenever sjn x = 0, so the zeros of y = tan x are k1r, k E Z.
tan x is undefined whenever cos x = 0, so the vertical asy mptotes of y = tan x are x =; + k1r
for all k E Z.
tan x bas period = 1r and range y E R.
y .
) y= tanx
•
3

:i1r : 11' 11' 311' 51r X

- :2 7~ 2 T T
• .•• •
.

-3
The products to sums formulae ar e: 1

., A
Sill .· cos B·.. = jS,
lD ..·... + B
1 • (A ·. ). + 2sm
1 .. c·A
. .. - n·)
. ·.
cos A cos B == ½cos(A ·+ B) + ½oos(A - B)
sin.A sin B = ½cos(A - B) - I cos(A +·B)
• Pu, 11. qunnk J)lllyoornl,01In whil:'h u is lhc IC'Ol:'ffirm.ml l'l!f ,,-'1 :
"' ~f a > (]I die .graph t'!p:mll Ltp-u.~
Ip,Jf' tr <: Cl illie: prh opt:mi Qi.'l\lo'TI'IAIU$.1.

• [f il qmnttlc 1io1.·hh .. , 11 [s fulll}' faclML"-'!'J rnlP r,:3~ li~r rnetOtli. lhr:n:

II, furn 1liia,_k IUitar- {.r - a }, lhi: ~ • rvr 1uqu_1.11? factor (.!' - ~ f1• 1hc gmpl.1
~U'lli l'lu:· .r -um 31 .,, hJudn.'!lll d1~ ,r~;i..id!-1 ,11.1 -,

.. ,rhr Ji H lbnl fKl.av (..r. - (l?. ·~ paph • fur n 11tud ruple r■ciur {.r - u }4 1 ihi.1!
1

CUii '11! 1! r.ani!t ll tt mnd JS '"flat- rll, ti klfilph toutbe!i the :r:..:ix.is cmd is •·nt11·· ,u
t~\i'iil pt'.llflL

• 1r ~ qullll'l.ic ~ ilh a > 11 h.11.:■ one lrt.".31 • Ir Cl qu.urlit• lr'tr1th 11 > CJ lw IWA reul
q~rntfc. ihctmr- ,,.,~jjm o < fjl 'lll"C ll'tMihJ ~ul.'ldrumi,i fi.i:hmi oot'h w,i1h 1
~ ~ ~~ 1hi:
hinrt;; ~r,h 1foc11, 1ml ,m."1'.~t 1hii:- .t-~llliJi r111 1111.
For the general exponential function y = p x a z -h + k where a> 0, a -f= 1, p -f= 0:
• a controls how steeply the graph increases or decreases.
• h controls horizontal translation.
• k controls vertical translation.
• The equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = k.
• If p > 0, a> l • If p > 0, 0 < a < 1
the function is the function is
. .
1ncreas1ng. decreasing.

• If p < 0, a> 1 • If p < 0, 0 < a < 1

the function is the function is
decreasing.
. .
1ncreas1ng.