Intersection of Ethnic Identity,

Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors

Among Second-generation African
American Muslim Youth
Sameera Ahmed, Ph.D.
The Family & Youth Institute
Wayne State University

Cynthia Arfken, Ph.D.

Wayne State University
 This presentation is based on a working paper that is
being prepared for publication.
Until the manuscript publication, it should be cited as:
Ahmed, S., Arfken, C. (2010). Intersection
of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky
Behaviors Among Second-generation African
American Muslim Youth. Presented at the
13th Biennial Meeting of the Society for
Research on Adolescence, March 12, 2010,
Philadelphia, PA.

2
 Introduction

 Identity formation considered major

developmental task of
adolescence/young adulthood
 Minimal research on ethnic & religious
minorities
 Social construction of multiple identities
and their influence on behaviors

3 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 African American Muslims
 6-7 Million Muslims (Bagby, et al., 2001)
– 30% African American Muslims
 African Am Muslim community diverse
– Converts
– Children of converts or Second generation
Muslim
– Recent African immigrants
– Geographical distribution
– Ideological diversity

4 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Social Construction

 Racial experience is not homogenous

but multidimensional
 Multiple fluid identities exist with
simultaneous membership (Root, 1992, 1996;
Houstan & Williams, 1997)

 Socially constructed based on

experiences within an environment
(Williams & Thornton, 1998)

5 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Reference Group Theory
 Attitudes & behaviors are influenced by one’s
reference group
 Groups vs. Collectivities
 Which groups influence attitudes and behaviors?
– Status similarity
– Value agreement
– Clarity in groups values
– Sustained interaction
– Group leadership identified as important
 Competing reference groups
6
Merton & Rossi, 1968; Clarke, Beeghley, & Cochran, 1990
 African American Muslim
Reference Groups
Adolescent/Young Adult: psycho-social-biological
development, societal norms & expectations, peer norms &
experimentation

Black: African Muslim:

American
Culture, history, values, Culture, history,
Muslim Youth
socio-cultural and religious beliefs &
economic realities (racial behavioral expectations,
profiling, discrimination, geo-political realities,
etc.) media, etc.

7 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Reference group competing
behaviors/belief
 Alcohol use
 Illegal drug use
 Pre-marital sexual activity

8 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Research Questions

 Explore 2nd generation African

American Muslim’s
– Ethnic identification
– Religious identification
 Explore the influence of reference
group on conflicting behaviors:
– Alcohol, marijuana, sexual activity

9 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Methodology

 Inclusion Criteria
 Sampling
 Survey
– 35 Q
 Focus Group (FG)
– Semi-structured interview
– 6 FG: 3 women & 3 men
– Held in homes
 Thematic & Descriptive analysis
10 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Characteristics
 N=31
 Age range: 18-31, M=25.2, (SD=3.4)
 Gender:
– 48% Females (n=15)
– 52% Males (n=16)
 Marital Status
– 64.5% single (n=20)
– 22.6% married (n=7)
– 12.9% divorced/separated (n=4)
 Current Parental Involvement
– 19% Minimal involvement (n=6)
11 – 80.6% Involvement in major decisions (n=25)
 Educated & Connected
12 12
> 9th
10 10
grade
Alone
HS/GED
8 8 Parents
Some Relatives
6 6
College Friends
4 Finished 4 Spouse
College Other
2 Beyond 2
college
0 0

Educational Residence
12
Achievement
Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Self-identified Formative Years

10
9 8-10 yrs

8
11-13 yrs
7
6 14-18 yrs
5
18-20 yrs
4
3 21-25 yrs
2
1 Multiple
endorsements
0

13 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Environmental context

FRIENDS  74.2% raised in cities

18 with medium/large
15 African American
12 community
9  71.0% raised in cities
6 Current
with medium/large
3
Formative
concentration of Muslims
0
 67.7% reside medium/
lim
m
k
ac

large Black Muslim

ac usli
us
Bl

M
M
tly

community
y
os

os ostl
M

Bl
M
tly

14 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
M
 Ethnic Identity

15 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Ethnic identity: Majority
 Survey: Black 80.6% (n=25) or Multi-racial 19.4% (n=6)
 Focus Group: How would you describe your ethnic
heritage/culture?
Identification with African American
– Majority of respondents
 “I am African American. I identify myself as African
American. Both my parents are African American”

– Most expressed multi-racial background but identified with

African American identity. Minimal to no connection with
other relatives
 “My mother’s father is actually Caucasian. I’ve never met
him, never known him. Never seen a picture of him. So I
don't really consider that to be a part of my family”

16 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Ethnic identity: Minority
 Conscious Rejection (Males only)
– “Basically our culture was stripped from us as far as, from the
get-go. . We don’t have any native foods, we don’t have no
native language, we don’t have anything! And now we just
going off of what they telling us? So basically this black
culture we live in today is some B.S., and it’s all about Islam
now as far as we have no culture. . . As far as, young
culture in the urban society, it’s all about selling crack, it’s all
about . . . having (sexual) relations with . . . every female, it
ain’t no, no family structure, we have nothing! They stripped
our whole culture, our whole face of us off. So basically all
we really have now is Islam and that is our culture. Just s-
submitting to Allah (God), just trying to do what’s right
because as far our culture as Black Americans in America…
this ain’t even really no cul-no, it’s not even a culture. . . just
uncivilized way of living.
17 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Ethnic identity: Minority

 Confusion (Mainly male)

– “like my black identity is, it’s difficult to describe. I don’t
even know what that means to me. So, like to actually
internalize it in language and speech, . . I don’t even
know how to actually grasp that.”

18 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Social Construction
FG: What are the sources that contribute to your
identity?
 Parents
– “My parents um, have always been very much involved in
the African American community. . the black-power
movement. So umm, I guess growing up and teaching me
the importance of knowing my heritage and identifying
with it and uhh, being proud of it. Umm, that’s why I
identify myself with it as well.”
 Peers
– “I grew up predominantly around African Americans . . .
you know the whole urban culture kinda thing, you know I
guess that group as far as you know my peer, my peer
group”
19 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Social Construction

 Society
– “I walk around every day, black, you know. So how the
world interacts with me on a day to day basis first actually
is black unless they see my name first then it’s Muslim. Or
no, most of the time then it’s still black, just with a funny
name. ”

 History
– “I think about the, you know, the whole struggle thing,
the coming up from slavery cause we’re African
Americans. We’re slave descendants, so there is a certain
struggle that our ancestors and our people had to go
through.”

20 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Religious Identity

21 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Most identify themselves as
moderately religious

18
16
14
12 Very
10 Moderately
8 Mildly
Not at all
6
4
2
0
22 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Religious Identification:
Majority
FG: What role, if any, does Islam play in your life?
 Worldview (majority)
– “I definitely think that Islam plays a large role in my decisions,
in the way that I handle myself, the way that I work, you know,
even dealing with . . other people.”
 Beliefs vs. Rituals/practice
– “Like every day decisions, . . are based from an Islamic
foundation. As far as the practice specifically go…is dropped off
drastically. Umm…you know some days it’s just, some like now,
it’s sorta like an urge thing. Like if I really feel like, you know, I
need to pray then I’ll pray. But um, as far as the discipline of 5
prayers a day and um, everything else but the faith, like I said
the faith though, is still as strong as it ever was umm…in my
opinion..”
23 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Religious Identification:
Transitions
 Changes in life (marriage, birth, life experiences,
etc.)
– “I think I’ve grown up a lot in the last years, just because
I’m you know I’m married now. I see my family being, you
know, praying together, keeping each other in line, and all
that and being a umm…in-a structure for my, my child to
grow up in an Islamic household, where the same way I
did”

 Exploration & commitment

– “The faith is as strong as it was. . . my ideals about Islam
and religion in general are sort of evolving umm, even at
this stage.”

24 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Religious Identification:
Decrease in identification
 Few men
– Negative experiences
 “It [Muslim community] was more . . . of gangsters
in the masjid and I grew up in a certain lifestyle . . .
because of my upbringings like they ran us away
from the masjid”

– Lack of knowledge
 “I really don’t know like that much just about Islam
period”

– Detached
 “The role that Islam play in my life now… is more

25
so like just history to me and knowledge”
Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Sources of Religious identity

Parents
30
Relatives
20
Mosque
10
Teachers,
0 Muslim
26 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Social Construction:
Religious Identity
Parents
 “So Islam in my household played a major part and a lot
of significance in the livelihood from eating to sleeping to
the way we wash ourself. Basically you know to the way
we talk to the way we umm…upheld ourself in the world
on a daily basis. So it taught you discipline as well as
respect so umm…it was a major part.”

27 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Religious Identity: Muslims

 Muslim Community
– “My community that I was raised in, they was super
supportive just as far as, as far as the you know the
kids aspect. . They were always looking for our best
interest. So as far as…umm…you know what I’m
saying that discipline that just, you know what I’m
saying? Instilling in us just the deen (the religion)
basically, my community personally was like right
there, right on time for, for your boy like I mean, they
ain’t never miss a beat.”

28 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Religious Identity: Muslims

 Islamic Schools
– “Being around Muslims all the time even in school
and you’d just be kinda even in like a Math class,
or in English class, there’d be always some kind
of Islamic principle being like taught to you. So
that’s kind of been instilled in me so I kinda was
able to go through that. So I had kinda these
both like one side of Islam at home and at the
school that kinda culminated with me today.”

29 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Intersection of Ethnic &
Religious Identities

30 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Integrated or Separated?

 Integrated
– Many indicated religious identity was given greater
importance than ethnic identity
 “My Islam actually defines my African American
and, and it’s not the other way around.”

– Phasing of identities
 “I feel like I’m both simultaneously I can . . put a
spotlight on one and kinda shade out the other for
certain settings and stuff because I’m very
passionate about both”

31 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Integrated or Separated?

 Separated
– “I think my Black identity is very separate
from my Muslim identity. . When I talk to
my dad, I feel like Black and Muslim are
together, but he is the only one who really
integrates it for me. Most of my Muslim
friends are not black. So they (my friends)
were either Black or Muslim but not very
many Black Muslim friends.”

32 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Integrated or Separated?

 Re-defining (all Males)

– “I’m Muslim because I’m not Christian, I’m
black, because I’m not white. If there was no
other than who would I be, standing alone as a
human being? . . I’m trying to actually, at this
point in my life get rid of the differences in the
defining myself between black and Muslim. I’m
trying to kinda get rid of those altogether and
just define myself as a person.”

33 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Alcohol Use
Ever consumed alcohol Alcohol consumed with. . .
20 20 Parent
15 No 15
Relative
10 Neighbors
5 10 Peers
0 Yes Non-Muslim
5
Muslim
Men Women 0 Self

 71% had ever consumed alcohol

 Alcohol was most often consumed with peers (Muslim
and non-Muslim)
 74% of those who have tried alcohol reported being
moderately to very religious
34 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Marijuana Use
Ever used Marijuana Marijuana used with. . .
Self
15 15
Neighbors
10 10 Relatives
5 No
Peers
0 Yes 5
Muslim
Men Women 0
Non-Muslim
 Problem with missing data (7/31), all men
 48.4% reported ever using Marijuana
– Gender difference: (7/8 males; 7/15 females)
 Marijuana was used most often with peers (Muslim and
non-Muslim)
 57% of those who ever used Marijuana were very /
moderately religious
35 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Sexual Activity : Never married

Ever Dated Ever had sexual intercourse

15 15
10 10
5 No No
5
0 Yes 0 Yes
Men Women Men Women

 85% had ever dated

 55% had sexual intercourse
– Gender difference (10/11 men; 1/6 women)
 Of those who had ever dated, 80% described themselves as very or
moderately religious
 Of those who had sexual intercourse 58% described themselves as
moderately religious
36 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Implications
 Black Muslim youth identities appear to be socially
constructed
 Black Muslim youth identify with numerous groups
as well as varying experiences that strengthens or
negates their identification with a group
 Provides preliminary evidence for use of Reference
Group Theory
– Competing reference group
 Presence of gender differences - identity, behavior,
etc.
37 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Limitations
 Sample size, selection bias, geographic
concentration
 Nature of questions (sensitivity,
familiarity)
 Focus group format
 Current or past behavior?
– 18-20 “vacation years”
 Level of religiosity while engaging in
38
behavior?
Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Future Studies

 Reference groups and their influence on

African American Muslim youth needs to be
clarified further
 Examine mediators that determine
reference group’s influence
 Methodological
– Larger sample size
– Multi-city
– Comparison groups

39 Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth
 Acknowledgements
 Special thanks to:
Sultan Sharrief Munzareen Padela Nadeem Siddiqi
Farah Khan Zainab Kabba Rebecca Hankins
Ayesha Anwar Leslie Wade Iman Khalid
Khadigah Al-Asry

 This project was partially funded by the Institute

for Social Policy & Understanding

 For additional information contact:

– Sameera Ahmed, Ph.D.
– director@thefyi.org
40
Ahmed & Arfken (2010). Intersection of Ethnic Identity, Religiosity, and Risky Behaviors Among Second-generation African American Muslim Youth