Module 2

FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

(Immediate Application of the Energy Equation)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
• Apply the basic principles of the energy theorem of Bernoulli’s in the fluid
measuring instruments like Venturi meter, Nozzle and Pitot tube.

OVERVIEW
Problems concerning the use of instrument in the measurement and control of fluid are
often encountered in industrial and research work. In this topic, the basic principles of
fluid measurement using the energy theorem of Bernoulli’s as the base equation will be
indicated.. Discussion will be confined to the more common hydraulic instruments
utilized in the measurement and control of fluid flow in closed conduit and open channel
namely, the Venturi meter, Nozzle and Pitot tube.

COURSE MATERIALS
The common hydraulic instruments used in the measurement and control of fluid flow
are
1. Venturi meter
2. Nozzle
3. Pitot tube

1.0 VENTURI-METER

V12/ 2g
V22/2g
P1 / 
P2 / 
(1) V1
(2)
Inlet V2
Z1 Throat Z2

Datum Plane

Figure . Venturi meter

In 1881, American engineer Clemens Herschel invented the Venturi meter, which
was named by him in honor of an early Italian hydraulician, Venturi. It is a device
usually installed across a pipe line for the purpose of measuring the quantity of
fluid flowing in the line or discharge.
 The parts of a Venturi meter are : (1) a converging section or inlet section in the
shape of a frustrum of a cone, (2) a short section of uniform diameter known as the
throat, and (3) a diverging or outlet section having a shape similar to that of the inlet
section. To maximize frictional losses in the meter, the angle of divergence of the
outlet section is limited to about 60.

Consider sections (1) and (2) which are the base of the inlet section and the throat,
respectively. Neglecting frictional losses, we write the energy equation between
these sections,
𝑉12 𝑝 𝑉2 𝑝
+ 1 + 𝑍1 = 2 + 2 + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

In which 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are the mean velocities at sections (1) and (2), respectively. If
𝑍1 = 𝑍2 , thus reducing the equation to

𝑉22 𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑝2
- = -
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

In the equation the left side represents the increase in the kinetic energy per unit
weight from section (1) to section (2), while the right side gives the corresponding
decrease in the potential (or pressure) energy per unit weight. This is known as the
Venturi principle.

Venturi principle states that ” the increase in the kinetic energy per unit weight
is equal to the decrease in the potential energy per unit weight”.

2. NOZZLE

tip v2
base (2)

v1
(1)
Z2

Z1

Datum Plane

Figure. Nozzle

A nozzle is a converging tube attached to the end of a pipe or hose and is used in
engineering practice for the creation of jets and streams for a variety of purposes as
well as for metering.
It may be used, in particular, to provide a high velocity stream for fire fighting, or
for measuring the flow of fluid in the pipe or hose into which it is connected.
Ordinarily, a nozzle is in the shape of frustrum of a cone similar to that of the
converging section of the Venturi meter.
The energy theorem of Bernoulli between the nozzle’s base and the tip, considering
the mean velocities at sections (1) and (2), and assuming no frictional losses is

𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑉22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
 Assuming that 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 and 𝑝2 is taken is atmospheric, then

𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑉22
+ =
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

The mean velocity 𝑉1 may be expressed an terms of 𝑉2 with the use of continuity
equation 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 . The value of 𝑉2 from the above equation is the theoretical
velocity of the jet and this is corrected by a correction factor called the “coefficient of
velocity”, 𝐶𝑣 , or the actual velocity is

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝑡

𝑉12 𝑝1
Where 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉2 = √2𝑔 ( + ) or √2𝑔 𝐻 in which
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑉12 𝑝1
𝐻= + . Actual velocity may now be written as
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔 𝐻

The actual flow may be computed as

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐴2 𝑉𝑎 or 𝐶𝑣 𝐴2 √2𝑔 𝐻

2.1 Head Loss in a Nozzle

If frictional losses are eliminated, the total energy per unit of weight at the base of
𝑉12 𝑝
the nozzle , that is + 1 , will exactly be the same as the total energy per unit
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑉22
weight in the issuing jet, that is . Actually, there is a loss of head between these
2𝑔
points and this is obtained by considering the actual condition at the tip, that is

(Initial Head)1 – (Actual Head)2 = Head Loss

𝑉2 𝑝 𝑉2 𝑉𝑎2
or 𝐻𝑁 = (2𝑔1 + 𝛾1) − 2𝑔𝑎 = 𝐻 -
2𝑔

1 𝑉𝑎2
𝐻𝑁 = (
𝐶𝑣 2 − 1) 2𝑔

3. PITOT TUBE

A tube with circular cross section bent in the shape of a L , as in the Figure, with
both end open was first used by the French scientist, Henri Pitot, in 1732 for
measuring the velocity of liquids in on open flow. The tube is appropriately
called Pitot tube.
If the tube is placed in a moving stream in such a way that the horizontal
diverging part points against the direction of the motion, the liquid enters the
opening at point (2) and fills the tube until the vertical part is filled up to a height of
h2. As long as the steady flow condition is maintained in the moving stream , the
contained volume inside the tube will remain constant and static equilibrium is
established within the tube. So, if point (2) in Figure represents a particle of liquid
inside the tip of the tube, the velocity V2 = 0 and the pressure at this point is known
as the stagnation pressure, will have a value of 𝑝2 = 𝛾ℎ2 .
 Figure. Pitot tube

As a particle moves from point (1) to point (2), its velocity V1 decreases until it
becomes zero upon reaching the stagnation point, point (2). For a pathline
connecting (1) and (2), the energy equation, with frictional losses eliminated is

𝑉12 𝑝1 𝑝2
+ =
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

𝑝1 𝑝2
In which = ℎ1 and = ℎ2 . Considering ℎ2 -ℎ1 .= ℎ, the above equation is
𝛾 𝛾
reduced to
𝑉12
=ℎ
2𝑔

Or the velocity at the upstream point (1) is

𝑉1 = √2𝑔 ℎ