Chapter one

1. Estimating the population of the city in the year 2014 and 2019 by arithmetic and
geometric increase methods.
Year 1944 1954 1964 1974 1984 1994 2004
Population 40,185 44,522 60,395 75,614 98,886 124,230 158,800

Solution
Year 1944 1954 1964 1974 1984 1994 2004
Population 40,185 44,522 60,395 75,614 98,886 124,230 158,800
Change 4,337 15,873 15,219 23,272 25,344 34,570
% Change 10.79 35.65 25.2 30.78 25.63 27.83

Average change = (4337+15873+15219+23272+25344+34570)/6 =19,770

per decade Average % change = (10.79+35.65+25.20=30.78+25.63+27.83)/6 = 25.98 %
per decade
Using Arithmetic Method
P2014 = P04 + 1 x 19770 = 158800 + 19770 = 17,8570
P2019 = P04 + 1.5 x 19770 = 158800 + 1.5 x 19770 =18,8455
Using Geometric Method
P2014 = P04(1 + AGR/100)1 = 158800 (1 + 25.98/100) =20,0057
P2019 = P04 (1+ AGR/100)1.5 =158800 (1 + 25.98/100)1.5=22,4545

Chapter two

1. Selected town (Aleta Wondo)

Approximately 57 percent of the inhabitants of Aleta Wondo have no access to tap water in their
houses. Most of the households in this town have got access to piped water. In contrast, some sub
cities are the most vulnerable as no single household has access to pipe water. People without
access to taps get water from the central area where the town administration water and sewerage
office sells water or buy from individual households. Others buy clean water from other
neighbors

Factor Affecting Water Use in Aleta Wondo town include

 Climatic conditions Size of city
Cost of water Living standard of the people
Population growth Pressure in the distribution system:
Population density System of sanitation
Living Standards Distribution system
Industrial and commercial activities Storage.
Metering water lines Quality of water
Quality of water supply Per capita Requirement.

Climatic conditions: -Rainfall, temperature and evaporation rates–Precipitation and temperature

varies widely across the state. Areas with high temperature and low rainfall need to use more
water to maintain outdoor landscaping. Even within the same hydrologic region or the same
water supply district these factors can vary considerably, having a significant effect on the
amount of water needed to maintain landscapes.
Cost of water: - Water prices–Water prices can influence demand by providing a monetary
incentive for customers to conserve water. Rate structures have been established in many
districts to incentivize water conservation, but the effectiveness of these rate structures to deter
excessive use and customers sensitivity to water prices vary.
Population growth–As communities grow, new residential dwellings are constructed with more
efficient plumbing fixtures, which causes interior water use to decline per person as compared to
water use in older communities. Population growth also increases overall demand.

Population density–highly urbanized areas with high population densities use less water per
person than do more rural or suburban areas since high density dwellings tend to have shared
outdoor spaces and there is less landscaped area per person that needs to be irrigated.

Socio-economic measures such as lot size and income –Areas with higher incomes generally
use more water than areas with low incomes. Larger landscaped residential lots that require more
water are often associated with more affluent communities. Additionally, higher income
households may be less sensitive to the cost of water, since it represents a smaller portion of
household income.

Size of community: Water demand is more with increase of size fo town because more water is
required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens. Water Supply
Engineering
Living standard of the people: The per capita demand of the town increases with the standard
of living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of
lawns, use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.
Industrial and commercial activities: As the quantity of water required in certain industries is
much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will enormously increase per
capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the water required by the industries has no
direct link with the population of the town.
Pressure in the distribution system: The rate of water consumption increase in the pressure of
the building and even with the required pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of water
will automatically increase. This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use of water freely by
the people as compared when they get it scarcely and more water loss due to leakage, wastage
and thefts etc.
System of sanitation: Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage system will be
more than the town where this system is not being used.
Population. Factors affecting the future increase in the population
Per capita Requirement. the various factors and living standard and the number and type of
industries, number and type of the commercial establishments in the town etc.
Quality of water. The analysis of the raw water quality should be made to know the various
Storage. The entire city or town should be divided into several pressure zones and storage
facility should be provided in each zone.
Distribution system. The distribution system should be designed according to the master plan of
the town, keeping in mind the future development.
2. Water supply source for Aleta Wondo town
Water resources of Aleta Wondo depend mainly on rainfall and other climatic characteristics, as
well as the hydrological, geological and topographical settings of the area. As part of an
integrated water resource and development program the use of surface and groundwater must be
dealt with keen interest in addressing the acute problems of adequate and safe water supply
schemes in the town.

The water supply sources of Aleta Wondo town is shown below

 Rainwater.
 Surface water: streams, river, lake, pond.
 Groundwater.
Rainwater
The use of rainwater is a common technique in many countries. The rainwater is collected on an
equipped surface (generally the roof of a house) and is brought by gutters in a storage reservoir.
This technique of water supply can prove to be interesting in certain areas, either where it rains a
lot, either very dry when the water resources are very scarce, and any source of water should be
used. Because of the great storage volumes required, this technique is used as a temporary
resource in complement to others. In all cases, the main disadvantage of this water resource
comes from the quality of water, polluted and charged with sediment during the filling (roof
dusty or covered with animal excrements for example), and contaminated after a long period of
storage. Moreover, the lack of minerals makes rainwater (often acid) corrosive towards metals
(because no limestone is present to neutralize acidity), and if the rainwater is the only source of
drinking water for the population, it might be necessary to add minerals to the food (iodine for
example…) to compensate their absence in the drinking water
Surface Water
Surface water has the advantage to be usually easily accessible (ponds, lakes, rivers); near of the
people’s living place, but unfortunately this water is extremely vulnerable to pollution
(suspended substances, pathogens). Some of the surface water points can dry out in dry season.
Surface water sources are varied, and it exists numerous ways to use them.
 Direct intake from the river
Simple and quick solution which requires a minimum level of infrastructures: creation of
catchment areas along the river according to the different use made of the water.
Upstream of all other activities, a zone will be reserved to fetch water for human consumption.
 Direct river catchments
Rivers catchments are done through a pipe equipped with an inlet filter connected to a pump.
Water is pumped in a reservoir then distributed through a distribution network. A water
treatment will always be necessary given all the possible risks of pollution. The yield which it is
possible to pump depends on the type of pump, the population to be served and the river flow
(average yield along the year, taken into account also the lowest yield, i.e. dry season).
The catchments should be done upstream of the populations living place, where risks of pollution
are lower. It is necessary to clean riverbanks on a certain distance and a dam/reservoir can be
necessary to stabilize a river if this one has an irregular flow.
 Catchments from a lake or from a dam
When a stagnant water (or still water) is in good conditions, it presents the best resource for
surface water. Indeed, if the water duration stay is long enough, harmful substances either settle
in the bottom of the lake/pond, or accumulate at the surface, or can also oxidize and then settle
down.
35
The catchment should not be too deep, so that the water caught is clear and oxygenated enough,
and should not be too shallow, so that water does not contained too much organic substances
(indeed, organic substance often develop near the water surface where more sunlight is
available).
Ideally, the depth of the catchment should be between 10 and 20 m. One must take care that the
water resource does not contain any wastewater.
Groundwater
Groundwater presents in general a good bacteriological quality, due to their long decantation and
auto-purifying properties of the ground. They are therefore often appropriate for consumption: in
that case, the treatment will not be necessary. The deeper the catchment is, the better the quality
of water will be. However, they can also present mineral pollutions, emanating from the rocks
dissolved by water in the ground (notably iron, sodium chloride, calcium, magnesium and
fluorine).
Moreover, rocks present in a crystalline ground can present cracks and can therefore contain
groundwater polluted by direct transfer of surface pollutions in the cracks (absence of usual
filtration process by the soil). In addition, any groundwater located at a depth lower than 3 m is
considered to be surface water.
 Spring catchment
A spring is a natural flow of a groundwater reserve in the open air. It is the easiest way to use
groundwater. The objective of a spring catchment is to use at best the spring flow, while
protecting it from outside pollutions, especially from faecal origin. Every spring catchment is a
case: it is therefore not possible to offer an example adapted to all situations.
They can however be classified in two types: reinforced concrete catchments box, or buried
drains. An example of spring catchments is given in the figure 6: the catchment is made by the
mean of a drain; once collected by the drain, water goes directly to a header tank.
 Hand Dug Well
A well is an infrastructure dug manually, which collects a moderately deep or deep aquifer. Its
depth and diameter vary according to the context. The diameter of a well is from 1 to 2 meters
and its depth does not exceed 25 to 30 meters. After this depth, work is very dangerous and
expensive.
The most important parts of a well in terms of water quality are the surface infrastructures, which
protects it from of surface water infiltrations and facilitates the water access and use. The surface
infrastructures are designed to:
- drain surface water towards the outside perimeter of the well (construction of apron, drainage
channel, soakage pit)
- limit the risks of falls of the well users inside the well (well head)
- limit the access of the animals (well fence, well head)
- Limit the pollution of the well water during the fetching operation
 Borehole
A borehole is deep ground water catchment. It consists of a long-narrow tube inserted in the
ground by the mean of a drilling machine. Its usual diameter is 10 to 20 cm. The drilling of a
borehole requires most of the time the intervention of a drilling machine (expensive!).
However, manual drilling, at low cost, under good conditions, can reach 60 m of depth. Borehole
must be equipped with a pump (powered by hand or not) and with roughly the same surface
infrastructure than a hand dug well (reinforced concrete apron, drainage ditch and fence which
prevents the access to the animals)

3. Method of population forecasting relevant to the town

Methods of Population Forecasting of Aleta Wondo town

There are four methods population forecasting of future population of Aleta Wondo town for 22
(2021-2042 GC) years. Those are: - Arithmetic progressive method, Incremental increase
method, Geometric progression method and Exponential growth rate methods.
A. Arithmetic progressive method
Arithmetic progressive method is the average rate of increase in population is assumed to be
constant from decade to decade. Average increase per decade is found out from the previously
available census data. The product of this amount obtained and number of decades for which the
population is to be worked out is added to the present population of the subjected area to get the
approximate population after n decades. By using the formula given below the future population
is worked out.
Pņ = P0+n*k
Where,
Pņ = future population after n decades
P0 = present population
n = number of decades
k = average increase per decade
B. Geometric increase method
This method assumes that the percentage increase in population from decade to decade remains
constant. In this method the average percentage of growth of last few decades is determined; the
population forecasting is done on the basis that percentage increase per decade will be the same.
Average percentage increase per decade is found out from the previously available census data.
By using the formula given below the future population is worked out.
Pņ= Po *(1+G) ^n
Where,
Pņ = future population after n decades
P0 = present population
 N = number of decades
G = average percentage increase per decade
C. Incremental increase method
This method is improvement over the above two methods. The average increase in the
population is determined by the arithmetical method and to this is added the average of the net
incremental increase once for each future decade (WSEE.2011). Future population is worked out
from the equation given below.
Pņ= Po +n* (k1+K2)
Where,
Pņ = future population after n decades
Po = present population
n = number of decades
K1 and K2= average increase per decade
D. Using Ethiopian Statistical Authority (Exponential)
This method is used by the central statistics Authority of Ethiopia. It is expressed by the
following equation
Pn=Po* er*n
Where
Pn = future population after n decades
Po = present population
n = number of decades
r = growth rate
e= Exponential
Base population of the town
An accurate population of the town is necessary since a town or city population determines water
requirements for the different purpose of water supply system. It must be including all peoples,
who utilize water for drinking, washing clothes, cooking, bathing, cleaning utensils and watering
animals.
The base population of the Aleta Wondo town is 37718, 39654, 41735and 43777 in 2015, 2016,
2017 and 2018 respectively (CSA)
Base population of Aleta Wondo town
Year 2016 2017 2018 2019
Population 37,718 39.654 41,735 43,777
Sources: central statistical agency of Ethiopia, 2018)
Population Growth rate: - The "population growth rate" is the rate at which the number of
individuals in a population increases in each time period, expressed as a fraction of the initial
population. Specifically, population growth rate refers to the change in population over a unit
time period, often expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the
beginning of that period (National population growth rate.2018). This can be written as the
formula, valid for a sufficiently small-time interval:
Population growth rate = [P(t2)-P(t1)]/P(t1) [t2-t1]
Where
P = population of town
t1=the beginning of that period
t2=the end of the period
A growth rate indicates that the population is increasing, while a negative growth rate indicates
that the population is decreasing. A growth ratio of zero indicates that there were the same
number of individuals at the beginning and end of the period a growth rate may be zero even
when there are significant changes in the birth rates, death rates, immigration rates, and age
distribution between the two times.
population projection (2018-2049)
Year 2018 2019 2024 2029 2034 2039 2044 2049
Populatio 4.30% 4.40% 4.10% 4% 4.20% 4.10% 4% 4.20%
n
Sources: Central Statistical Agency National figures
Calculation of population projection of the average increase per decade from base population
Year Population Arithmetic Geometric Incremental
increase increase Increase
2017 37718 0.5
2018 39654 1936 0.5
2019 41735 2081 0.5 145
2020 43777 2042 0.15 -39
Total 162884 6059 0.5 106
Average 2019.67 53
From the above table used population projection constants to calculate population by three
methods are: -
K1= 2019.67 G = 0.05 K2 =53
Sample of calculation
For Arithmetic = (39654-37718)/1 = 1936
For Geometric = Athematic increase/population = 1936/37719 =0.05
For Incremental = the difference of Arithmetic increase =2081- 1936=145
population projection using four different methods
Year Arithmetic increase Geometric Incremental Exponential
increase Increase
2,017 43,777 43,777 43,777 43,777
2,019 47,816 48,348 47,922 47,804
2,025 59,934 64,791 60,358 61,136
2,030 70,033 82,691 70,722 74,672
2,035 80,131 105,997 81,085 92,122
2,040 90,229 135,870 91,448 113,081

Sample calculation for each method

Where p0 is number of populations at base year (2017) is: -
For Arithmetic (p2020) = p2017+k1*n = 43777 + 2019.67 *2 =47816
For Geometric (p2019) = p2015*(1+G) ^n = 43777*(1+0.05) ^2 =48348
For Incremental (p2019) = p2015+n (k1+K2) = 43777+3(2019.67 +53) = 47922
For Exponential (p2019 = p2015*e(n*r) = 43777*e (2*0.044) = 47804
Selection of most reliable method
For the selection of the best methods for the Aleta Wondo town we have considered the
following factors. The number of present population of the town, availability of data for the
calculating of the projected population , the incremental situation of the population from decade
to decade or from year to year, the oldness of the towns, the increment of population due to
migration, under estimation of the population and percentage error. The percentage error
calculated for all the methods used so that the one with a minimum error is selected as a design
parameter of population forecast of the town. The percentage error is calculated by assuming the
actual population in the year 2020 is not given and determining it using all the methods.
Average increase for population projection by different methods excluding year of 2020
Year Population Arithmetic Geometric Incremental
increase increase Increase
2,017 37,718
2,018 39,654 1,936 1
2,019 41,735 2,081 1 145
Total 162,884 6,059 1 145
Average 2,009 1 145
K1= 2008.5 G=0.05 K2=145
Calculated value for the year of 2019 using four different methods
Year Arithmetic Geometric Incremental Exponentia
increase increase Increase l
2,019 41,735 41,735 41,735 41,735
Constant 2,009 0.5 145 0.043
N 1 1 1 1
2020(calculated 43,744 41,736 43,889 43,569
)

Sample of calculation
For Arithmetic (p2020) =p2019+k1*n=41735+2008.5*1=43544
For Geometric (p2020) = p2019*(1+G) ^n=41735*(1+0.05) ^1=41736
For Incremental (p2020) = p2019+n(k1+k2) = 41735+1(2008.5+145) = 43889
For Exponential (p2020) = p2019*e (n*r) = 41735*e (1*0.043) = 43569
True value versus calculated value for the year 2020 using four methods
Year Arithmetic Geometric Incremental Exponential
increase increase Increase
2020(actual) 43,777 43,777 43,777 43,777
2020(calculated) 43,544 41,736 43,889 43,569
percentage error 0.008 0.047 -0.006 0.005

Sample calculation:
Percentage error = (Actual population of 2020 – Calculated population of 2020)/ Actual
population of 2020
Percentage error For Arithmetic = (43777- 43544)/43777 = 0.0053
Percentage error For Geometric = (43777- 41736)/43777 = 0.0053 = 0.0475
Percentage error For Incremental = (43777- 43889)/43777 = 0.0053 = -0.0056
Percentage error For Exponential = (43777- 43569)/43777 = 0.0053 = 0.0047
From all the above methods Exponential increase method is selected. Because percentage error
of Exponential increases method is the lowest value (minimum value) than other methods. Also,
this method is good for developing countries as well as developing town or city like Aleta
Wondo town. Exponential increases method is used growth rate of population for calculation of
the future population of town and corresponding to population growth rate of given town. For
these reason Exponential increase method is best method for forecasting Aleta Wondo town
population for water supply, sewerage system and any infrastructure of the town based these
population numbers. So population at the end of the design period 2039 is 99011.

Chapter three

4. Given the following information proportion a suitable river intake. ▫Daily demand 5000 m3
Pump capacity: 50 l/s (working 8 hr/day

Effective height of sump = 6.6 + 1.5 = 8.1

Free board = 0.5
Total sump height = 8.6 m
If we use circular sump diameter = 2.86 m

Capacity of each pump daily = 8x3600x50/1000=1440 m

Number of pumps = 5000/1440 = 3.47  4 5. Design river intake with respect to
Hourly flow of each pump = 5000/(4x8)=156.24 m3/h I. Number and size of
Take de tent ion t im e, Td = 20 min openings in the intake well
Capacity = Td x Q = (20/60)x 156.24 = 52.08 m3 II. The size, shape and the
height of the intake well
III. The gravity pipe for raw water connecting the intake well and jack well.
Given data
RL of riverbed=100.00m
RL of lowest water level (LWL)=102.00m
RL of NWL=115.00m
RL of HFL=120.00m
Population to be served=50,000
Average water demand =200lpd
Assume any other suitable data required
A flow of 3ML/d of settled sewage with 250mg/L BOD and 33mg/L organic and ammonia
nitrogen is to be applied to a land irrigation area. If the limiting nitrogen loading is 300kg/ha.yr
what is the area of land required. The total annual equivalent depth of effluence applied and the
BOD areal loading rate?

Solution
Average water demand = 50000*200lpd = 10Mlpd
Max. water demand=1.8*10mld =18Mlpd
Assume the pumping to take place for 16hrs a day,
The discharge to be pumped=18*10616*60*60 sec
Qd= 0.3125m3/sec
i. Design of openings:
Let us provide rectangular shaped inlet well with openings provided at three levels-
One layers of opening shall be. LWL=102.00m,
The other at the middle layer be. NWL=115.00m
The third may kept below HFL stage = 120.00m
Assuming these opening shall be fitted with bar screen made of 20mm dia. steel bar of say 50mm
opening (clear) and let the velocity through the bar screen be limited to 0.16m/sec.
From the formula Q=A*V,
A= 0.31245/0.16 = 1.95m2
let us provide 1m height of screen opening then the clear length of opening required is 1.95m.
Number of opening required=1.95/0.05=39
Number of bars = 38bar
Length required by 20mm dia. of bar=38*.02=0.76
Length of total screen =1.95+0.76=2.71, take=2.8m
Let us provide 2parts of each level, the size of each point will1m*1.4m length.
Thus, 2 screen parts will be provided within the well b/n
RL=102.00m to 101.00m
RL 115.00m-114.00m, and
Rl 120.00m-119.00m
ii. design of inlet well
These parts can be fitted in an oblong well consisting of rectangular length 3m (sufficient to fix 2
bars screen each length 1.4m) and provide with circular ends the well has a width of say 2m.
Assume this inlet well can be sunk into riverbed by say 3m below the riverbed, to provide space
for accumulation of sand and silt. Thus, the bottom of the intake well will be 97.00m
Also let us provide 2m free board from HFL then the top of the inlet will be RL=122.00m
Therefore, the total height of the intake will be =122.00-97.00m = 25.00m
iii- design of gravity pipe connecting intake well and jack well
The intake pipe shall be designated to flow by gravity at maximum velocity (1.2m/sec): the
formula
Qd=V*A; A=πd2/4, Qd=0.3125m3/sec, V =1.2m/sec
From this d=0.58m take 60cm dia RCC intake pipe
From manning formula take n=0.017
To calculate the gradient of the pipe
V = 1/n*S1/2R2/3
S = 1in 200
5. The pressure on the upstream side be obtained by deducting the upstream pipe elevation from
upstream piezometric head hence P/pg=93-75 =18mwc the hydraulic gradient
S=Hf/L=12/750=0.016
Solution
Assume the diameter of the pipe D=1000mm, absolute roughness of the pipe at k _ 1 mm and
the water temperature equal 10.c o
The upstream piezometric head diagram looks like figure below

93
 12

P/pg =18
75

750
From the below hydraulic table for the Assume absolute roughness of the pipe at k _ 1 mm and
the water temperature equal 10_C. D (mm) we calculate the discharge as follows
Discharge flows (l/s), k _ 1 mm, S _ 0.005
D (mm) Q (m3/h) There for the discharge, Q = 11,274.4m3/h
1000 11.279.4

hydraulic table (Darcy–Weisbach/Colebrook–White)

7. For the following branched system, calculate the pipe flows and nodal pressures for surface
level in the reservoir of H50 msl. Assume all pipes C H =130
Solution:
The total supply from the reservoir equals the sum of all nodal demands, which is 75.6 l/s.
Applying the Continuity Equation in each node, both the flow rate and its direction can be
determined; each pipe conveys the flow that is the sum of all downstream nodal demands. The
pipe friction loss will be further calculated by applying Hazen-William (CH=130) equation. The
results of the calculation are shown in the following table
Hf=10.74 C−1.85 d−1.85 LQ 1.85 = 10.74 130−1.85 0.25−1.85 5300.07561.85 = 4.96mwc
Piezometric head at node 2=piezometric head node 1-friction loss through pipe 1-2=50-
4.96=45.04masl
pipe d(mm) Q(l/s) L(m) Hf
1-2 250 75.6 530 4.96
2-3 150 22.1 410 4.72
2-5 200 43.1 630 6.17
5-4 100 10.2 540 10.68
5-6 150 14.4 580 3.03
Then pressure and piezometric head at each node are shown in the table below

1 2 3 4 5 6
Z(masl) 50 12 22 17 25 20
H(masl) 50 45.04 40.31 28.19 38.87 35.84
 P(masl) 33.04 18.31 11.19 13.87 15.84

The final pipe flow is shown as follows