Stanton, & Pargament, 2oo3).

13t aspects of one's identity (e.g

status) are dimensions consis:
Religion, Spiritu ahty, and Emerging texts within which individuar
the nexus of these relations
Adults: Processing Meaning Through lifespan, the late teens and ti'.
windon. This period includes
Culture, Context, and Social Position cal ones, reduced family inier;
diverse social influences, ani t
MONA M. ABO-ZENA AND SAMEERA AHMED according to specific familial ;
the juggernaut of societal r:".s
Tlrc lnte Fridaq aftennot swr is barely uisible. Slirn and instructs us to "just do it.
isconmitted to tlrc enairorurrcnt and inaititrg otlrcr cultural groups may strugele
undergrndtntes to Slwbbnt dirtner. Miclwel alterrmtes attempt to resolve issues rel.
bettueen nttr:rtding the Bible stwly grotLp at a bwrito bnr and relationships. Some en.re:
ud nnss at tlrc cant1ttrs chapel. Aluued nnd Yuaf nre frameworks directly or indire,
tttost lilcely to lead tla prayer for tlrc Muslinr Studerrts ity. Religion and culture mar-
Associatiorr, but Yasnfur and Karert ttre nrcst likely to and other times complicating ,

lend its executiue contnittee nrcethrgs. Rashi oolwieets The overlap of cultural ir
in tlrc lnrgest canryus food driue orgnnized by tlrc Hirtdu ity is the central focus of this ,
studarrt grouyt, hut sTtetrds nnst of lrcr ftee tinrc iuitlt otlutr theoretical overview primar:i'
desis' itr tlte South Asiatt Culturnl Club. Wile Selirn is States. Then, we provide a co:
genernlly ot tlw Buddlrist Society, slrc is a regrlar in all gion, spirituality, culture, .rr j
faith circles. Tlrcse enrcrging adults haae cartted a space of variation and why such r'.
nntl a 1ilace for tleir religious and spiritual etylorntiorts in research. Finaliy, we presel
in tlrcir wiuersity lfierfaith Center.'llwt1 lnue lennrcd inten,entions.
tlutuegetnriatr fare is tlrc ensiest wny to occrnnntodate
nnst of the dietanl restrictiorrs. While tluir foctrs is
Inrgely tuitl r tlrcir co-religious/spiritual peers, togetlrcr A Religion Among Emer
tlry luae discussed shared and differert aspects of tlrcu'
Understanding the role of re1::
faitlr. Most tetrciorts are readily dffisedby recalling
ing process for emerging aiir
tleir connwt positiort: tlrc carnpws faitlt certo is itr tltc
basetst of abuildiug on tlrc edge of cnnryus. complexities in 1,oung peop-c
tative sample of religion a:'.;
religious lives of 18-23 r'ear o.
deism (MfD) that ivas pre-ri,
,,\lthough religion is a central component of human development, and
2005) had continued, but in .r ::
ir-rextricably linked rvith culture (Holden & Vittrup, zoog), it remains
Many emerging adults r€por:,
an understudied area within cross-cultural psychology (Tarakeshwar,
good, that world religiot-ts Sr.-il
l. r\ tcrn-r that has comc to refer to the peclplc,culture, ot' products fi'om thc particularities are peripherai. -
Indian subcontir.rcnt (India, Pakistarr, Bangladesh, and Sli Lanka). religion is right and that fa:ti'

220 PROCESSING MEANING THITOLC

 Si.rntorr, & Parganrcnt, zoo3). Crrlturc, rcligiorr, spirituality,, and othcr
,-spects of one's iclcntity (c.g,, racc, cthnicity,, gender, socioecononric
.:atus) ;rre dimensions consistiug of complex personal .lnd social cou-
ity, and Emerging :exts rvithirr rvhich individuals intcract and develop o\;er tlme. lVhile
:1rc rrexus of thcsc rclations is inrportarrt to stud1, tirroughout thc
;Meaning Thror_rgh ,fesp.-rn, thc late tecns and tn,cntics provide a particul.rrly important
',r'indorv. 'Ihis period inch,rdes numcrorrs ciranges such as physiologi-
rnd Social Position
:,ri orrcs, reduced family intclaction and influence, increased peer .rnd
S.\\IEEItA AHMHI) livcrse social influences, and cir.lngcs irr societal expectatiorrs that vary
,rccording tcl specific familiai and cr"rltural norms (.r\mett, zoo-1). lVhiie
:l.rc. iuggern;rut of societal n.ressages coirclones living for the moment
:: i-,;trtly ttisibli:, Shira
.rnd insh'r-rcis us to "iust do it," indiviciu.rls and fanrilies from diverse
':i ruttl irtititittg otltcr
;uitural srorlps may struggle rvith conflicting messascs, rvliile thr:y
., t,.i'. Nii cl mel o.lter nLr t cs
rttempt to rcsolve issr-ics rclated to identitl,, prolcssional direction,
.,.1. giotrlt at n hrrritoltttr
1
:r,d rclationships. Sonrc emergir.rg adults rersoh,e tlrese issucs lr,ithin
. ,^tluttttl ntul Yttstt.f nrt:
'
liar.rrelvorks directly or indirectly influelrccd b), religiorr .rnd spir:itual-
;' i i tc 1\4rrslil r r St tular tI s
rir,. Ileiigion arrd culture nr.ry pla}, a ccntrai rolc, sorlctimes cl.rlifyirrg
.ti.it orL. trtost likelq to
:rrrd other tirncs compiicating dcvelopmental directions and processes.
.' i i t t
;1s. Ilnsl i util r t t t t ecrs
lhc overlap of criltural ir:fli,renccs on religiousness irud spiritual-
t i:lt1ili:(il l|1 tlu: I Iindtr
:iv is thc r:entral focus ol'tiris clr,rptcr. lVe bcgin n,itl'r an cmpilical arrcl
..i I t,:r Jit:t I itr u: iui ! I t o tl ur
:ncorctr'cai oven,ielv prirnarill, amoirg cnrergii.tg aduhs in the Unitcd
,:,ti Clrtl.t. lNlilc Sclirttt is
S:atcs. Tlren, vte prot,ide a conceptualiz;rlion of the intcra ction oi rcli-
. ,,:JrL is n ragulor itr nll
.rit: luit, carut:d o sltlca
: ..n, spirittrality, culture, and contcrt, ivhile highlighfirrg the sottrces
i.ari.rtioi"r and rvh1, such variaiions nr;ly not cr.rrrently be reflected
:.i ti r i I rplorol
s1 1 141 a iri ti s - research. [:ina111,, \\,e prcsent impiications {or rcsearch and c]irric.rl
' i'. i. I uui: laun t*1
i l u.i1 I
-:err,entions.
: :t..r.tl to ficc()illltiodo!(?
.', irile llu:ir ftuts is
'
:, ii t ttl I ttt,r's, togctl tcr A lteligion Amoug lrmerging Aclults
.:\irtrtt ttslti,cls of tlrcir
-..t:i
!sr.rl. bry rcctilI ing
-:'.derstanding the role o[ religion and spirituality in thc mcanitrg-rnak-
'.t;.fttillt certcr is
irt tltt :-: Lrrocess for enrergine adults is critical in order to .rccotttrt for the
:.'o.ltcnri4ttt.r. -..lprlexities in young pcople's developmcnt. Iu a uatlotrally represcn-
:.-,:rre samplc of rcligion and youih culture, Snrith (2009) studicd the
----qious livcs of 18-23 year olcls .rnd found tir.rt nroralistic theraper-itic
:r:rr.)nent of hunran clcYclo::: .:sm (\III)) th.rt rvas prevalcrrt ciuling thc.tdolcscctrt years (Smith,
Ioldcn & \i i{.trtip, :uo9 - : - '5) had contlnucd, but in t.r nrore cliffuse fort'u.rmong cmclging adults.
,.-cultur;rl psychologi. (T.r:..- 1-:r,r' emergiirg acluits reporte d beiier,ing that religions \\,-ere gencrall)r
: --.ii, th.rt ivorld rcligions sh.rled colrlrilon principle s, and th.rt rcligious
- -'.1rplC, tLtlttrIt., ()! 1rt,,.r.. - -- :ticulalities are pel'ipircral. A 1c,ss tvpical thct'ne u'as that their specific
' :r. :'gl,rdt:lr. ,rrrtl Si i i .r... -- gion is light and th.rt faith is rc.rlly inrporiant.

..rcI:s5t\ G 11IiA\ 1\G I IiI{OirGiI CUL IL Itil, (lO\ lLX I, & SOCrrtt- POSIl IO\ 221
 Despite Smith's (2009) pioneering efforts, the study is limited by In considering the role of culture
its minimal representation of racial and religious minority as well as ment, scholars have warned againsl
immigrant-origin youth. Increasingly, developmental science is explic- proxies in order to explore thinking
itly attending to the role of culture and religious variation (Holden & and religiousness are linked (Iv1atti
Vittrup,2009) due to findings suggesting that some theoretical perspec- Harris, 2006). Cultural values and pr
tives and empirical findings may not be generalizable to other religious levels (e.g., family, neighborhood, s
and/or cultural groups (Barry & Nelson, 2005). For example, religion and geographic) and range in the m;
and religious communities may serve different roles in the positive flict with one another given their co
development of immigrant-origin and racially diverse youth compared and social factors (e.g., religiousnesl
to nonimmigrant European American youth (Sudrez-Orozco, Singh, gender, and sexual orientation). Co
Abo-Zena, Du, & Roeser, 2011). Given previously limited attention to self-identify as Black but have disti:
the role of culture in the study of emerging adults' religion, coupled contexts that may lead to different dr
with changing US demographics (Eck,2002), this chapter aims to inte- is Catholic and Haitian who grerv u
grate the role of culture in the study of religion and spirituaLity in order is biracial and grew up Baptist attt
to unpack the pervasive role of culture in human development. an affluent Atlanta suburb; and ]arr
in Los Angeles. Given the role of ct
anchored within social stratification
Defining Culture and Human Deaelopment ism, discrimination, oPPression/ an(
competencies of minority children a
Our present understanding in the field of the psychology of religion In addition, it is imPortant t<

and spirituality is dominated by a largely Protestant Christian orienta- assumptions that infuse current I
tion within a European American cultural context (Hill & Pargament on religiousness. ExamPles of suc
2003). In addition, Spencer (2006) points out several conceptual flaws include the presumed division beti'
that limited earlier human development scholarship such as consider- life or an assumPtion of an indePe
ing the experiences of White youth as "normative," ignoring the role of from one's bodY as the Primary uni
context, lacking a developmental perspective that incorporates minor- be separated from others). Similarl'
ity youth and viewing them from a deficit perspective, and failing to youth develoPment that privilege c
acknowledge the role of racism in shaping minority youth's develop- and assume a link between them 0
mental outcomes. culture-bound assumptions. Finall'
As a result, current research on religion and spirituality is limited considered such as interethnic, in
in its religious and cultural context and may not adequately be appli- that affect individuals' journers :

cable to the diversity represented in world faith traditions. The need developmental exPeriences of eme
to incorporate culture and context into human developmental theories cultural context, personal beliefs, a
is moving the field slowly away from universal theories and toward degree of integration and acceptani
contextualized approaches that reflect diverse populations and experi-
ences (Mistry & Saraswathi,2003), including religiously and spiritually
Religion, Culture, Context, an
diverse ones. Instead of assuming culture to be a broad characteristic of
racially nondominant or minority youth (i.e., non-White), this concep- According to classic identity theon
tualization describes culture as informing the values, practices, and the three clusters, societY-inward, P
developmental outcomes of all individuals. between individual and scrcietr', rsl

222 vARrArroNS PROCESSING MEANING THROUGH CI

eering efforts, the study is limited b-.
cial and religious minority as well r-:
ingh,, developmental science is expl-i;-
.rre and religious variation (Holden c
Igesting that some theoretical perspe--
not be generalizable to other religio::-.
: \elson, 2005). For example, reLigic:
' sen/e different roles in the posid-.
:rand racially diverse youth compa.e:
rerican youth (Sudrez-Orozco, Sint:
Civen previously limited attention ::
of emerging adults' religion, coupie:
(Eck,2002), this chapter aims to in:-
dv of religion and spirituality in orir:
.rlture in human development.
n Deuelopnrcnt
re field of the psychology of religic:
a largely Protestant Christian orien-=-
n cultural context (Hill & Pargame::
,) points out several conceptual flair:
opment scholarship such as conside-=
ih as "normative," ignoring the role ::
perspective that incorporates minc:-
n a deficit perspective, and failing; ::
n shaping minority youth's develc:-
on religion and spirituality is limi:e:
:rt and may not adequately be apr--
I in world faith traditions. The nee:
:t into human developmental theor-
irom universal theories and torr-a::
:flect diverse populations and expe::-
t, including religiously and spiritua-:
; culture to be a broad characteristic ;:
'r'outh (i.e., non-White), this conc€:-
forming the values, practices, and f-
dividuals.
In considering the role of culture in religious and spiritual develop-
ment, scholars have warned against equating culture with race-based
proxies in order to explore thinking about how ethnicity, culture, race,
and religiousness are linked (Mattis, Ahluwalia, Cowie, & Kirkland-
Harris, 2006). Cultural values and practices exist at multiple contextual
levels (e.9., family, neighborhood, socioeconomic, religious affiliation,
and geographic) and range in the manner in which they may fit or con-
= flict with one another given their complex relation with other personal
and social factors (e.g., religiousness, race, ethnicity, immigrant status,
gender, and sexual orientation). Consider three emerging adults who
self-identify as Black but have distinct cultural, religious, and regional
contexts that may lead to different developmental experiences: Deborah
is Catholic and Haitian who grew up in Boston with her aunt; Amanda
is biracial and grew up Baptist attending a racially diverse church in
an affluent Atlanta suburb; and Jamal grew up in a Muslim household
in Los Angeles. Given the role of context, studies of culture should be
anchored within social stratification theory incorporating the role of rac-
ism, discrimination, oppression, and segregation on the developmental
competencies of minority children and families (Garcia Coll et al., 1996).
In addition, it is important to take into account culture-bound
assumptions that infuse current Western social science scholarship
on religiousness. Examples of such culture-bound assumptions may
include the presumed division between sacred and secular domains of
life or an assumption of an independent self (i.e., the spirit is distinct
from one's body as the primary unit of analysis and the individual can
be separated from others). Similarly, constructing notions of youth and
youth development that privilege chronological time over "social" time
and assume a link between them (Mattis et a1.,2006, p. 28$ are among
culture-bound assumptions. Finally, macro-level forces also should be
considered such as interethnic, intercultural, and interracial contexts
that affect individuals' journeys in implicit and explicit ways. The
developmental experiences of emerging adults may vary based on the
cultural context, personal beliefs, and personal practices, as well as the
degree of integration and acceptance in broader social contexts.
Religion, Culture, Context, and Human Development
According to classic identity theory, identity development occurs along
three clusters, society-inward, person-outward, and an interaction
between individual and society, which includes the domains of gender,
pRocESSTNG MEANTNG rHRoucH cuLTURE, coNTExr, & socrar posITIoN 223
 vocation, religion, and ethnicity (Erikson, 1968). These domains are not resources may affect their develop
merely descriptive categories but also reflect the athibution of value- (Lerner, 2002).
laden meaning to each domain, leading to different identity processes for Studies of religion have consider
privileged versus stigmatized groups (Breakwell, 1983; Mclntosh, 1988). are intrinsic versus extrinsic in their rt
To illustrate, Schlosser (2003) argues the existence of Christian privi- and structural interpretations, as op
leges that favor the dominant religious group in the United States over metaphoric (Park, 2005). These indii'j
adherents of other faith groups or nonreligious people. Hierarchies of sonality traits, interact with a social c
privilege may exist within religious communities (e.g., status of Seventh- influences, many cultural. For examl
Day Adventists relative to other Christian denominations) as well as inspire some believers, while leavin
within cultural groups with some racial or ethnic subgroups afforded individual and how the religious con
greater privilege than members of other subgroups (e.g., status of Cuban sions. \Alhat young people are sear(
Americans relative to other Latino Americans). These hierarchies illus- (i.e., spiritual connection, intellectua
trate the need to study within-group and between-group variations, or mentorship) also may be related tr
and they include person<entered perspectives that attend to contextual riences, and meaning-making Proces
variations. vidual and his or her context also mi
religiously inspired social justice rvo:

A Person-Centered and Contextually Grounded

Fluid
Developmental Conceptualization
Emerging adults' resPonses to reliS
Challenges to studying and measuring culture in the development of
individual characteristics, social ini
religiousness and spirituality include difficulties to operationalize a
which may change over time. Der-i
multidimensional phenomenon. A conceptualization must be person- generally have focused on account
centered and fluid to allow varied fit at multiple ecological levels within
gious practice (King & Roeser, 20Ct!
a broader pluralistic society. reasons and circumstances associai
-
ment (Marks & Dollahite, 2011)
Person Centered not fully described the nature an
lack) to individuals. Some emergin
Individual characteristics may influence people's religious and spiri- view of religion and spiritualiq' (S
tual values, beliefs, practices, and overall religious and spiritual range of spiritual beliefs and pract
trajectory. Since individuals vary considerably, understanding mean- a Bu-]ew, someone who combines
ing-making needs to include how individuals navigate particular reli- Longitudinal analyses of religious t
gious and spiritual content within interrelated levels of context. For identify the contours of questions o:
example, Feldman (2008) described his struggle as a ]ewish emerging calendar (e.g., Advent, Passover, c
adult with undiagnosed hypoglycemia. His battle with frequent fasts, particular day (e.8., sunrise or sur
required by his faith, contributed to his abandoning a conservative and life events (e'g., divorce, religio
practice of ]udaism in favor of incorporating the broader culture of faith and spirit were central to earh
his faith. The relative fit between a context (and variations in the sup- flames, 1902/1985), such matters at
port, challenge, or trauma associated with it) and individuals'internal the purview of chaplains and clergl

224 vARrArroNs PROCXSSING MEANING THROUGH CL

:rikson, 1968). These domains are not
also reflect the attribution of value-
ding to different identity processes for
rps (Breakwell, 7983; Mclntosh, 1988).
ues the existence of Christian privi-
gious group in the United States over
,r nonreligious people. Hierarchies of
communities (e.g., status of Seventh-
-s
Christian denominations) as well as
e racial or ethnic subgroups afforded
other subgroups (e.g., status of Cuban
o Americans). These hierarchies illus-
goup and between-group variations,
perspectives that attend to contextual
rtextually Grounded
ralization
suring culture in the development of
clude difficulties to operationalize a
A conceptualization must be person-
fit atmultiple ecological levels within
rfluence people's religious and spiri-
and overall religious and spiritua-
,- considerably, understanding mean-
v individuals navigate particular reL-
rin interrelated levels of context. Fo:
red his struggle as a jewish emergir.:
,-cemia. His battle with frequent fasts
:d to his abandoning a conservatir':
incorporating the broader culture .'i
r a context (and variations in the sur-
ated with it) and individuals'interr.:-
resources may affect their developmental processes and trajectory
(Lerner, 2002).
Studies of religion have considered the degree to which individuals
are intrinsic versus extrinsic in their religious orientation, or prefer literal
and structural interpretations, as opposed to ones that are broader or
metaphoric (Park, 2005). These individual characteristics, including per-
sonality traits, interact with a social context that incorporates a range of
influences, many cultural. For example, religious music and dance may
inspire some believers, while leaving others empty, depending on the
individual and how the religious context portrays or limits such expres-
sions. \A/hat young people are searching for in a religious experience
(i.e., spiritual connection, intellectual contentment, lifestyle, fellowship
or mentorship) also may be related to their religious expectations, expe-
riences, and meaning-making processes. The relations between an indi-
vidual and his or her context also may be bidirectional, as in the case of
religiously inspired social justice work (e.g., King & Furrow, 2004).
Fluid
Emerging adults' responses to religious identity tasks vary based on
individual characteristics, social influences, and contextual situations,
which may change over time. Developmental studies of religiousness
generally have focused on accounting for significant changes in reli-
gious practice (King & Roeser, 2009),bfi they have yet to explore the
reasons and circumstances associated with such changes or develop-
ment (Marks & Dollahite, 201.1). Thus, developmental studies have
not fully described the nature and meaning of the practice (or its
lack) to individuals. Some emerging adults may adopt a cafeterialike
view of religion and spirituality (Smith, 2009) and may infuse a wide
range of spiritual beliefs and practices that cut across traditions (e.9.,
a Bu-|ew, someone who combines tenets of Buddhism and Judaism).
Longitudinal analyses of religious beliefs and practices also may fail to
identify the contours of questions of faith that occur across the religious
calendar (e.9., Advent, Passover, or Ramadan) or even throughout a
particular day (e,g., sunrise or sunset), or in response to experiences
and life events (e.9., divorce, religious retreat). Although fluctuations in
faith and spirit were central to early psychology of religion scholarship
(]ames, 7902/1985), such matters are currently considered more within
the purview of chaplains and clergy.
pRocESSTNG MEANTNG THRoucH cuLTURE, coNTExr, & socrarrosrrros 223
 D ea elopment ally lnt egr at e d and belief acquisition, understandin6
align with mainstream societY, wher
Religious identify and religiousness are closely linked to other aspects deiayed. Emerging adults may need I
of development particularly ethnic and gender identity development. religious responsibilities and exPectat
For example, immersion in a co-ethnic or co-racial congregation mav
contribute to an overlap, or perhaps conflation, of culture and religion.
In a qualitative study of Indian American Hindu and Muslim emerging ContextuallY Grounded
adults, participants described entry into college as an important begin-
ning of self- and religious discovery (Levitt, Bamett, & Khalil,2011). Prior Individuals develop within multiple
to being in the diverse college setting, many participants had difficulty neighborhood), so emerging adults
distinguishing religious practices from their ethnic cultural practices. respective social and structural contt
However, exposure to other observant religious groups or nonreligious and social circumstances, such as mt
cultural groups allowed them to decouple religion and culture (see living on a college camPus, can alte:
Chapter 9). Culture itself can serve as a de facto "religion," where cul- opment of emerging adults (see Cl
tural practices are codified, even though they may not be grounded in may overlaP, as illustrated, in a stu
the religion (e.g., henna parties as part of South Asian Muslim marriage neighborhood context in the identi
traditions). Some emerging adults who had observed the influence of adolescents (Markstrom, Berman' &
culture on religion in ways that were not theologically grounded have not attribute differences in identity s
sought to purge cultural innovations from religion in order to return to a textbecause many Parents in the je'
purer, fundamental form of religious practice (Levitt et al., 2011). Others chose to enroll their high school chi
negotiate their ethnic, religious, and linguistic identities based on the ing underscores the need for scholar
barriers and demands of a particular context (Jaspal & Coyle, 2010). practices, particularly related to reli
Religious teachings and practices may influence individuals'devel- ple* role of socializing agencies (e'g"
opmental outcomes through direct and indirect messages, including school and neighborhood choice' so<
ones about gender and age. Despite the espoused gender equality in US within religious and ethnic subgroul
society, men and women may perceive differing levels of empowerment may touch on common elements acr
within religious settings, thereby creating a gendered developmental differences related to the geographi<
context that affords different opportunities and responsibilities to each religious minority group within a p
gender. Gendered messages may facilitate involvement and entitlement, being ]ewish in New York versus N'
while in other cases they may give rise to feelings of not belonging or For Youth living in Pluralistic co
self-doubt. Although social commentaries on religion and religious gious beliefs, appreciation for diver
institutions generally suggest that they are patriarchal and afford lim- cult .e that Promotes "finding one'
ited opportunities for women, practices should be interpreted from a religious systems different from th'
framework that attempts to construe the behavior within its values and personal values and beliefs'
just as s
context as opposed to the dominant framework (see Chapter 10). may reinforce each other, it is also i
Similarly, in religious contexts, age and coming of age may be adults navigate through mainstrea
operationalized differently than in "mainstream" US culture. The age with religious expectations (e'g'' Prt
of maturity may range in religious contexts between the ages of 10 and how religion interacts with key ecoJ
15 years, depending on religious beliefs. Maturation may be a private or class, and ethnicitY, and how it unfo
a public transition that involves a combination of physical maturation ing keY develoPmental tasks and th

226 vARrArroNS PROCESSING MEANING THROUGH

CL

.essare closely linked to other aspects
nic and gender identity development.
-ethnic or co-racial congregation may
aps conflation, of culture and religion.
merican Hindu and Muslim emerging
ry into college as an important begin-
v (Levitt, Barnefi & Khalil,2011). Prior
r'ting, many participants haddifficulty
; from their ethnic cultural practices.
n ant religious groups or nonreligious
r decouple religion and culture (see
,,e as a de facto "religion," where cul-
though they may not be grounded in
part of South Asian Muslim marriage
s who had observed the influence of
vere not theologically grounded have
,ns from religion in order to return to a
rus practice (Levitt et al., 2011). Others
rnd linguistic identities based on the
lar context (Jaspal & Coyle,2010).
ices may infl uence individuals' devel-
rct and indirect messages, including
te the espoused gender equality in US
eive differing levels of empowerment
creating a gendered developmental
>rtunities and responsibilities to each
rcilitate involvement and entitlement,
'e rise to feelings of not belonging
or
mentaries on religion and religious
: they are patriarchal and afford lim-
actices should be interpreted from a
ue the behavior within its values and
rt framework (see Chapter 10).
ts, age and coming of age may be
r "mainstream" US culture. The age
contexts between the ages of 10 and
:liefs. Maturation may be a private or
combination of physical maturation
and belief acquisition, understanding, or accePtance/ which may not
align with mainsheam society, where "adult" responsibility is often
delayed. Emerging adults may need to reconcile conflicting social and
religious responsibilities and expectations.
Contextually Grounded
Individuals develop within multiple overlapping contexts (e.g., home,
neighborhood), so emerging adults must be considered within their
respective social and structural contexts. Changes in physical location
and social circumstances, such as moving from living with parents to
living on a college campus, can alter the context, and thus the devel-
opment of emerging adults (see Chapters 5 and 9). Social contexts
may overlap, as illustrated, in a study seeking to identify the role of
neighborhood context in the identity formation of Jewish Canadian
adolescents (Markstrom, Berman, & Brusch, 1998)' The authors could
not attribute differences in identity scores solely to neighborhood con-
text because many parents in the ]ewish dominant neighborhood also
chose to enroll their high school children in ]ewish schools. This find-
ing underscores the need for scholars to consider parental socialization
practices, particularly related to religion (see Chapter 4) and the com-
plex role of socializing agencies (e.g., religious schools), as they relate to
school and neighborhood choice, socioeconomic status, and differences
within religious and ethnic subgroups. While being a religious minority
may touch on corunon elements across the United States, there may be
dilferences related to the geographic context and the concentration of a
religious minority group within a particular sociocultural context (e.g.,
being jewish in New York versus North Dakota; see Chapter 8).
For youth living in pluralistic contexts, the exposure to multiple reli-
gious beliefs, appreciation for diversity in the United States, and youth
culture that promotes "finding one's self" may result in exploration of
religious systems di-fferent from their birth religion in order to clarify
personal values and beliefs. Just as social, religious, and cultural contexts
may reinforce each other, it is also important to consider how emerging
adults navigate through mainstream social contexts that may conflict
with religious expectations (e,g., premarital sex), Failure to acknowledge
how religion interacts with key ecological factors, such as culture, social
class, and ethnicity, and how it unfolds in individuals may result in miss-
ing key developmental tasks and their individual variations.
pRocEssrNc MEANTNG THRoucrr cuLTURr, coNTExr/ & socrar- r'osrrroN 227
 Lntlers o,f Ctrlture Enfuedded irt Context religious conteut may lead to pari-;
opmental expectations and exper:e:'
Developmental contextuaiism portrays culture as influencing develop- values and behavioral expectalions :
ment primarily through engasement in culturally meaningful practices by mainstrc.rnt socicty, ithich rnr' --.:
(Rogoff, 2003). Culture is embedded, enacted, and recreated through adheres to religious guidelincs. Fs:.
involvement in multiple layers of contexts that range from proximal religious grotlps, these challelrqes :
levels (e.g., individr-rai, family, and peers) to the more complex (e.g., encottnters, sttch as decisions a'co'-l: :'
religior.rs institutions and society). ous negotiations include those .1s..'

romantic relationships, given rell{c ''

Developmental Niche bid premaritai sex (see Chapters i ::
are commotl, emerging 6d111'-i i"':'.-
While considering culture.rta mao'o-contextr.ral level, equally importantis
families may face additionai cir.'.-l:::
explorinr the micro-ieve1 contextnal ecology of one's developmental niche -. -'
.rnd prcssures to cngage in ser::-:- -
(Super & lJarkness, 1986). Although designed to understand chilcl devel-
& Uc'cker 2011). Similarlli purs'':':': :

opmetlt, this theorcticai model specifies the meaning of variatiorr by focr"rs-

sidc the culhrrai or rcligioLts qro'-:: .--
ing on the physical context, the values of socializing agents (e.g., parents,
ing. lVhile sucl-r behaviors arrd er: .-
mentors), and the particular practices in which tlrey engage. Describing
some emerging adults, for others :l'-
the variation of these contexts is beyond the scope of a single chapteq, but
it inclrrdes parental practices. Flomes may fcature indifference, outward
rejection of reiigion, or e\/ell mr-rltiple religions given intc'rmarrjage or con-
Mentors and Peers
vcrsion (l-ambert & Dollahite, 2010), Bcyond t]re l"rome, emerging adults
Throughout childhood and ado.r':=
are exposed to diverse rel'erences to religion, as in yard displays, market-
developed co-religious pc€r ilSSt-i'::
ing to religious groups (e.g., diverse holiday postal stamps), and religious
dence and social enrbeddediress. :: =:
attire (e.g., hijab, yammaka, dastar). The media may constitute the most (King & Furror,v, 2004). In adciiro: ,

connections rvith rcligious qrtl-:

pervasive influer-rce, rvith televised Christmas spccials, nervs accounts :

lr,hich have generalll' beelr foil:i :

about religion, and other fe;rtures that may l'reighten feelings of curiosity
or fear as r.vell as inciusion or margit'ralization based on the indit,idual and of decrcascd risk f.rctor,, stl(:l :.: :r
the relative fit rvith the religious context (see Chapter 6).
lescents (Schr'vartz, Bukorl'ski. s ''--
religious leaders and youth n'.r:'---':
Religious Contexts
and spirituai develoPment (\er-'::
Religious contexts are multifaceted and include variations across and from fornr.rl pcrfunctory .lssoi -::--:
within groups. These contexts not only include religious and spiritual attempt to ciarify religious feei:i',:. I

teacl'rings but also the congregation.rl corrnections within r,vhich emcrg- identity and purpose in liie (e.9., r'--
ing adults develop. These contexts may provide social support and of youtl"r-affirming congregatio:'.-' :-
sanctions at individual and institr.rtional levels, fellor,vship, socializatiorr ical behaviors of religior'rs role rc-i..
opportunities, .rnd mentors (Roeirlkepartain & l,atel, 2006). experiences, atld greater dist.ln.r - :

Religious Content Congregational Culture

The sfudy of religion must atterrd, at some level, to the specific content l{eligious contexts influence soc::--:
enrbodied in particular religious and spir"itual teachings. Variations in moting specific values and prio::; =,

228 vAr<rArroNS PI{OCESSING \{EANlNC TIiIIOL C E' .

iontext
Lys culture as influencing develop-
: in culturally meaningful practices
l, enacted, and recreated through
ontexts that range from proximal
peers) to the more complex (e.g.,
ontextual levef equally important is
:ology of one's developmental niche
lesigned to understand child devel-
rs the meaning of variationby focus-
; of socializing agents (e.g., parents,
; in which they engage. Describing
rd the scope of a single chapte{, but
may feature indifference, outward
eligions given intermarriage or con-
Beyond the homg emerging adults
rligion, as in yard display+ market-
rliday postal stamps), and religious
.he media may constitute the most
lhristmas specials, news accounts
: may heighten feelings of curiosity
ization based on the individual and
xt (see Chapter 6).
md include variations across and
rly include religious and spiritual
connections within which emerg-
may provide social support and
ral levels, fellowship, socialization
partain & Patel,2006).
some level, to the specific content
I spiritual teachings. Variations in
religious content may lead to particularly different cultural and devel-
opmental expectations and experiences' Religious content may promote
lrulr", and behavioral expectations that may differ from those promoted
and
by mainstream society, which may affect whether an individual seeks
uihur", to religious guidelines. Especially for more socially conservative
religious g.o.rpr, these challenges may surface in navigating everyday
such as decisions about religious attire' Perhaps the most tenu-
irnt"rr,
"n and
ous negotiations include those associated with addressing intimate
and/or cultural guidelines that for-
,o*u.ti. relationships, given religious
bid premarital sex (see Chapters 5 and 11)' Although coupling and dating
u." ao**orr, emerging adults who are religious or come from religious
families may face additional challenges in how to navigate both the desires
(Regnerus
and pressures to engage in sexual relationships prior to marriage
individuals out-
& Uecker 2011). Similarly, pursuing marital options with
be challeng-
side the cultural or religious grouP or same€ex fiutrriages may
for
ing. while such behaviors and exploration may be of minimal concem
higher'
sole emerging adults, for others the stakes may be dramatically
Mentors and Peers
Throughout childhood and adolescence, some emerging adults may have
developed co-religious peer associations that promote both interdepen-
dence and social embeddedness, thereby promoting positive development
(King & Furrow 2004).In addition, emerging adults may have developed
con',ections with religious SrouP mentors and nonparental influences'
which have generally been found to be related significantly to a variety
of decreased risk factors, such as reducing dropout rates for at-risk ado-
lescents (Schwartz, Bukowski, & Aoki, 2006)' For some emerging
adults'
religious leaders and youth ministries are important for their religious
anJ spiritual development (Nelson, 2003). These relationships may range
from iormal perfunctory associations to personal ones where individuals
attempt to clarify religious feelings, make life decisions, and examine their
identity and purpose in life (e.g., birth rite trip to Israel). For others, the lack
of youth-affirming congregations, mentors, relevant discourse' or h)?ocrit-
ical behaviors of religious role models can contribute to confusion,
negative
experiences, and greater distancing from the religious community
Congregational Culture
Religious contexts influence socialization by providing clear guidance/
pro-
moting specific values and priorities, establishing behavioral expectations,
pRocESSING MEANTNc THROUGH CULTURE/ CONTEXT/ &socratrosrrroN 229
 providing social support, and serving as sources for individual and group religious group to the dominant i
identity development. Religious congregations are socializing agents and acceptance, or discrimination fron
often become multifaceted centers of community life, but little explicit minorities, group categorization b
attention has focused on their role in the developmental context of children negative aspects, depending on thr
and adolescents (Roehlkepartain & Patel,2006). Congregations have their merit attributed to the religion in
own internal culfures and may promote particular values or priorities. In addition, external dimension,<
For example, an ethnographic case study considered the particularly high prayer, religious organization att
civic participation levels in a Catholic church and found that parish cul- belonging to a collective group. Tl
ture, beyond denominational culture, affects individuals' civic participa- efits from a sense of belonging, ir
tion (DiSalvo, 2008). Religious congregations and communities may seek ship, social support, and other m;
to establish and communicate particular values, such as youth-friendly, 2006). However, perceived lorr rt
racially diverse, or LGB-affirming cultures. For ethnic or racial minority (e.9., Scientologists) also mav re
and immigrant-origin youth, worship in mostly co-ethnic religious com- themselves from their religious gn
munities may serve multiple functions of religious, racial, ethnic, or cul- tus of religious affiliation r,r,ith thc
tural socialization. Given the overlap between religion and culture and the society may affect individuals' mr
cultural interactions that arise organically (Levitt,2007), studies on emerg- belonging.
ing adults need to explore the role of congregations, method of influence,
and functions in the meaning-making process of emerging adults and
how they may fluctuate throughout development. lmplications
Differences in congregational culture can highlight varied reli-
gious approaches, promote ideological alternatives and exploration, The ability to conceptualize and r

and encourage cultural expression. The surge in social media can aug- mental factors impacting the me
ment in-person fellowship and socialization with virtual congregations adults is critical to an understandi
and numerous online mechanisms to facilitate religious and spiritual lives of emerging adults. The impl
exchanges (e.9., online convert support groups). In addition to deepen- be applied directly to research and
ing their own faith connections, Millennials may directly explore other
faith traditions through "friending" others or researching diverse faith
Research
traditions online (see Chapters 5 and 6). The degree to which religious
exploration is promoted within the congregational community may Studies of religion may not adequ;
vary across religious groups. While some traditions may tolerate certain related to religious experiences of e
types of exploration within the religion, they may condemn explora- tent of the studies and sampling
tions beyond that particular religious system. Consequently, the extent studies have limited samples of reLi
to which emerging adults explore their own or another faith tradition in prevalence within a representatir-e
person or virtually may result in varied responses from their faith com- representation of religious minori
munity, which in turn may create cognitive dissonance. scale, empirical work inadvertentir
that "normative" religious and spi
Embedded Congregations with experiences by mostly Christr
to higher socio-economic backgror-it
Congregations and religious communities are embedded within a larger represent how experiences mav dir
social context. It is important to consider the degree of similarity of the sample the range of religious and spi

230 vARrArroNS PROCESSING MEANING THROUGH CU:

i assources for individual and group
;:cgations are socializing agents and
': community life, but little explicit
re developmental context of children
::el, 2006). Congregations have their
:rote particular values or priorities.
.:.iv considered the particularly high
; chnrch and found that parish cul-
...ffects individuals' civic participa-
r{atlons and communities may seek
-rlar values, such as youth-friendly,
l:..rres. For ethnic or racial minority
:. in mostiy co-ethnic religious com-
rs of religious, racial, ethnic, or cul-
:.et\\'een religion and culture and the
a11r. (Levitt, 2007), stLrdies on emerg-
congregations, method of influence,
19 process of emerging adults and
ier.elopment.
culture can highlight varied reli-
Iical alternatives and exploration,
The surge in social media can aug-
Llization rvith virtual congregations
to facilitate religious and spiritual
ort groups). In addition to deepen-
iennials may directly expiore other
others or researching diverse faith
J 6). The degree to ivhich religious
e congregational community may
,ome traditions may tolerate certain
gion, they may condemn explora-
ls svstem. Consequently, the extent
:ir ou,n or another faith tradition in
'ied responses from their faith com-
qnitivg dissonance.
nities are embedded rvithin a larger
,ider the degree of similarity of the
religious group to the dominant framervork as ivr:ll as the familiarity;
acccptance, or discrimination from society. Iror religious and or ethnic
minorities, group categorization by others c;rn htrve both posiiive arld
negative aspects, depending on tite status of the religion .rnd the relativc
merit attributed to the religion in a giten context (Sirin & [rinc',2007).
In addition, external dimensions of religious life (e.g., cougregation.rl
praycr, religious organization attendance) mary increase individuals'
belonging to a collectir,e grollp. Tl"rus, individuals may expericnce ben-
efits from a sense of belonging, which may include a sense ol'fcilolv-
ship, social support, aud other material support (Portes & Ilaumbaut,
2006). llowevet perceived lorv religious group status rvithin socicty
(e.g., Scientologists) also may result it'r emerging aduits distancing
themselves from their religious SrottP. The relative fit betrveen the st.-t-
tus of reiigious affiliatior"r with those considered normative in broac'lcr
society may affect individuals' meaning-makirrg process atrd scnse of
belonging.
Itrtplicntiotts
The ability to conceptualize and operationalize the varying dcvciop-
mental factors impacting the meaning-making Process of enrcrging
adults is critical to an understanding of religion trnd spirituality in thc
lives of emerging adults. The implication of this couceptualizartion catr
be applied directly to research and applied settings.
Research
Studies of religion may not adequately caPture the salient experiences
related to religious experiences of emerging adults, due both to the corr-
tent of the studies and sampling limitations. Many of the largc-scale
studies have limited samples of religious minorities because of a lack of
prevalence within a representative sample (Smith, 2009). Such uudcr-
representation of religious minorities and their experiences in largc-
scale, empirical rvork inadvertently may perPetuate the represeutation
that "normative" reiigious and spirituai development largely overlap
r,vith experiences by mostly Christian, White, individuals from midcilc
to higher socio-economic backgrounds without the uecess.lry caveats to
represent horv experiences may diverge. In the future, scholars sl.rou1c1
sample the range of religious and spiritual affiliations (or the unaffiliartcci)
pRocESSING \'IEANI i\-G THIIOUGH CUI.TUri[, coNl EX r, & SOCrar POSiI IO\ -J1
 inclrrding religiotrs minorities, take into account the beliefs and prac- health professionals as able to und
tices of nontheistic traditions, and validate measures that account for or her situation (Cinnirella & Loe
the particularities of reiigious and spiritural dimensions of the develop- to assessment that expiores holv
mental context (Thrakeshwar, Pargament, & Mahoney, 2003). by individuals' Personal characte:
In addition, most studies do not account for the personal reasons, development, and multiPle overi;
proccsses, and contextual factors that explain the meanings surround- to contextualize the Presenting P
ing the "correlational landscape" (Marks & Dollahite, 2011, p.182). lt is example, a clinician lvorking t-ith
important that researchers expand tl.reir understanding of the role of cul- terms i,vith his alcohol usage nla
ture, religion, and spirituality in the lives of emerging adults by explor- level of the struggle related to rel:
ing factors that affect both their integration and attempts to decottple stigma, and the implications sucl'' 1

them. Mixed-metirod developmentai stttdies should examine the per- pects and grouP membershiP. -\s '
sonal and social nature of religious and spiritual socialization, \'aria- ncrs crpand their assessmeni. o; :

tiorrs in horv religion and spirituality are experienced in context, and the the different components of faiii-
fluid rrature of person-context fit. To account for the complexities ir-r the sonal interpretation), coupling or
religious and spiritual life of emerging adults better, while mainttrining the individual, religious contc\: :'
a firm grounding in the theology and culture of religion and spirituality, on the presenting Problem, and :
researchers must broaden their sample, constrttcts being studied, metl't- assessmcnt enables clinicians to 'i
ods, ;rnd disciplinary perspectives. and identify religiously and cr-r1trr
such as hclping to navigate anci ;'
Applied and Clinical Implications as well as utilizing norrtraditionai
j;
conr muuity, cthnic commrttritr' :
r\ morc ctilturally inciusive developmental conceptualization of the role
that culture has on the religious and spiritual lives of emerging adults can
.rssist professionals from variotts applied settings. For example, in higher A Conciusion
cducation, it may guide recruitment and retention efforts as weli as cur-
ricr"rlar and extracurricttlar offerings and how they relate to personai and As noted, the interaction betrr'ee:
profcssional negotiations (e.g., handshaking in interviews, intersection livcs of emcrging adults is cor':'
betwcen religion and finance). ln the areas of public health, a cultur- tal trajectories. Researchers ani -:
ally inclusive developmental conceptualization can help to guide policy tings are encouraged to adopi ::'
"'
c:fTorts on government programs and funding, as r,vell as youth develop- concepti.ralization that inteqia:e.
ment and empowerment efforts, by highlighting ihe complex interaction personal and social conterts rr' "'
that occurs betrveen culture and religion. In addition, awareness of spe- ops over time. AdoPting suc:- n c'
cific risk factors rvithin particular religious and cultural subgroups may our depth and understandins c:
help to define culturaliy and religiously sensitive inten'entions. ing adults residing in cultr-rra'-"' :
ijor health practitioners (e.g., clinicians, physicians), understanding
the developmental context can help to direct assessment aud treatment
intcn,entions for emerging adults. Religiously based beliefs may influ- A Acknowledgments
ence horv an individual views the explanatory models of health and
rvellness. ln addition, religious beliefs combine with a host of social and The authors r'vould like to t::':
cultural factors and affect lvhether an individual perceives out-group Barry for helpful comments o: =

232 vArtrArroNS PROCESSING NIEANI\' G THIiOL C :1

rnto account the beliefs and prac-
'alidate measures that accourlt for
,iritual dimensions of the develop-
:ent, & Mahoney,2003).
I account for the personal reasons,
rt erplain the meanings surronnd-
.rrks & Dollahite, 2071, p.182). It is
eir understanding of the role of cul-
.:r'es of emerging adults by explor-
,gration and attempts to decouple
. studies should examine the per-
and spiritual socialization, varia-
are experienced in context, and the
account for the complexities in the
rg adults better, while maintaining
culture of religion and spirituality,
ie, constructs being studied, meth-
NS
..ental conceptualization of the role
riritual 1ir.es of emerging adults can
red settings. For example, in higher
ind retention efforts as well as cur-
:rd how they relate to personal and
,i'raking in interviews, intersection
e areas of public health, a cultur-
uaiization can help to guide policy
fundir-rg, as well as youth develop-
:qhiighting the complex interaction
ion. In addition, awareness of spe-
gious and cultural subgroups may
,iv sensitive interventions.
iicians, physicians), understanding
:o direct assessment and treatment
:ligiously based beliefs may influ-
:rplanatory models of health and
; combine with a host of social and
r:r individual perceives out-group
health professionals as able to understand the cultural dimension of his
or her situation (Cinnirella & Loewenthal, 1999). A nuanced approach
to assessment that explores how the presenting problem is impacted
by individuals'personal characteristics, the linked and fluid nature of
development, and multiple overlapping contexts will enable clinicians
to contextualize the presenting problem within individuals' lives' For
example, a clinician working r,vith a Muslim emerging adult coming tcr
terms with his alcohol usage may not fully appreciate the depth and
level of the struggle related to religious prohibition, associated cultural
stigma, and the implications such behaviors may have on marriage pros-
pects and group membership. As such, it is recommended that practitio-
ners expand their assessment of religion by including questions about
the different components of faith (e.g., beliefs, doubts, practices, per-
sonal interpretation), coupling or decoupling of religion and culture for
the individual, religious context, the manner of h1teractiou and influence
on the presenting problem, and al'ailable support systems. A thorough
assessment enables clinicians to develop a stronger therapeutic alliance
and identify religiously and culturally sensitive treatment interventiot'rs,
such as helping to navigate and clarify their personal values and beliefs,
as rvell as utilizing nontraditional sources of support (i.e., congregatiorral
community, ethnic community) for therapeutic intervention.
A Conclusion
As noted, the interaction between religion, spirituaiity, and culture in the
lives of emerging adults is complex and results in varying developmen-
tal trajectories. Researchers and individuals working within applied set-
tings are encouraged to adopt a more culturally inclusive developmental
conceptualization that integrates the numerous and often overlapping
personal and social contexts in which an individual interacts and devel-
ops over time. Adopting such a conceptualizatiou wili no doubt increasc
our depth and understanding of the meaning-making process of emerg-
ing adults residing in culturally and religiously diverse communities.
A Acknowledgments
The authors rvould like to thank Catherine Loewenthai and Carolyn
Barry for helpful comments ou earlier versions o{ this chapter.
pS.ocESSrNG N,IEANING THRouGH cSLTUitE, coNTExr/ & socrar. PosI'l'IoN 233
 A References Levitt, P. (2007). God needs no passryt: ,
gious landscape. New York, NY: Ne
Levitt, P., Bamett,M., &Khalil, N. A. (Z
Amett, J. J. Q004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through
tion across generations and border
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
the twenties.
Barry, C. M., & Nelson,L. l. Q005). The role of religion in the transition to
bodies, mobile souls (pp. 139-159). A
Marks, L. D., & Dollahite, D. C. (20i1).
adulthood for young emerging adults. Journal ofYouth and Adolescence,34,
processes from psychology of relil
245- 255. doi:'10.\007 / s1.0964F005-4308-1.
Religion and Spiritualig, 3(3), 181-
Breakwell, G. M. (Ed.). (7983).Threatened identities. New York, NY: Wiley.
Markstrom, C.A., Berman, R.C., & Bru
Cinnirella, M., & Loewenthal, K. M. (1999). Religious and ethnic group influ-
tion of identity formation among
ences on beliefs about mental illness: A qualitative interview study. British
lournal of Adolescent Research, Li,2
Journal of Medical Psychology, 72, 505-524. doi 10.1348/000711299160202
Mattis, J. S., Ahluwalia, M. K., Cort'ie
DiSalvo, K. (2008). Understanding an outlier: How parish culture matters in a
Ethnicity, culture, and spiritual de
highly participatory Catholic Church. Reoiew of Religious Research, 49(4),
King, L. Wagener, & P. L. Benson (.
438-455.
in childhood and adolescence (pp.2a.
Eck, D. L. (2002). Anew religious America: Hou; a "Christian country" hnsbecome the
Mclntoslr, P. (1988). White priuilege aru
raorld's most religiously dioerse nntion. San Francisco, CA: Harper.
ing to see correspondences through
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisls. New York, NY: Norton.
,

Committee of the Wellesley Collq

Feldman, D. H. (2008). The role of developmental change in spiritual develop-
Mistry, J., & Saraswathi, T. S. (2003).
ment. InR. M. Lemer, R. Roeser, & E. Phelps(Eds.),Positioeyouthdeoelopment
ment. In R. M. Lernet M. A. Easi
and spirituality: From theory to research (pp. 167-196). West Conshohocken,
Deuelopmental psychalogy. Vol. o:
PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
New York, NY: Wiley.
Garcia Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H.,
Nelson, L. l. (2003). Rites of passage
&Yazquez,G. H. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmen-
young Mormons. N ew D ir e ct ion-<-fo
tal competencies in minority children. Child Deoelopment,6T(5),1891- 191,4.
issue: Exploring Cultural Concepfbn
doi: 10. 1111 /j. 1.467 -8624.1996.tbO1834.x
doi:1,0.1002/ cd.73
Hill, P. C., & Pargament, K. (2003). Advances in the conceptualization and
Park, C. L. (2005). Religion and meanir
measurement of religion and spirituality. American Psychologist, 58, 64-74.
Handbook of the psychology of religia
doi: 10.1037/0003066X.58. 1.64
NY: Guilford Press.
Holden, G. W., & Vittrup, B. (2009). Religion. In M. H. Bomstein (Ed.), Handbook
Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R.G. (2006).
of cultural deoelopmental science (pp.279195). New York, NY: Routledge.
CA: University of Califomia Press
James, W (1902/1985). The aaieties of religious experience. Cambridge, MA:
Regperus, M., & Uecker, l. (2017). Prem-
Harvard University Press.
meet, mate, and think about marruing
Jaspal, R., & Coyle, A. (2010). "Arabic is the language of the Muslims-that's
RoehlkepartairL E. C., & Patel, E. (2mf
how it was supposed to be:" Exploring language and religious identity
for spiritual development. In E. C
through reflective accounts from young British-bom South Asians. Mental
& P. L. Benson (Eds.), The handbd.
Health, Religion and Culture, 13(l), 17 -j6. doi: 10.1080/1 367 4670903127205
adolescence (pp. 324-336). Thousan
King, P. E., & Furroq l. L. (2004). Religion as a resolilce for positive youth
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature a-f h.
development: Religion, social capital, and moral outcomes. Deoelopmental
University Press.
Psychology, 40(5), 703-713. doi 10.1037 / 1941-1022.5.1.34
Schlosser, L. W. (2003). Christian prir-i
King, P. E., & Roeser, R.W. (2009). Religion and spirituality in adolescent devel-
Multicultural Counseling and Dsti
opment. In R. M. Lemer & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbookof adolescent psychol-
1912.2003.tb00530.x
ogy (3rd ed.; pp. 435478). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Schwartz, K. D., Bukowski, W. M., &,
Lambert, N. M. & Dollahite, D. C. (2010). Development of the faith activities
gurus: Peer and nonparent influe
in the home scale (FAITHS). lournal of Family Issues, 31(77), 7M2-7464.
Roehlkepartain, P. E. King, L. ll'ag
doi: 10.117 7 / 019 251,3X103 637 9I of spiritual deoelopment in childhod
Lerne{, R. M. (2002).Conceptsandtheoriesof humandeoelopment(Yded.).Mahwah,
Oaks, CA: Sage.
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

234 vARrArroNs PROCESSING MEANING THROUCH CU

 L.cr,itt, (2007). Ccd tttcds iro ptlsspL)t't: ltttitti,lrtritts niil tlr ciruttgiit\ Ailri't it.t,it !rli-
11

;4ious lturdscnltc. Ncr.r, York, NY: Ncrv Plcss.

. '.:.
iitL!itr:i rotd.frortt tlrr: lntc tcLrrs tltrtttullt
\.
I cvitt, P., Balr..ett, \I., & Kh.rlil, A. (2011). I calnins topr'.r1,: Rcliqio,.is srci.:|iz.r-
tion acloss gcncrations arrd bordcrs. In K. I: Olrvig & M.I(y,ttcr'(l-ds.), lvrolrll,
- rrrvelslty I)r'css. bodit's,ntobilc sollls (pp. 139-159). A.rrhris, Denrnalk: A.r'hr,rs Lrrivcr'>iiv i)i'ls:.
': :tric of 1-cligiol1 in thc tlarrsititxr to
'.. l,-trritrl rtf \bttilt ttid ,\tlolcsceuct:, 34, \,Ialks, I-. D., & Dollal.ritc, D. C. (2011). \,linin5l tirc rnc.rnirrg and pulliir* orit iirc
plocesscs flom psycholr)gy of rcligi(m's couclatiolr monntain. Psr/:ilt;ir;.,.,r tr,''
l.-i Rr'/lqlori nntl Spiritmlitrl, 3(3), 1ti1*19:i. doi: 10.1037/a0022206
.',,itiiits. NovYcxk, NY: \{ilcy.
]llalkstrom, C.A., l3elmau, I{.C., & Ih'usch, C. (1(-t9ti). r\n c\ploraior'), i1r\,o5tit]i'.-
-: :. Rclisiolls arrd cthnic group influ-
tion of idcrrtity folmation alr(mg Jovi-sh .rdolcsccrlts ilccording to cori.-.\i.
: \ r-!ualitative intclvi*v study. Iiru1isft
lounul of' tl,doltsccrtt Rt,st'nrclt, 13,21)2'-222. cioi: 10. 1177 /07.1353159[j 1]2i){)(r
-:l+. doi 1().1 3-lS /0007112991 60202 \Iatiis, J. S., r\hlur.va1ia, M. K., Corvic, S. h., & Kilklarrd-Ijarris, .A. \'1. (:i)ilf,).
-:.-rl: H()\\'parish cLlltLlrc rlattcrs it.t Ithnicity, cultulc, and spiliiual dcvelopmcnt. in [. C. R.ocirlkcp.rrt.rin, ;'. i:.
:l' Rr't'ti'irr of lli:1i1;iorrs llcsr'riic/r, 49(.1),
King, L. W.rgcncr; & I'}. 1.. I-]cnson (Eds.), 7/ic htttdltook o.f s1tivis111tl i;7'.lo1;i;i:,!i
itr cltilLllrood rtttd ttlctlesuuce (pp. 2li3-295). 'i hor,rsand Oaks, Cr\: Si'rqe
:
.
"Cln i:tiuit t'ttuiilrt1" ltts
'.' ,,. bttoitn'lltt
\Iclrrtosh, P. (i98E). lNhitc ltrioil,ge utd nttlc ltriuilt'3c A ltatsotltl nccounl of:Loii!.
S,rr, Francisco, CA: Halpcr^.
ilrl; lo -scc corre;pttttdcttct's tlnouTilt itork iit i{r0/l/L'/r'-s slrtr/i,s. \\olkilrl i).-:ircir
-.,s. \civ York, NY: Nort<xr.
Comrnittcc of thc Wcllcsley Colletc Ccr..tel fol Ik:scarch ()l lVolncn.
. r::rer1t.1l ch.rngc in spilittral dcvclol:-
!Iistr1,, J., & Sarasn'athi, T. S. (20t)3). Thc cnltulal contcxt of cliilci iici'cli;p.
:..., 1,.- s ( E d s. ), P tt s i t i o r tt i t t I t dt t c I tt t t t L: r t I
.
.ry li
rncnt. In R. M. Lcrner; M. A. Eastcrbrooks, & j. \IistL1' (Virl. Ld-..). (2i)i)i).
- 'cp. 167- 196). \Aicst Ctxrshohockcn,
I)axt,lopnurtnl ltsVclk)loil1,l. Vol. 6: llttrLlbttol; ttf p.,t1clnl(Ill/ (pp. 267 ?-'-)1-'i.
Nerv Vrlk, \Y: l{ilcy.
\1c.\cior'r, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, Il. Fl.,
Nclson, L. J. (2003). Ititcs of passagc irr emerginq acl,rlthood: 1'cr':!.rccrivc: rri
.'.. ::rodcl ioi thc study r>f dei,clopmcn-
1.<rrurg Mot'rnons. M'rr l)ilccl ions for ChiiLl n;ttl AdolLtscL,itt I)t t t:lolriu:itt. 5lt,;c iLtl
.-- CitilLl Dtoelopttit:ttt, b7(5), 1tj91- 19]-1.
issutt: L,tploriug Crtlturo,l Cotrct'ltt iorr; of tlia Ii ntrsitiou to t\tlitltltotttl, i00, 33-:'\),
:= \ doi: 10.10t)2,/cd.73
:'.:irccs in thc couccptualization arrci
Park, C. L. (2005). Ilcligion and rncilrlilrg. in I{. }"'. IhloLitzjan & C. L. I'].rli.: (i:ci:;.),

Hardbooko.f the psycltologrl of rt'li';ittttutLls1tirituLilitit(pp.295 31-1).\cu'rtxk,

NY: (ltrilford I'r'css.
:.,,:r. lrr \1. Fl. Bolrrstein (hd.), Ilnrttlbool;
I)nrtcs, A., & I(r.rnrbar-rt, It.G. (2006). Iutitigrutitt Aiiroitu: 1't Li1yii'11ii. licr']..r,ici;
I-''-295). \clv Ycxk, ^\Y: lior-rtlcdee.
CA: Urrivcrsitl, of California Pre-ss.
,.i.'it,iis t'rl)o iL'ttcr. Carnbtidgc, \'Ir\:
I{curtcrtrs,M.,&Ucckcr;J.(2011). Prennritnl serirt-t\nu'rico:IloiuilLtrutl,,'\iir,'iictur.
nrt'ci, tutrtc, uittl lltittk tboul narrtlin:;. \cu, Yrxk, \Y: Oxlixd L,nivclsity i)l'css,
: ::',r lalrqllagc of thc \lusliI-ns---that's
Rochlkcpartair, E. C., & Piitel, E. (2006). Conclcg.rticxrs: l,ncx.'rr.ninccl cinciblc".
.:::rq iarrguagc alrd l'cligior.rs identitl'
fol spiritr,ral dcvclopr-ncnt. hr E. C. Iloehlkepartain, i). }l. Kine, L. i,\,rr;c:rcr;
, :',: Blitish-born South z\sians. lv{ctriril
--l & P. 1.. Bcnson (Irds.),-fltt ltortdltook o.f -;itirittrLrl rlLi,t,lopttrctrt' iti,:ltiltll:ot:t! Lt;id
^. ioi : 10.1 060/ 1 3674 67()90312720-
o.tlttlcscerrce (pp. 324-336). Thou-sarrd O.rks, CA: Sagc.
1.,.r:'. a> a lcsoLlfcc for positivr-. ),outh 'Iltt
Itogoff, B. (2()03). ctrlturttl 1tolulr oi lliuitntt dci,clc,pirtt'itl. \crv Vrrk, \Y: ()xf<;r't
:,-- .r:.,r-1 nrrrr'.11 ou tcor-u as. D e i) c I op t t I t I I t 0 I
Univcrsity Pless.
:- 1..r-i1-1022.S.1.31
Schiosscr; t.. W. (2003). Chlistiarr privilcgc: l)rcakini; a sacr.cd taboo. /orr;riri1 o/'
':' :ld spiritr:a1ity in irdoicsccnt dcvcl- Multictrllurul Corin-.r'lirrli ntil l)ci)t:l(rytlttitt, .3'i, 'tr-t-i1. r-loi: 10.\)A?"/i.:/..,(r1-
-: : i:s.), I ltltd[;ook cf nlok.cutt ps1cltll- 1912.2003.tb00530.x
\;: \\'ilcr'. Scluvaltz, K. D., Ilukou,ski, W V., & Aol'i, \,V. l. (:0(X;). !lcr,ior:s, 1:r'icnci:,.ruci
Der,cioprncnt of thc faith actir.itics gutus: Pccr and r..onparcrrt irrflrrcrrccs orr spiliiual dcr,ckrprl-r:ni. il I:. C.
'. :; ftttiilV /:stir's, .:i1(1i), 1"1.12 t-lti"l,
I{ochlkcpartain, P. }:. King, L. W.lgcnu; & ['. I-. iJei.rson (i:ds.), ]li,: itLti:rll,r;r;l:
:,..., o.f spiritutl tlctt:loprttcut irr tltilditood uttl Lrtlctb:ccrtci (pp. 31tl-323). Tiro.i:.ind
t i
; 1. i i t i t:?-: t, la p l t L' n t (3rd ct1.). Maht,a h,
Oaks, CA: Sagc.

t,nocrSsI-\(; llLANING 1lillOUGII CULrUliii, CO\rLX1, & SOCr,qr ],OS|rr()\ 235

 Sirin, & Fine, M. (2007). Hyphenated selves: Muslim American youth nego-
S. R.,
tiating identities on the fault lines of global conflict. Applied Deaelopmental
Science , 11 (3), 1.5L-163.
1,4 a
Smith, C. (with Denton, M. L). (2005). SouI searching: The religious and spiritual
liaes of American teenagers. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Nonreligious and Ai
Smith, C. (with Snell, P.). (2009). Souls in transition: The religious and spiritual lioes
of emerging adulfs. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Emerging Adults
Spencer, M. B. (2006). Phenomenologyandecologicalsystems theory:Development
of diverse groups. In W. Damon & R. M. Lemer (Eds.). Handbook of child psy- LUKE W. GALEN
chology: An adoanced textbook (829-893). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Sudrez-Orozco, C., Singh, S., Abo-Zena, M.M., Du, D., & Roeser, R.W. (2011). The
role of religion and religious organizations in the positive youth develop-
ment of immigrant youth. In A. E. A. Warren, R. M. Lerner, & E' Phelps,
(Eds.), Thrizting and spirituality among youth: Research perspectiaes and future Who are the "Nones" and u'hv are
possibilities (pp. 25F288). Hoboken, N|: Wiley. tion and scholarly i.qr.y har-e inc
Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1986). The developmental niche: A conceptualiza- tions for the following reasons. Fir
tion at the interface of child and culture. lnlernational lournal of Behaoioral in the United States (zo%) rvho are
Deaelopntent, 9(4), 545-569. doi 1,0.7177 / 016502548600900409
and this group has the fastest rate o
Tarakeshwar, N., Pargament, K., & Mahoney, A. (2003). Measures of Hindu
pathways: Developmental and preiiminary evidence of reliability and (Kosmin, Keysar, Cragun, & \ava
validity. Cultural Dioersity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9(4), 316-332. those who identify as atheist, agg
doi: 1.0.1.037 / 1.099-9809.9.4.3L6 religious yet unafffiated. Other de
Tarakeshwar, N., Stanton, j., & Pargament, K. I. (2003). Religion: An overlooked ligious are the "spiritual but not re
dimension in cross-cultural p sychology. lournal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
gious inquiries with "don't knorr"
34(4), 377-394. doi: 1'0.7777 / 0022022103253184.
diverse group. Second, this group i
range (the "Millennials") cohort is
with fully one in three religiouslr
zorz). Historically, cohorts har-e shr
cence followed by an increase durir'
r98o); howevel, the current cohort <

affiliated or attend religious sen-icr

same age (Pew Research Center, zo
the substantial number of emergin
pletely nonreligious, unaffiliated. r

doubts. The chapter first describes

aspects of the nonreligious, folior
familial, and social influences that <

A Definitions, Demo$aphic

For both theoretical and practical

typically focused on the effect of

236 vARTATIoNS