Soil Mechanics I

3 – Water in Soils

1. Capillarity, swelling
2. Seepage
3. Measurement of hydraulic conductivity
4. Effective stress in the ground

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 Influence of water - Basics

WATER IN SOIL - affects soil behaviour (e.g., consistency, consistency limits)

Adsorbed water
Mechanisms of water adsorption to clay surfaces: hydrogen bonds, ion
hydration, osmosis, dipole attraction...
The effects neglected in the basic SM

'Free' water
Effect of gravity - effective stress, capillarity, seepage

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 Influence of water - Basics

WATER IN SOILS

[2]

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 Influence of water - Basics

Shrinking
w > wS – saturated soil (?)
Suppose the Terzaghi principle of effective stresses valid and u < 0:
for hC= 50 m → u = - 500 kPa → σ' = 500 kPa (+ σ)

Swelling
Due to
mineralogy (smectites)
partial saturation
unloading
Disintegration of “cohesive” soil on submerging in water
elimination of capillary forces
elimination of cementation

Capillarity

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 Influence of water - Basics

GT Practice – the role of water

Hydrostatic pressure
basis for computing effective stresses (only with no seepage, i.e. no
hydraulic gradients)
Steady state seepage
the pore pressure is generally different from the hydrostatic pressure
the pressure heads does not have to correspond to phreatic water table
Laplace equation – a flow net
Consolidation
dissipation of excess pore pressures

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 Steady Flow – Darcy's Law

Steady flow – H. DARCY (1856)

q=Aki

q = flow quantity (volume per time

unit)
i = hydraulic gradient i = - Δh/Δx

v=ki

k = hydraulic conductivity
(coefficient of permeability;
coefficient of filtration)
v = seepage velocity

Real velocity vreal = q / (n A) = v / n

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 Steady Flow – Darcy's Law

Permeability Κ: a property of the porous medium, independent of the

permeating fluid

Κ=kμ/γ [m2]

Κ = permeability
k = hydraulic conductivity, i.e. coefficient of Darcy's law
μ = dynamic viscosity [N×s×m-2]
(μ =kinematic viscosity × ρ)
γ = unit weight of permeating fluid

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 Steady Flow – Darcy's Law

Re = v def ρw / μ Initial gradient

v = seepage velocity
μ = dynamic viscosity [N×s×m-2]

Change from laminar to turbulent

flow at critical velocity
vcr = Re cr μ /(ρw def)

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 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity (≡ filtration coefficient ≡

coefficient of permeability)
Constant Head Permeameter

Q = A v t; Q = volume of water; v = discharge velocity;

t = time
v=ki=kh/L
k = Q L / (h A t)

At low permeability (h. conductivity: k < 10-6 ms-1), the

device cannot be used – insufficient readability /
accuracy
→ the set-up needs to be refined:
closed system for discharge water, or
triaxial apparatus / flexible wall permeameter
(+avoiding preferential flow at the rigid wall)

Another alternative – Falling Head Permeameter

(accuracy not good though)
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 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity (≡ filtration coefficient

≡ coefficient of permeability)
Falling Head Permeameter

q in = - a dh/dt
q out =Aki
q in = q out

- a dh/dt = Akh/L
- a ∫dh / h = k A / L ∫ dt
- a (ln h2 – ln h1)= k A (t2-t1) / L
a (ln h1 – ln h2) = k A (t2-t1) / L

k = a L ln(h1/h2) / (A Δt)

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 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity – Lab Class

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 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity (≡ filtration coefficient ≡ permeability coefficient)

In situ
For example

[ → k = q / (2π D H) ln(R / r) ]

Indirect determination

For example FOR SANDS: Hazen k [ms-1] = 0,01D102 [mm]

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 Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity

Typical values

Gravel 10-1 to 10-3 ms-1

Sand 10-2 to 10-4 ms-1
Fine Sand 10-5 ms-1
Silt 10-6 ms-1
Sandy Loam 10-6 to 10-8 ms-1
Clay <10-8 ms-1

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 Seepage

Equation for Seepage

isotropy: kx=ky=kz

Δh = 0

δ2h / δx2 + δ2h / δy2 + δ2h / δz2 = 0

Hydraulic head does not have to correspond with the phreatic surface ← seepage

.....the actual height in the piezometer ← definition of equipotential lines

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 Seepage

A flow net in 2D
saturated soil, GWT at the surface, steady percolation

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 Seepage

A flow net in 2D
(long dam / embankment)

Hydraulic head does not have to correspond with the phreatic surface ← seepage

.....the actual height in the piezometer ← definition of equipotential lines

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 Seepage

Influence of seeping water on soil

grains: Seepage Forces - DRAG

v=ki
Loss of hydraulic head due to drag effect of
water

Δp = γw Δh
Δ S = Δp × area = γw Δh Δy Δz =
= γw Δh Δy Δz Δx/Δx =
= γw i (Δx Δy Δz) =
= γw i ΔV
Force acting on the soil skeleton: S = γw i V
Force acting on the soil skeleton in the unit
volume: p = γw i

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 Seepage

Influence of seeping water on soil

grains: Seepage Forces - DRAG

Bernoulli equation:
γw (z + u/γw + v2/(2g) + hs) = const
v2/(2g) can be neglected (v small)

Loss of energy between two cross section

(distance s):
ΔE = γw Δhs = (z2 +u2/γw - (z1 +u1/γw))
ΔE / Δs = γw Δhs / Δs = γw i

The loss of energy: p = γw i

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 Seepage

Flow net

[1])

Boundary conditions:
(constant) water levels = equipotentials (GA; CF)
impermeable boundaries = flow lines (AB; BC; DE; detto axis of symmetry EF)

Upward seepage → possibility of hydraulic failure - „boiling sand“; „piping“

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 Seepage

hcr ... critical height, i.e. height at liquefaction

neglecting friction on sides; cross section area A

thrust = water pressure on A: u A= hcr γw A
equilibrium:
hcr γw A = A z γsat ( γsat ≡ γ)
hcr = z γ / γw
icr = (hcr – z) / z = (z γ / γw – z) / z = γ / γw – 1 = (γ - γw)/γw
icr = (γ – γw) / γw

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 Seepage

What is the necessary embedment depth t of the sheet

pile wall?

icr = (γ – γw) / γw
icr ≈ 1

i= (H + h) / (h + t + t) < 1 = icr

H<2t

t >½H

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 Capillarity

Capillary height hC
Downward Force: W= ρwg V = ρwg hC π d2 / 4
Upward Force: π d T cosα
“surface tension of water” T = 7×10-5kNm-1

Equilibrium:
ρw g hC π d2 / 4 = π d T cosα

hC = 4 T cosα / (ρw g d)

clean water vs glass → α = 0

hC = 4 T / (ρw g d) = 4 T / ( γw d)

hC [m] ≈ 3×10-5 / (d [m]) [m]

For example: d = 1μm → hC = 30m

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 Capillarity

Capillary height hC
depends on PORE SIZE

Theoretical values for soils

(α = 0 a capillary tube of constant diameter d)
silt d ≈ 1mm → hC = 30 mm
fine silt d ≈ 1μm → hC = 30 m
clay d ≈ 10nm →hC = 3 km

Realistic values for soils

sand hC = 0,03 – 0,1 m
loamy sand hC = 0,5 – 2 m
loam (silt) hC = 2 – 5 ( – 10) m
clay hC = tens of metres

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 Capillarity

In Capillary Fringe – soils is saturated

Principle of effective stress is valid, u < 0
hC= 50 m → u = - 500 kPa → σ' = σ + 500 kPa

Unsaturated Zone
Three Phase Medium – Terzaghi's principle of
effective stress NOT VALID

ua- uw= T (1/rm-1/r) ”capillary suction”

r is the radius of meniscus

Bishop:
u = Χ uw+ (1 - Χ) ua
σ' = σ – (Χ uw+ (1 - Χ) ua)
σ' = σ – ua + Χ (ua - uw)
Χ function of S, way of loading...
Very approximate assumption: Χ=Sr

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 Capillarity – Lab Class

Capillary water in sand – unconfined compression

of wet sand
Assumed: Bishop's Effective Stress
σ' = σ – (Χ uw+(1-Χ) ua)
“Pore Pressure” u = Χ uw+ (1 - Χ) ua
for Χ = S
u = S uw+ (1 - S) ua
If the air phase continuous (at w = 0.1 may
be) then capillary suction
s = ua- uw= - uw
→ u = - S uw
Procedure:
M.C. for total stress
Failure envelope
M.C. for effective stress
→pore pressure in the sand castle
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 Capillarity – Lab Class

Sand without capillary water (dry or saturated)

Angle of repose:

continuous slope failure – ideal plasticity

“critical state”
→ τmax = σ' tg φcr'
Equilibrium:
T = W sin α = τmax × 1 = W cos α × tg φcr
→ tg α = tg φcr
→ α = φcr

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 Effective vertical stress in the ground

● σv = ∑ (hi γi)

● u = hwγw = (z - zw) γw

● σv' = σv – u = ∑(hi γi) – hwγw

● detto for increments

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 Effective vertical stress in the ground

Δσv' = Δσv – Δu

Δσv >0
Δu = 0 (drained event)
Δσv' = Δσv >0

→ increase in effective stress

→ deformation
→ settlement under loaded area

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 Effective vertical stress in the ground

Δσv' = Δσv – Δu

Lowering of GWT – increase of effective

stress:

before: 1u = hw γw 1
σv = h γsat
after: 2
u=(hw-Δhw) γw 1
σv = h γsat
(soil remains saturated - capillarity)

Δu = 2u – 1u = - Δhw γw
Δσv =0
Δσv' = - Δu > 0
→ increase of effective stress
→ deformation
→ settlement on lowering GWT

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 Effective vertical stress in the ground

← increase in effective stress

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 Effective vertical stress in the ground

σ = 18 × 1 = 18 kPa
u = 10 × 1 = 10 kPa
σ' = 18 – 10 = 8 kPa

σ = 18 × 1 = 18 kPa
u = 10 × 0,5 = 5 kPa
σ' = 18 – 5 = 13 kPa

σ = 18 × 1 + 10 × 100 = 1018 kPa

u = 10 × 101 = 1010 kPa
σ' = 1018 – 1010 = 8 kPa

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 Literature for the course Soil Mechanics I

http://labmz1.natur.cuni.cz/~bhc/s/sm1/

Atkinson, J.H. (2007) The mechanics of soils and foundations. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis.

Further reading:
Wood, D.M. (1990) Soil behaviour and critical state soil mechanics. Cambridge
Univ.Press.
Mitchell, J.K. and Soga, K (2005) Fundamentals of soil behaviour. J Wiley.
Atkinson, J.H: and Bransby, P.L. (1978) The mechanics of soils. McGraw-Hill, ISBN
0-07-084077-2.
Bolton, M. (1979) A guide to soil mechanics. Macmillan Press, ISBN 0-33318931-0.
Craig, R.F. (2004) Soil mechanics. Spon Press.
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, E.D. (1981) An introduction to geotechnical engineering,
Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-484394-0
Feda, J. (1982) Mechanics of particulate materials, Academia-Elsevier.)

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 References – used figures etc.

[1] Atkinson, J.H. (2007) The mechanics of soils and foundations. 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis.
[2] Santamarina, J (2003) in Mitchel, J.K. and Soga, K (2005) Fundamentals of soil behaviour

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