Ec8004 - WN

SUBJECT CODE : EC8004
Strictly as per Revised Syllabus of

Anna University
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
Semester - VI (ECE) Elective - II
Wireless Networks
V. Jeyasri Arokiamary
M.E., PGDBA, MISTE,
Formerly Associate Professor, Department of ECE,
Kumaraguru College of Technology,
Coimbatore - 641 006.
Tamilnadu
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SINCE 1993 An Up-Thrust for Knowledge
(i)
Wireless Networks
Subject Code : EC8004
Semester - VI (Electronics & Communication Engineering) Elective - II
First Edition : January 2020
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Preface
The importance of Wireless Networks is well known in various engineering fields.
Overwhelming response to my books on various subjects inspired me to write this book.
The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Wireless Networks.
The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The
book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise
methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary
illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the book are
arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All
care has been taken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts
of the subject.
The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy
of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it
more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the
subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing
more.
I wish to express my profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a
reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous
occasions by my whole family. I wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of
Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with
quality printing.
Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well
appreciated.
Author
Dedicated at the Lord Jesus Christ
(iii)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
What shall I render to the LORD for all his benefits towards me ? I will take up the
cup of salvation and call upon the name of the LORD.
PSALM : 116 : 12, 13.
I am grateful to the Lord Jesus Christ for strengthing me to write this book.
I wish to thank my husband D. Anthony and loving son Richie Immanual for their
patience and understanding while writing this tenth book.
I also thank the Publishers, and the staff team of Technical Publications for
bringing out this book with quality printing.
Finally I thank all the readers who are very much supportive of my books.
Author
Dedicated to the Lord Jesus Christ.
(iv)
Syllabus
Wireless Networks (EC8004)
UNIT I WIRELESS LAN
Introduction-WLAN technologies: - IEEE802.11: System architecture, protocol architecture,
802.11b, 802.11a – Hiper LAN: WATM, BRAN, HiperLAN2 – Bluetooth: Architecture, WPAN – IEEE
802.15.4, Wireless USB, Zigbee, 6LoWPAN, WirelessHART
UNIT II MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Introduction - Mobile IP : IP packet delivery, Agent discovery, tunneling and encapsulation,
IPV6-Network layer in the internet - Mobile IP session initiation protocol - mobile ad-hoc
network: Routing: Destination Sequence distance vector, IoT : CoAP
UNIT III 3G OVERVIEW

Overview of UMTS Terrestrial Radio access network-UMTS Core network Architecture: 3GPP
Architecture, User equipment, CDMA2000 overview- Radio and Network components, Network
structure, Radio Network, TD-CDMA, TD – SCDMA.
UNIT IV INTERNETWORKING BETWEEN WLANS AND WWANS

Internetworking objectives and requirements, Schemes to connect WLANS and 3G Networks,
Session Mobility, Internetworking Architecture for WLAN and GPRS, System Description, Local
Multipoint Distribution Service, Multichannel Multipoint Distribution System.
UNIT V 4G & BEYOND

Introduction – 4G vision – 4G features and challenges - Applications of 4G – 4G Technologies:
Multicarrier Modulation, Smart antenna techniques, IMS Architecture, LTE, Advanced
Broadband Wireless Access and Services, MVNO.
(iv)
Table of Contents
Unit - I Wireless LAN
Chapter - 1 Wireless LAN (1 - 1) to (1 - 46)

1.1 Introduction to Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) ....................................1 - 2
1.1.1 Applications of WLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 2
1.2 Wireless LAN (WLAN) Technologies ..................................................................1 - 3

1.2.1 Infrared LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 4
1.2.2 Spread Spectrum LANS (SS-LAN's) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 4
1.2.3 Narrow Band LAN's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 5
1.3 Introduction to 802.11 Standard .......................................................................1 - 5

1.3.1 802.11 Standard-Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 6
1.3.2 Architecture of IEEE 802.11 and MAC Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 8
1.3.3 Sequence Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 10
1.3.4 802.11 Standard-Security Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 11
1.3.4.1 Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 12
1.3.4.2 Procedure of Shared Key Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 12
1.3.4.3 Deauthentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 13
1.4 Types................................................................................................................1 - 13
1.4.1 802.11a Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 13
1.4.2 802.11b Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 14
1.5 IEEE 802.11 Standard for WLAN ......................................................................1 - 15

1.5.1 IEEE 802.11e Wireless LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 16
1.6 HIPERLAN.........................................................................................................1 - 18
1.6.1 OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 23
1.7 WATM..............................................................................................................1 - 25
1.7.1 Services of WATM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 25
1.7.2 Generic Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 25
(v)
1.7.3 Handover Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 26
1.7.4 Location Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 26
1.7.5 Mobility - Quality of Service (QoS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 27
1.8 BRAN................................................................................................................1 - 27
1.9 Hiper LAN2 - Bluetooth....................................................................................1 - 28
1.9.1 Bluetooth Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 28
1.9.1.1 Vertical Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 29
1.9.1.2 Dipole Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 29

1.9.2 Antenna Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 29
1.9.2.1 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 29
1.9.2.2 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 29
1.9.2.3 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 30
1.9.2.4 Return Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 30
1.9.2.5 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 30
1.9.2.6 Bluetooth Device Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 30

1.9.3 Point-to-Point Connection (P2P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 31
1.9.4 Scatternet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 31
1.9.5 Bluetooth Connectionmode Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 32
1.9.6 Bluetooth Protocol Stack Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 33
1.9.7 Some of the Advantages of Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 34
1.9.8 Three Classes of Bluetooth Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 34
1.9.9 Bluetooth MAC-Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 35
1.9.10 Topology of Bluetooth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 35
1.9.11 Frame Format in Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 36
1.9.12 Connection Management in Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 36
1.9.13 Comparison of Wireless LAN and Bluetooth Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 37
1.10 WPAN ............................................................................................................1 - 38

1.11 Wireless USB (WUSB) ....................................................................................1 - 38
1.12 IEEE 802.15.4 .................................................................................................1 - 39
1.13 Zigbee ............................................................................................................1 - 39
(vi)
1.14 6LoWPAN.......................................................................................................1 - 40
1.15 Wireless HART ...............................................................................................1 - 42
University Questions with Answers .................................................................1 - 44
Unit - II Mobile Network Layer
Chapter - 2 Mobile Network Layer (2 - 1) to (2 - 32)

2.1 Mobile IP............................................................................................................2 - 2
2.2 Goals and Requirements of Mobile IP ...............................................................2 - 2
2.2.1 Terminologies related to Mobile IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 3
2.3 Agent Discovery in Mobile IP.............................................................................2 - 4

2.4 IP-in-IP Encapsulation ........................................................................................2 - 7
2.5 IP Packet Delivery ..............................................................................................2 - 9
2.6 IPv6 ..................................................................................................................2 - 10
2.6.1 IPv6 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 11
2.6.2 Mobility Support for IPv6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 11
2.6.3 IPv6 Packet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 12
2.7 Entities and Terminologies ..............................................................................2 - 13

2.7.1 Mobile IP Schematic Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 14
2.8 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP).......................................................................2 - 17

2.9 Mobile Ad-hoc Network ..................................................................................2 - 18
2.9.1 Characteristics of Ad-hoc Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 19
2.9.2 Overview of MANET's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 20
2.10 Routing ..........................................................................................................2 - 23

2.10.1 MANET Vs Traditional Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 24
2.10.2 Types of MANET Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 24
2.10.3 Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 24
2.10.4 IoT : CoAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 26
2.11 Comparison of Cellular and Adhoc Networks................................................2 - 27
(vii)
Unit - III 3G Overview
Chapter - 3 3G Overview (3 - 1) to (3 - 28)

3.1 Overview of UMTS .............................................................................................3 - 2
3.2 Basic Block Diagram...........................................................................................3 - 2
3.2.1 UTRA - TDD Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 3
3.3 Air Interface Protocol Structure of UMTS..........................................................3 - 4
3.4 UMTS Core Network Architecture ...................................................................3 - 11
3.4.1 3G-MSC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 12
3.4.1.1 Mobility Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 12
3.4.1.2 Call Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14

3.4.2 3G-SGSN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14
3.4.3 3G-GGSN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 15
3.5 Third Generation (3G) Standards and Networks .............................................3 - 16

3.5.1 Cdma 2000 - 3G System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.5.1.1 Different Physical Channels in Cdma 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 21
3.5.1.2 Data Link Control Layer (DLC) Issues - cdma 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 24

3.6 UTRA-TDD (TD-CDMA).....................................................................................3 - 24
3.6.1 UTRA-TDD (DT-CDMA) - Frame Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 25
3.7 TD-SCDMA .......................................................................................................3 - 25

Unit - IV Internetworking between WLANS and WWANS
Chapter - 4 Internetworking between WLANS and WWANS

(4 - 1) to (4 - 12)
4.1 Internetworking Objectives and Requirements.................................................4 - 2
4.1.1 Interworking Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 2
4.1.2 Requirements for Interworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 2
4.2 Schemes to Connect WLANs and 3G Networks.................................................4 - 2

4.2.1 Advantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 3
(viii)
4.2.2 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 3
4.3 Session Mobility.................................................................................................4 - 3

4.4 Internetworking Architectures for WLAN and GPRS .........................................4 - 3
4.4.1 Challenges in Internetworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 4
4.4.2 A Simple Architecture for Internetworking of UMTS/GPRS Networks

with 802.11WLANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 4
4.4.2.1 Types of Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 6
4.5 Local Multipoint Distribution System [LMDS] ...................................................4 - 8
4.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 8
4.5.2 Advantages of LMDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 8
4.5.3 LMDS and DVB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 8
4.6 Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service [MMDS]....................................4- 10

University Question with Answer ....................................................................4 - 11
Unit - V 4G & Beyond
Chapter - 5 4G and Beyond (5 - 1) to (5 - 22)

5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................5 - 2
5.2 4G Vision............................................................................................................5 - 3
5.3 Comparison of 4G and 3G..................................................................................5 - 4
5.4 4G Features and Challenges .............................................................................5 - 4
5.4.1 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 4
5.4.2 4G Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 5
5.5 Applications of 4G..............................................................................................5 - 7
5.6 4G Technologies ................................................................................................5 - 9
5.6.1 Multicarrier Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 9
5.6.2 Smart Antenna Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 11
5.6.3 IMS Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 14
5.7 LTE ...................................................................................................................5 - 18

5.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 18
5.7.2 LTE / SAE Core Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 18
(ix)
5.8 Advanced Broadband Wireless Access and Services .......................................5 - 20
5.9 Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO) .....................................................5 - 21
Appendix - A Extra Long and Two Marks Questions with Answers
(A - 1) to (A - 16)
Appendix - B Solved Problems (B - 1) to (B - 14)
Appendix - C Mathematical Functions (C - 1) to (C - 18)
Solved Question Papers of AU (S - 1) to (S - 14)

May-2017 ................................................................................................(S - 1) to (S - 2)
Dec.-2017 ...............................................................................................(S - 3) to (S - 4)
May-2018 ................................................................................................(S - 5) to (S - 6)
Dec.-2018 ...............................................................................................(S - 7) to (S - 8)
May-2019..............................................................................................(S - 9) to (S - 10)
Solved Model Paper 1 ...................................................................(S - 11) to (S - 12)
Solved Model Paper 2 ...................................................................(S - 13) to (S - 14)
(x)
Unit
Wireless LAN
I
Syllabus
Introduction - WLAN technologies : - IEEE802.11: System architecture, protocol architecture,
802.11b, 802.11a – Hiper LAN: WATM, BRAN, HiperLAN2 – Bluetooth: Architecture, WPAN-IEEE
802.15.4, Wireless USB, Zigbee, 6LoWPAN, Wireless HART
Contents
1.1 Introduction to Wireless Local Area Networks [WLAN] ...May-18, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · Marks 5
1.2 Wireless LAN (WLAN) Technologies . . . . . . . . . May-17, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 8
1.3 Introduction to 802.11 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . May-17, 18, 19, Dec.-17, 18 · · · Marks 16
1.4 Types
1.5 IEEE 802.11 Standard for WLAN
1.6 HIPERLAN
1.7 WATM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May-19 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 2
1.8 BRAN
1.9 Hiper LAN2 - Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 17, 18, Dec. - 17· · · · · · · Marks 16
1.10 WPAN
1.11 Wireless USB (WUSB)
1.12 IEEE 802.15.4
1.13 Zigbee
1.14 6LoWPAN
1.15 Wireless HART
(1 - 1)
Wireless Networks 1-2 Wireless LAN
1.1 Introduction to Wireless Local Area Networks [WLAN]

AU : May-18, Dec.-18
The wireless local area network (WLAN) is a technology developed for wideband
local accesses. The coverage area is upto 100 meters WLAN enables data related LAN
functioning. WLAN is generally restricted to a campus, office building or a room and
not operated by very large network owners. WLAN has a goal to achieve flexible ad
hoc communications.
The attractive features of WLAN are :
1. Design is simple.
2. Flexible radio coverage.
3. Robust in nature.
4. Quality of service (QoS) is good.
5. Has slow standardization and proprietary solutions grows higher.
6. Security.
7. Safety.
There are many design goals for developing WLAN as a competing technology :
It should provide ;
1. Low power.
2. Global operation (acceptance).
3. Robustness.
4. Simplicity in real time functioning.
5. Transparency.
6. Flexible with other networks.
Main standards of WLAN are :
1) IEEE 802.11. 2) HIPERLAN.
1.1.1 Applications of WLAN
· Wireless LAN’s are useful for network management by reducing the cost of LAN
ownerships.
· Network managers implement wireless LAN's to enable backups for meeting
critical applications.
· Applications like car rental services provide faster service with real time customer
related information input and retrieval of the same.
· Wireless LAN’s provide reduced cost of deployment.
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

· Scalability is simple under wireless LAN's. Since it can be configured in a variety

of topologies.
· Productivity is increased by usage of WLAN's.
· Warehouse workers use these wireless LAN's for exchange of information with
the central database hence the efficiency of the entire system is greatly enhanced.
1.2 Wireless LAN (WLAN) Technologies AU : May-17, Dec.-18
Wireless LAN technology can be classified into three groups as given below.
Classification
(Example)
(1) (2) (3)
Infrared W-LAN Spread spectrum Narrowband

(IR-LAN) W-LAN W-LAN
Server
hp
Application protocol
Mobile
station
LLC RELAY
802.11 MAC 802.11 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC
802.11 PHY 802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802.3 PHY
(a) Practical implementation block diagram of 802.11 standard
LLC
Data link
management
layer MAC
MAC
Station
(DLL) management
PLCP
Physical PHY
layer management
(PHY) PMD
(b) Protocol stack entities for IEEE 802.11 standard
Fig. 1.2.1
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1.2.1 Infrared LAN
This method is restricted to range, as it is Line of Sight (LoS) dependent technique.

But this LAN can produce higher data rates. It is best suited for LAN configurations. It
also has better security and minimum interference problems.
It is economical to implement Infrared LAN schemes. Infrared LAN has few
demerits like power consumption and high radiations inside room environment.
There are mainly three different alternative methods used in infrared data
transmission and reception.
They are
i) Directed beam Infrared ii) Omnidirectional. iii) Diffused technique.
In 'directed beam IR' point-to-point links are possible. Here the range can be
extended ever to kilometers. It is not restricted only to indoor wireless LANs.
In omnidirectional type of configuration there is one base station which is in LOS of
all the other stations in the WLAN. This main base station (BS) acts as multiport
repeater and it is usually mounted on ceiling. The BS transmits an omnidirectional signal
and it is received by the IR transceiver setup. In turn they transmit the 'directional beam'
towards BS and the operation continues.
In 'diffused' scheme of configuration, IR transmitters are mainly focussed at a point
that is for example a ‘diffusely’ reflecting ceiling in this case. The infrared radiations that
are hitting the ceiling are reradiated and it is received by all the receivers since they are
reradiated in omnidirection fashion.
1.2.2 Spread Spectrum LANS (SS-LAN's)
In wireless LAN
technology SS-LAN is a better UM f2 UM
method where interference
CM
problems are highly reduced. Frequency
UM (f1) UM UM UM UM f3 UM
Many cells (for example) may
overlap with other with same CM CM
centre frequencies but by UM UM UM UM
using SS techniques
interferences are reduced.
Ethernet
For example, in multiple switch (ES)
hp
Router
WLAN, in each cell there are or bridge
control module (CM) and
Fig. 1.2.2 Multiple cell WLAN using hub topology
user modules (UM). The
wireless LAN's are linked to backbone by using routers/bridges functionalities which are
TM

done by control module. It acts as an interface. Each CM has its own range of
transmission. Within each cell a hub or peer to peer topology may be used. In the above
hub topology, WLAN hub can be kept (mounted) on the ceiling and it is connected to
that of the WLAN. It is possible to have automatic hand off of mobile stations by such
WLAN hub topologies. On the other hand in a peer to peer configuration there will be
no hub and a MAC algorithm can be applied for control mechanisms.
This is well suited in ad hoc type of LAN's. The SS-WLAN’s are limited to data
rates of 1-3 Mbps.
1.2.3 Narrow Band LAN's
An example for this narrow band LAN's are narrow band microwave LAN’s where
a narrow band of microwave frequency is used for communication. They are two
categories commonly used. They are licensed narrow band RF and unlicensed narrow
band RF. A dynamic relay function in LAN is made possible by which every station acts
like a repeater to drag data/message between stations if they are out of range. This is
done in narrow band WLAN.
1.3 Introduction to 802.11 Standard AU : May-17, 18, 19, Dec.-17, 18
The 802.11 IEEE standard is very popular today because of its low cost and easy
deployment. The 802.11a and 802.11b standards are discussed in this chapter. The future
of the standard will rely on 802.11e which gives provision for hybrid co-ordination
function, that is two medium access mechanisms (MAC). They are controlled channel
access and contention based channel access. The electronic hardware IEEE 802.11 based
WLAN is applied in different categories as given below.
1. Residential areas.
2. Airports.
3. Apartments.
4. Classrooms etc.
While the ability or efficiency of the network is increased the quality of service (QoS)
is continuously ensured.
This standard operates at either 2.4 GHz frequency for industrial area. Scientific and
medical band (ISM band) or the 5 GHz unlicensed national information infrastructure
(UNI) band. A common radio channel can be shared and the procedures required for
802.11 standard is defined by medium access control layer (MAC). This standard
supports both ad hoc and infrastructure mode.
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Priority status User Priority in 802.11 D Access category Informative

designation
Lowest 1 AC [0] Background
2 AC [0] Background
0 AC [1] Best effort
3 AC [1] Video
4 AC [2] Video
5 AC [2] Video
Highest 6 AC [3] Video
Table 1.3.1 A mapping between the user priorities in 802.11D and
the access categories in 802.11E standards
1.3.1 802.11 Standard-Architecture
In the year 1987 the analysis of wireless local area network (wireless LAN) began
with the IEEE 802 standard. In particular the IEEE 802.11 standard was dedicated for the
development of wireless LAN operation. The medium access protocol called as MAC
EEE 802.X-LAN Extended Service

Set (ESS)
Portal
Distribution System
(DS)
AP
Basic STA 1
Service Set AP
STA 5
STA 2
STA 4
STA 3
STA 6 STA 7 Basic
service set
AP - ACCESS POINT.
STA - STATION.
DS - DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM.
ESS - EXTENDED SERVICE SET.
Fig. 1.3.1 Architecture of IEEE 802.11 standard

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protocol is widely related to this standard. In a way the 802.11 standard is somewhat
similar to Ethernet, and it also adapts Ethernet technology to serve the wireless world.
The important components of IEEE 802.11 standard are listed as four groups. They
are wireless medium, Access points, distribution system and the corresponding station.
These four groups will be dealt later in this chapter.
The architecture of IEEE 802.11 standard is given below. The building block of a
wireless LAN is a basic service set (BSS). It uses the MAC protocol to access the wireless
medium.
Each station in the entire system belongs to a particular BSS, and their association is
dynamic. The two or more services are interconnected through a distribution system
known as DS. The extended service set (ESS) will usually consist of two or more basic
service sets. The ESS is like one logical LAN to the logical link control (LLC) level.
Whenever an access to the distribution system from station is required the logic access
point AP enables to establish connectivity between station and distribution system.
Similarly to integrate the wired local area network and 802.11 standard a portal is used.
It is nothing but a logic implemented in a device like router or bridge, which is a part
of the wired LAN and it can be attached to the distribution system.
The entire family of this IEEE 802.11 standard in connection to the open system
(OSI) model will ease the understanding of the underlaying concept of it.
The IEEE 802 family mainly deals with the physical layer and data link layer of OSI
model as depicted in the diagram above. In general the 802.11 standard has both MAC
and physical components. The MAC lies in the data link layer whereas the physical
layer holds two important components known as physical layer convergence procedure
(PLCP) which helps to map the MAC frames onto the medium and a physical medium
dependent (PMD) system to transmit the frames. Each branch under this 802.11 family
LOGICAL LINK CONTROL DATA LINK LAYER

OF 802.2 (LLC) LLC SUBLAYER
ARCHITECTURE AND
802.1 MANAGEMENT
OVERVIEW OF 802
802.3 802.5 802.11
MAC MAC MAC

802.11 MAC
SUBLAYER
802.11 802.11
component
component
FHSS DSSS 802.11 a 802.11b

Physical
Physical
OFDM Hr/DSSS PHYSICAL

Physical Physical Physical Physical LAYER
component component component component
Fig. 1.3.2 The OSI model and IEEE 802 family interlink diagram
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tree is responsible for a specification. For example 802.5 is token ring specification and
802.3 is for carrier sense multiple access network with collision detection known as
CSMA/CD.
It is also worthwhile to say that 802.11 is just another link layer which can use the
802.2/LLC encapsulation. As in the interlink diagram shown above, there are two
physical layers along with MAC and are known as frequency hopping spread-spectrum
(FHSS) and direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) links. Further revisions of 802.11
added the 802.11a as orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and 802.11b as
high rate direct sequence spread spectrum layer (HR/DSSS) link. The 802.11 is attractive
since it enhances its services to mobile technology.
1.3.2 Architecture of IEEE 802.11 and MAC Control
The architecture of IEEE 802.11 protocol consists of MAC layer with logical link
control for providing many services. The MAC layer consists of three functional layers.
1) Access Control :
There are two important protocols considered for access control. First, the distributed
access protocol to distribute decision to transmit data and second a centralized access
protocol by which 'centralized decision' is made. It is used to connect many wireless
stations. The distributed access protocol enables an ad hoc network.
2) Security :
The data transfer under 802.11 standard is more secure. The content of the signal is
retrieved only by proper recipient and the content remains hidden for an unauthorised
user.
3) Reliable data delivery :

The wireless LAN that applies IEEE 802.11 MAC and physical (PHY) layers faces
unreliability as the data transfer basically involves exchange of frames. But the
probability of interferences, noises and other propagation effects which may result in
loss of few frames is greater. The losses may be immune to error correction coding
techniques. As a solution 802.11 group suggests data transfer with "two frames
exchange" and "four frames exchange" methods. The transmitter and receiver should
posses knowledge of frame transfer at any instant of time.
The transmitter sends ready to send (RTS) information to the receiver before frame
transfer and waits for the response from receiver side which responds by a clear to send
(CTS) signal. Likewise the transmitter alerts the receivers that are within the reception
range with RTS signalling. These methods also help only to a certain extent but does not
guarantee the system reliability to deliver data.
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Logical link control
Contention
Free Service (CFS)
Contention
Point Service (CS)
Co-ordination
Function (PCF) MAC
layer
Distributed Co-ordination Function (DCF)
2-4 GHz 2-4 GHz nfrared 5 GHz 2-4 GHz

FHSS DSSS 1 Mbps OFDM DSSS
1 Mbps 1 Mbps upto upto
2 Mbps 2 Mbps 2 Mbps 54 Mbps 11 Mbps
EEE 802.11 EEE 802.11 a EEE 802.11 b

Fig. 1.3.3 Architecture of IEEE 802.11 protocol standard
In IEEE 802.11 MAC layer covers three areas namely reliable data delivery, access
control and security issues. In reliable data delivery for increasing reliability two frames
‘request to send’ (RTS) and 'clear to send' (CTS) are sent between source and destination.
Under access control the lower sublayer of MAC is known as distributed co-ordination
function (DCF) which enables traffic regulation. This DCF uses carrier sense multiple
algorithm (CSMA) for data transmission. For proper functioning of DCF certain delays
known as interframe space (IFS) are introduced in data transmission.
D FS Contention window
P FS
D FS Busy S FS Back off Next

medium window frame Time
Slot time
Fig. 1.3.4 Back access scheme in IEEE 802.11-'MAC Timing'
The three delay (IFS) periods are shown below.

1. DIFS : It is distributed co-ordination function IFS. It is a longest IFS used for
asynchronous frames waiting for access.
The station will access the medium immediately if the medium is free for a
period longer than DIFS.
2. PIFS : It is point co-ordination function IFS, and it is usually a midlength IFS.
PIFS is used whenever issuing polls by the centralized controller.
3. SIFS : It is short IFS, and generally used for immediate actions as responses.
These three IFS values establish MAC timing under IEEE 802 model.
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Wireless Networks 1 - 10 Wireless LAN
The 802.11 standard MAC frame structure is given below.
FC D/I ADDRESS ADDRESS SC ADDRESS FRAME BODY CRC
2 2 6 6 2 6 From 0 to 2312 4
· Frame Control (FC) : It indicates type of frame and also provides control
information.
· Duration/Connection ID : Whenever it is used as duration field, it indicates the
time a channel will be allocated for a successful transmission of a MAC frame. It
may also contain an association or connection identifier.
1.3.3 Sequence Control
It consists of a 4 bit fragment number subfield. It is used for fragmentation and

reassembly and a 12 bit sequence number is used to number the frames sent from
transmitter.
Addresses :
The address fields depends on context. The address types includes source,
transmitting station and receiving station.
Frame Body :
It generally contains a MAC service data units (MSDU) or a fragment of an MSDU.
This MSDU is a logical link control (LLC) protocol data unit (or) the MAC control
information.
Frame check sequence (CRC) :

For checking the frame sequence a 32 bit cyclic redundancy check is done.
The MAC logic is represented in flow chart as below in Fig. 1.3.5.
i) When the station has a frame to send it senses that medium, and if medium is
found idle it will start transmission. Station checks this idle state for a time (IFS).
ii) Whenever that medium is found busy, the station will simply watch, till the
medium completes the job. The busy time during IFS is measured.
iii) Station will delay another delay period IFS in last step whenever the transmission
gets over. During this kind of idle IFS period the station will back off for some
random period sensing that medium again. For maintaining stability in this entire
back off phase ‘a binary exponential back off’ technique is used. This is mainly
used to handle the heavy load.
TM

Wait upto
the frame
transmits
s 'N'
medium
dle?
'Y'
Wait
FS
'N' Wait upto

s still
current transmission
dle? comes to an end
'Y'
Wait
Transmission FS
of frame
s still 'N'
dle?
'Y'
Providing exponential
backoff while medium
is in idle state
Starting transmission of
frame
Fig. 1.3.5 MAC logic of IEEE 802.11 standard
Note : If there is longer back off time periods it will smooth out the heavy load
condition in MAC logic of IEEE 802.11 standard.
1.3.4 802.11 Standard-Security Issues
The IEEE 802.11 standard provides both authentication and privacy mechanisms. At
the transmitter end encryption process is done and at receiver end decryption is done.
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Key Key
Data Cipher text Output

Encryption Decryption
nput (Plain text)
(Plain text)
Fig. 1.3.6 Concept of security of data
The encrypted input signal is called as cipher text which consists of plaintext the
original data as hidden information. A secret key is used at transmitter which may be
private or public key. The decryption algorithm along with secret key helps to get back
the plain text from cipher text.
1.3.4.1 Authentication
The IEEE 802.11 standard has two types of authentication schemes namely open
system and shared key system.
In the open system authentication, an "authentication frame" (MAC control frame) is
sent by first party to the second party. If such a frame is sent it is assumed that an open
system type of authentication is an process. The second party responds by sending its
authentication frame to first party and finally they exchange information without the
security concerns being addressed.
In shared key authentication a common secret key is shared between two parties and
it is kept confidential, so that any intruder cannot access the data.
1.3.4.2 Procedure of Shared Key Authentication

Consider the two parties namely x and y.
Step 1 : 'x' transmits an authentication frame (MAC frame), shared key identification
with that of the station identifier for identifying the sending station.
Step 2 : 'y' responds to this authentication frame with 128 octet text called as
challenge text.
Step 3 : Then 'x' sends an authentification frame which includes the challenge text
(128 octet) sent previously from y. The complete frame is finally encrypted.
Step 4 : At last 'y' receives this encrypted frame of step 3 and decrypts it using same
secret key and wired equivalent privacy (WEP) used by 'x'. Once decryption procedure
is completed by checking redundancy values, y then compares the incoming challenge
text with the same text that was sent under second step. The 'y' transmits a 'Status code'
to indicate ‘success/failure' case to 'x' in the form of an authentication code.
The open system and shared key authentication schemes are very much used in
IEEE 802.11 security mechanism.
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1.3.4.3 Deauthentication
Whenever the existing authentication has to be terminated then this deauthentication
will be invoked.
The medium access control in data link layer for IEEE 802.11 is dealt below.
802.11 Functional layer
(1) (2) (3)

Access control Security Reliable data
delivery
1.4 Types
IEEE 802.11a and 802.11b
The IEEE 802.11 infrared scheme is omnidirectional rather than a point to point
scheme. The modulation used is pulse position modulation. The two schemes 802.11a
and 802.11b are the two important specifications of 802.11 standard.
1.4.1 802.11a standard
The 802.11a standard group utilizes 5 GHz frequency. The larger frequency band is
chopped into many number of channels (subchannels) using orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) scheme.
The subchannels in OFDM are used to transmit the data, and set of all the
sub channels are combined as one common channel. The data rates allowed are upto
54 Mbps.
In conventional frequency division multiplexing (FDM) scheme guard bands are
inserted between consecutive bands of information to avoid overlapping.
In OFDM scheme all the subchannel frequencies overlap as shown below but still
maintains transmission without interference. It is possible using the technique known as
orthogonality.
With the OFDM technique intersymbol interference may not make a big problem.
But if the subcarriers are tightly packed into a particular channel it may cause inter
carrier interference (ICI).
For 802.11a IEEE standard the convolutional code at different data rates forward
error correction is allowed to correct any errors in reception.
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Band Guard Band Guard Band

1 Band 2 Band 3
Frequency
(a) FDM
FDM
OFDM
(b) FDM & OFDM

Fig. 1.4.1 : FDM, graph of FDM and OFDM
The Fig. 1.4.1 (a) shows the basic protocol implementation block. The layers
considered are MAC and PHY layers. In the functionality aspect MAC layer plays a vital
role as detailed below.
1. Access mechanism.
2. Fragmentation.
3. Reassembly of the packets.
The first type of management deployed to carry out these events known as MAC
sub layer management. It is also responsible for,
1. Power management. 2. Association.
3. Dissociation. 4. Reassociation processes.
The second important management is physical layer management. The physical layer
under IEEE 802.11 standard is divided into three sublayers.
1. Physical layer convergence protocol (PLCP).
2. Physical medium dependent protocol (PMD).
3. Physical layer management sublayer.
The first sublayer is responsible for carrier sensing and forming packets for different
PHY layers. The second sublayer PMD specifies modulation and coding techniques for
signalling purposes. The third sublayer management governs the channel turning to
various options for each physical layer.
1.4.2 802.11b standard
The 802.11b standard is an extension of IEEE 802.11 DSSS scheme providing data
rates of 5.5 Mbps and 11 Mbps. The 11 Mbps data rate scheme with complementary
code keying (CCK) modulation method is used for 802.11b Mbps in a some what
complex method.
TM

In this scheme the input data are treated in blocks each with 8 bits at a data rate of
1.37 MHz (approx.) so that 1.37 MHz multiplied with 8 bits per symbol representation is
11 Mbps proper mapping can be done for 6 bits of each 8 bits persymbol with one of
the 64 codes sequence using a 8 ´ 8 Walsh matrix. The output of the mapping process
summed with two bits will be taken as input to a quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)
modulator unit. Walsh codes are used since they are common orthogonal codes applied
in code division multiplication access (CDMA) linked applications.
Selecting one
of 64 complex
codes Output
Differential
modulation
nput MUX Q
data (1 8) Output
11 MHz
Fig. 1.4.2 Modulation scheme
IEEE 802.11 Services
This standard provides multiple services which are basically inherent to the wired
systems. A list of services and their corresponding providers are tabulated below.
Sr. Number Service Provider of Service

of Service
1 Authentication Station.
2 Association Distribution system.
3 Deauthentication Station.
4 Disassociation Distribution system.
5 Distribution Distribution system.
6 MSDU delivery Station.
7 Reassociation Distribution system.
8 Privacy Station.
The IEEE 802.11 standard also defines three services which are Authentication,
Privacy and Deauthentication.
1.5 IEEE 802.11 Standard for WLAN
IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards used to implement WLAN. The frequency bands
are 2.4, 3 and 5 GHz. The base version of IEEE 802.11 in 2007 was developed and it has
many amendmends.
The popular versions of IEEE 802.11 standard are defined as 802.11b and 802.11g
protocols and they are amendmends to the basic 802.11.
TM

· Descriptions of 802.11b, e, f, g, h, n : The 802.11b and 802.11g uses 2.4 GHz ISM
bands. They might suffer due to interferences. 802.11b is accepted widely for
WLAN in wireless networks and it is followed by 802.11g and 802.11n.
802.11n is a new multi streaming modulation technique. Apart from this other
standards like c-f, h, j are known for service amendmends and connections and used as
extensions with previous specifications.
To control interference problems. The 802.11b and 802.11g uses direct sequence
spread spectrum (DSSS) and the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
methods.
1.5.1 IEEE 802.11e Wireless LAN
The IEEE 802.11e is a new standard that supports Quality of Service (QoS) in
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). The mechanisms for supporting QoS, are
Enhanced Distribution Coordination Function (EDCF) and Hybrid Coordination Function
(HCF) are defined in 802.11e standard and they have to be evaluated.
In addition to the features in 802.11 standard to support QoS,. The 802.11e has these
special mechanisms. IEEE 802.11 Task Group E defines enhancements to the 802.11 MAC
and it is 802.11e standard. It has introduced EDCF and HCF.
The stations that operate under 802.11e are called as enhanced stations. It can act as
centralized controller for other stations within the same BSS is known as Hybrid
Coordinator (HC).
Hybrid Coordination Function (HCF)

The Hybrid Coordination Function (HCF) extends EDCF access rules. To initiate
MSDU deliveries only after detecting the channel as being idle in its state for PIFS that
is shorter than DIFS. As the part of 802.11e an additional random access protocol allows
fast collision resolution defined. A superframe of 802.11e is shown below. Then HC polls
stations for delivery of MSDU. From controlled contention information about which
station needs to be polled at what time and the duration length. A controlled contention
mechanism is applied when HC sends a specific control frame controlled contention
occurs in controlled contension interval gets started.
The control frame defines number of controlled contention opportunities.
Note : Count down takesplace till the medium is idle and there will be back off
when the medium enters into busy.
Single station can implement even up to eight transmission queues are realized as
virtual stations, and QoS parameters determines priorities. For parallel TC's in single
station if two counters reaches zero simultaneously. A scheduler inside station will avoid
virtual collisions.
TM

AIFS(TC)
AIFS(TC)
DIFS
Low priority
PIFS back off
TC
Time
SIFS Medium priority
back off
SIFS TC
High priority
ACK RTS
TC
Contention CTS
SIFS
window
DATA Defer
access
Fig. 1.5.1 MSDU's multiple back offs with priorities
It will reside within an 802.11e AP. With the 802.11e standard there might be two
phases of operations within superframes that is CP and CFP. They alternate over time in
a continuous manner. The EDCF is and used only in CP where as HCF is used in two
phases. This makes new coordination function hybrid.
Enhanced Distributed Coordination Function (EDCF)

The EDCF in 802.11e forms the basis for HCF. The QoS support is realized using
Traffic Categories (TCs). In CP every TC within stations are considered and there is an
independent start of backoff if a channel is detected for being idle for an Arbitration
Interfram Space (AIFS). After waiting for this AIFS backoff sets a counter with say
minimum size.
MAC service data units (MSDUs) are delivered through the multiple backoffs within
a station.
The contention window CW never gets exceed the parameter which is the maximum
possible value for it.
During contention period (CP) the transmission opportunity (TXOP) begins. This
TXOP is an interval of time when a station has right for initiating transmissions. TXOP's
are granted through polled-TXOP (HCF) or via contention EDCF - TXOP.
For fast collision resolution facilities are made so that the requesting stations can
detect collisions during controlled contensions. The Ready-to-Send/Clear-to-send
(RTS/CTS) is informed.
TM

802.11e Periodic superframe
Contention free period, CFP Contention period (CP)
CF- end
Beacon
RTS/CTS
TXOP
TXOP TXOP
TBTT TBTT
Fig. 1.5.2 802.11e Superframe
Note : Every station knows when the next beacon frame will be arriving. This time is
the target beacon transition time (TBTT). TBTT as shown in the superframe will be
announced in every beacon frame.
1.6 HIPERLAN
The HIPERLAN is "HIgh PErformance Radio LAN" and it is a European standard.
This HIPERLAN standard was initiated in 1999. The HIPERLAN-1 technology is acutally
based on some functional requirements that is specified by ETSI. The frequency
spectrum of 5.15 to 5.35 GHz band was first used by WLAN standard ( @ 5 GHz).
The two standards HIPERLAN-1 and HIPERLAN-2 have some functional
requirements.
· Data rate – 23.5 Mbps.
· Ad hoc – Multihop networking capability.
· Provides coverage upto 100 m.
· Enhanced power saving.
· Provides time bounded services.
In HIPERLAN-1 multihop topology is followed and overlapping of two WLAN's is
possible.
Actually this standard group had its origin in 1992 and the maximum work was
completed in 1997. It satisfies some of the functional requirements specified by a group
of European standard and for high speed wireless local networks known as ETSI. Also
CEPT released the frequency spectrum at 5 GHz to 17 GHz for the implementation of
HIPERLAN-1 standards. HIPERLAN-1 was followed by HIPERLAN-2 which mainly
TM

focussed on high data rates. The HIPERLAN and HIPER ACCESS were used for remote
access functions where as HIPER-LINK was used to interconnect switches in the
backbone of network. Some of the functional requirements of HIPERLAN-1 included
features like,
i) Multihop ad hoc network capability.
ii) Flexible with power saving methods.
iii) Wider coverage (@ 100 m).
iv) Should be compatible with various time-bound services.
The ad hoc network architecture in HIPERLAN-1 is shown in Fig. 1.6.1 (a). The solid
lines shows the peer to peer communications between two terminals whereas the dashed
lines shows the forward link lines, inside the HIPERLAN. Three terminals A, D and F
have the forward link connections. The terminal 'D' is a member of HIPERLAN-1 and
HIPERLAN-2. Since it is located at the overlapping portion of the two HIPERLAN's
Multihop operation between the terminals is made possible. A forwarder node accepts
the packet and if the packet has no address of its own then forwarder node retransmits
the packet to some other terminal in its neighbourhood. But a Non-forwarder node
accepts the packet as it is. Also a non-forwarder should select atleast one of its
neighbour as a forwarder node.
The InterHIPERLAN needs a bilateral co-operation and agreement between the two
HIPERLAN’s is involved. In peer to peer type of communication shown by solid lines
below and the dotted lines represent connections for forwarding.
B
A
D
F
HIPERLAN
A
HIPERLAN
Fig. 1.6.1 (a) Architecture of ad hoc network in HIPERLAN-1
TM

The architecture of ad hoc network (B) is shown in Fig. 1.6.1 (b) with forwarding and
non-forwarding network. It is related to the previous Fig. (A) shown in Fig. 1.6.1 (a).
1 2
6
f
f
4 f
HIPERLAN
B
HIPERLAN
Fig. 1.6.1 (b) Architecture of Ad hoc network in HIPERLAN-1 related to Fig. 1.6.1 (a)
As the two HIPERLAN’s (1 and 2) overlap with each other a common node falls in
the intersecting area. It is also a forwarding node. In this architecture the forwarding
node is denoted as 'f'.
The physical layer (PHY) uses 200 MHz at 5.15 to 5.35 GHz which can be divided
into 5 channels with a spacing of 40 MHz in European countries and divided into 6
channels with a spacing of 33 MHz spacing in U.S. The modulation used is single carrier
Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK) scheme with a transmission power of 1 W. The
data rate is upto 23 Mbps. A simple implementation of fall back data rates is possible
with multisymbol quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) embedded in OFDM
scheme. In HIPERLAN-1, maximum of 47 codewords per packet are possible.
Contention phase
P.P. Elimination Yield
Cycle phase
synchronization burst
interval
Priority Yield
detection Elimination listening Data
survival transmission
verification
Priority (ES)
assertion
P.P. Prioritization phase
Fig. 1.6.2 Channel access scheme in HIPERLAN-1

TM

A Listen before talk protocol known as Non preemptive multiple access (NPMA)
type protocol is used by HIPERLAN-1. It has similarities with 802.11 standard and also
supports voice oriented transmission and asynchronous transmissions.
A "priority scheme" is defined by HIPERLAN-1 MAC scheme. The channel access
scheme in HIPERLAN-1 is shown below.
In the channel access in HIPERLAN-1 technology, if a channel is busy the terminal
access has three phases whenever a channel becomes available. The three phases are;
1. Prioritization phase 2. Contention phase 3. Transmission phase.
1) Prioritization Phase :
The terminals with highest priority will survive and the remaining terminals have to
wait till the channel becomes available.
Hence implementation of WLAN should clearly show the prioritization.
2) Contention Phase :
It has two time periods defined as,
1) Elimination period 2) Yield period.
During the elimination period a random number generator is executed by each
terminal and selects any one of twelve available slots and sends a burst consisting of
256 bits. Upto 256-bit durations it verifies (listens) to the channel and if the terminal
does not hear any burst after the transmission it will again transmit as burst after
twelveth slot in elimination survival (ES) verification zone.
If the terminal hears a burst signal in elimination survival (ES) zone period they will
elimate themselves. The rest of the terminals alone will enter to yield time period of the
contention survival interval. The duration of yield period of each terminal is determined
from an exponentially distributed random variable. It helps to reduce average waiting
time required to run the counter. Later HIPERLAN-2 followed this HIPERLAN-1 WLAN
standard. HIPERLAN-2 supported WLAN in many aspects. It uses two types of major
topologies known as Infrastructure and Ad hoc structures. HIPERLAN-2 standard mostly
co-ordinates in all sense with IEEE 802.11 standard and some examples are,
1. Working on higher layers.
2. Transmission technique.
It enables integration of WLAN into cellular systems for which 2 features are
important.
Features
(1) (2)
Supporting Supporting
a. Roaming between QoS control for
LAN and WAN integration of WLAN with
b. Roaming between corporate cellular system
public environments
TM

HIPERLAN-2 focusses on ATM and IP services with high data rates. It also supports
connection less and connection oriented services. The demerit of HIPERLAN-1 is that it
supports connectionless services.
Transmission phase :
Topologies
nfrastructure type Ad hoc type
If a node has survived both the prioritization and contention phases can send data.
This protocol data unit (PDU) can be either unicast or multicast. In unicast transmission
the sender will expect to receive acknowledgement immediately. This acknowledgement
is sent from destination node.
Two types of topologies are possible with HIPERLAN-2 standard.
The architecture of HIPERLAN-2 may follow Ad hoc or infrastructure topology.
The HIPERLAN-2 supports centralized topology and ad hoc type topologies. In
infrastructure type, the router controls all the neighbourhood nodes through subnets.
Intranet is established with routers 1 and 2. A subnet (say A) can communicate with
subnet (say B) in this structure.
Router
Subnet B
ntranet
Router
Subnet A
(a) Infrastructure
(b) Ad hoc
Fig. 1.6.3 HIPERLAN-2 topologies

HIPERLAN-2 makes use of protocol stack architecture which comprises of the
physical layer to higher layers.
TM

Higher layer
Convergence layers
Connection Connection
based less
Data link control layers
Communication management
MAC
Physical layer
Fig. 1.6.4 HIPERLAN-2 protocol stack structure

There are three important layers known as physical layer, data link layer and
convergence layer.
The data link layer provides logical link and includes the function of communication
management and medium access control for handling connections. The data link control
facilitates the mapping of convergence layer packets onto a single physical (PHY) layer.
The PHY layer of the HIPERLAN-2 standard uses orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) type of modulation.
nput Convolutional nterleaving Output

Scrambler OFDM
coder
Fig. 1.6.5 OFDM modem

The data received in HIPERLAN-2 is scrambled. This scrambled data is passed
through convolutional coder which uses one of the rates 1/2 or 3/4 etc. That is used as
a modulation technique. To improve the reliability the coded data is now inter leaved.
Finally the data is modulated using keying schemes like BPSK, 16 QAM, 64 QAM or
QPSK supporting various data rates.
1.6.1 OFDM
The OFDM combines three different transmission principles.
Transmission principles
(1) (2) (3)
Multicarrier Multisymbol Multirate
TM

The principle orthogonality of adjacent carriers are used and their efficient
implementation is based on Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
The Multicarrier Modulation (MCM) is used for high speed voice frequency band
modems. In conventional type of modulation carrier is modulated with a particular rate.
But in MCM 'N' numbers of carriers are considered and each of the carrier is modulated
with a specific rate and with a spacing in between them. To prevent overlapping
between symbols a particular time period as guard time is allowed between two OFDM
pulses in transmission with the cost of reduced data rate. Some carriers are intended for
redundancy and synchronization purposes.
The multisymbol modulation scheme uses multiphase modulation and
multiamplitude modulation techniques which helps to avail the data rate. Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a traditional keying method that can be used where four
symbol system is followed encoding two bits in one of the four transmitted symbols and
the signal constellation is such that four points represents amplitudes and phases of the
symbols. The symbol transmission rate is double with this scheme when it is compared
with Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) scheme.
In multirate transmission approach under OFDM even in channel degradation
conditions reliable data transmission is possible.
The signal to noise ratio (SNR) increases as the modulation efficiency increases. If
the subscriber moves away from base station SNR value will reduce and the error rates
can be measured.
Convergence layer
Data link control

layers
RRC ACF DCC EC
RLC
Logical channels
MAC
Medium Access Control
Transport channels
Physical layer
Fig. 1.6.6 Logical and transport channels in HIPERLAN-2
TM

1.7 WATM AU : May-19
Wireless ATM features mostly are from telecommunication technology. WATM are
useful in 'Quality of services' which in turn suppots WLAN's like HIPERLAN 2.
An integration of wireless terminals and ATM networks are needed in present
wireless scenario.
For a mobile ATM the extensions of ATM system has to be accounted.
They include,
· Location management
· Mobile routing
· Network management
· Handover signalling and
· QoS and traffic control system etc.
1.7.1 Services of WATM
WATM can be designed and used for sending voice data, high quality video,
classical data, short messages etc. For example the areas where WATM can be used are,
· Wireless and mobile access from distances, internet access, multi-media
computing in universities, schools etc.
· Information retrieval, data-base connection in industries.
· Transfer of medical images, remote patient monitoring system in hospitals.
· Home equipment like TV, CD-player, PC control.
· For networked vehicle access control.
· Office environment etc.
1.7.2 Generic Reference Model
A wireless mobile access to an ATM network is shown in the generic reference

model.
To get wireless access to Radio Access System the mobile ATM (MATM) make use
of WATM terminal adapter and for example MATM may be a laptop.
At the same time it is not used for mobility.
The terminal adapter of WATM enables wireless access. The Radio Access System
(RAS) is connected to EMAS-E, EMAS-N and to the fixed end system through ATM
switches.
TM

Radio
segment
WATM Radio
MATM EMAS -E EMAS-N
terminal access
terminal (Switch) (Network)
adapter system
Fixed
end ATM
system switch
Fixed network segment
Fig. 1.7.1 : Example : Generic reference model-WATM

All the mobility aware switches comprised in fixed mobility support network can be
differentiated from that of the standard ATM networks.
Thus this generic WATM reference model has radio segment and fixed radio
segment.
1.7.3 Handover Technique
In WATM handover management has to be taken care. During the handover

procedures the rerouting the connections and quality maintenance of connections is
somewhat difficult.
Some of the requirements of handover, includes,
· Handover of the point-to-multipoint connections.
· Quality-of-service (QoS) support
· Handover of multiple connections.
· Data integrity
· Security issues
· Performance complexities and
· Signalling and routing support systems etc.
1.7.4 Location Management
In location management there are several requirements with WATM. They include,
· Security of information
· Transparency of mobility
TM

· Efficiency
· Scalability
· Identification
· Inter-working standards in which the location management functionalities should
cooperate with existing fixed ATM networks.
1.7.5 Mobility - Quality of Service (QoS)
The main advantage for the WATM networks is guaranteed QoS. The WATM has to
provide Mobile QoS (M-QoS). It comprises of three unique parts. They are namely,
· Handover QoS,
· Wired QoS, and
· Wireless QoS
This WATM system should do mapping of QoS and set of its parameters. Also it has
to monitor the completion of service request.
On each wireless and wired case WATM must also map the end-to-end
requirements, such as mapping of end-to-end delay with the all delay factors.
Note : In QoS support of handover protocols are capable of supporting two types of
QoS whenever handover takes place. They are hard handover QoS and 'Soft handover
QoS'.
1.8 BRAN
The Broadband Radio Access Networks (BRAN) was standardized by European

Telecommunication Standards Institute (ESTI). The motivation of BRAN in europe is the
deregulation and privatization of
their telecommunication sectors. Core Core
network network
ATM IP
The radio access provides
required network access for the Network Convergence
Sublayer (NCS)
customers. Radio access also allows
growth of the access bandwidth. BRAN Data Link Control
(DLC)
Additional transmitters and
BRAN BRAN
receivers can be designed and PHY-1 PHY-2
installed when more bandwidth is
Fig. 1.8.1 BRAN-Layered model
required.
TM

The BRAN technology is not dependent from the protocols of that of fixed networks.
This technology is useful for ATM and the TCP/IP networks. It is shown in the layered
model of BRAN. The Data Link Control (DLC) of the BRAN provides a common
interface to other higher layers. A network convergence sublayer (NCSL) is used for this
purpose. This layer is used by Ethernet, WATM or even an Internet Protocol (IP)
network. In the situations of BRAN as Radio Access Link (RAL) for WATM then the
core ATM networking may use the BRAN-NCSL services.
Note : BRAN has specific four various network types including HIPERLAN 1,
HIPERLAN 2, HIPERLINK and HIPERACCESS standards.
1.9 Hiper LAN2 - Bluetooth AU : May - 17, 18, Dec. - 17
The Bluetooth technology lies under Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). The
wireless LAN setup provides more benefits than wired LAN by avoiding the cost of
installing LAN cabling and makes simple relocation whenever a network’s structure has
to be changed.
The Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) uses infrared rays and radio waves
for communication, establishment. i.e. It is made possible for a Personal Computer (PC)
to communicate with another Infrared device, IRDA (Infrared Data Association) like
another Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) or a PC or a mobile phone.
One of the PAN technology standard is known as Bluetooth. It mainly uses radio
instead of infrared. The data rate is of 1 Mbps for a distance of 10 meters, approx.
It is independent of line of sight technique. Hence the wireless PAN (WPAN) works
in ad hoc mode only.
In Latin generally the term 'ad hoc' means "for this particular purpose only". It
means 'spontaneous' small area network. The new devices like bluetooth or 802.11 IEEE
standard used this "ad hoc" technique. Hence bluetooth deals with short range wireless
technology. It provides low cost solution. Also it provides links between mobile
computers, portable handheld devices, cellular phones etc. The Bluetooth ad hoc
technique is considered as a challenge and interesting topic to develop by the Bluetooth
special Interest Group.
1.9.1 Bluetooth Radio
The bluetooth technology was mainly intended to work in 2.4 GHz band frequency.
The wavelength of the bluetooth radio signal is around 12.5 cms. The antenna useful for
bluetooth signal transmission and reception can be vertical antenna and dipole antenna.
TM

1.9.1.1 Vertical Antenna

The vertical antenna is electrically equivalent to the one half of a dipole antenna. It
is important to note that erecting antenna in clearest vertical spot installing in a proper
ground system beneath the antenna will probably reduce the level of interferences are
losses.
Main lobe
Side lobe
Back lobe
Fig. 1.9.1 Vertical antenna-an example

1.9.1.2 Dipole Antenna
It is a straight electrical conductor measuring the half wavelength from ends and
then connected at the centre to a RF (radio frequency) feedline. It is also called as
doublet and basically it is a balanced antenna.
These two types vertical and dipole antennas are compatible with bluetooth radio
broadcasting.
1.9.2 Antenna Parameters

The antenna parameters are important +
q
which determine the efficiency of the entire
bluetooth system. Some of the parameters are,
1.9.2.1 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

It is a measure of mismatch between the
antenna and transmitter. VSWR will be unity q
–
for a perfectly matched antenna. If the value

“Ground plane independent“
of VSWR is less then the performace of the
antenna will be good. Fig. 1.9.2 Half wave dipole-an example
1.9.2.2 Bandwidth Voltage standing wave ratio
Bluetooth technology uses 2.4 GHz ISM Bandwidth
bandwidth of frequency for its operation. The Efficiency
frequency band is divided into 79 channels for
Return loss
frequency hopping type of spread spectrum
Polarization
technique with each channel 1 MHz frequency wide.
TM

1.9.2.3 Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of power level of transmitted signal and the received signal.
The compatability of the transmitter and receiver should hold good for better power
level which in turn enables higher efficiency.
1.9.2.4 Return Loss
The return loss is used to measure the antenna performance, and it is expressed in
decibel units. If the antenna can absorb 50 % of the signal where the remaining portion
of signal is reflected then the return loss is – 3 dB.
1.9.2.5 Polarization
Polarization is a parameter that expresses the direction of electric field in comparison
with that of the earths surface. The polarization may be any one of the three types,
vertical, horizontal (or) circular polarization.
Note : 1) The bluetooth transmitter uses Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK),
where a binary 1 is equalent to positive frequency deviation and binary 0 is equalent
to negative frequency deviation.
The bluetooth devices can be classified as any one of three different power classes.
Example :
Power Class Max Output Min Output
of Bluetooth Power Level Power Level
1 100 mW 1 mW
2 2.4 mW 0.25 mW
2)The modulation index of GFSK is roughly 0.32 + 1 %

3)Bit rate value is 1 Mbps ± (–1) PPM
1.9.2.6 Bluetooth Device Address
It is denoted as (BD_ADDR), and the Bluetooth transmitter-receiver is allocated a

48-bit address as BD_ADDR which follows the IEEE 802 standard. The Bluetooth adder
of 48 bits is divided as three fields.
1. Lower Address Part - LAP - 24 bits.
2. Upper Address Part - UAP - 8 bits
3. Non-significant Address Part - 16 bits
Total - 48 bits long
In the three fields Lower Address Part (LAP) is assigned for company and the two
Upper Address Part (UAP) and non-significant address part is for identification (ID) of
the company.
TM

1.9.3 Point-to-Point Connection (P2P)
It is a simple and direct network scheme which connects two devices with each
other. It is also known as P2P connection. Out of the two devices one device is assumed
to be a piconet master device (M) and the other device is assumed as a slave(S).
Master Slave
M S
Fig. 1.9.3
Point-to-Multipoint and piconet connection
In a point to multipoint connection minimum of more than two devices form a
network. It is also called as piconet where a maximum of eight devices can be connected
in a network.
One device acts as a master device (M) and other devices are called as slave
devices(S).
Seven slaves
S
S S S
One master
S M S M S
S
S S
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9.4 (a) One master and three slave communication
(b) One master with seven slaves communication under piconet
Note : A piconet for bluetooth can contain upto 256 devices in a communication
network but only eight devices can actively participate among them. No data transfer
is allowed between slaves (S) of same piconet and allowed only through the master
(M) device.
1.9.4 Scatternet
Scatternets provides maximum data transfer. It enables Bluetooth devices to

communicate with many piconets at a time. Scatternets are actually formed by
overlapping of multiple piconets over their coverage areas. The spectrum utilization is
optimized. A device in scatternet can play master/slave roles in different piconets but at
the same time no single device can act as master in more than one piconet within a
scatternet.
TM

S S
S S S S
S M S S M S
Slave
S P S P
S S
Parked
Master device
Piconet 'B'
Piconet 'A'
Fig. 1.9.5 Example of scatternet where slave of piconet A communicates with master of
piconet B
1.9.5 Bluetooth Connectionmode Relationship
Stand by Unconnected stand by
Page nquiry Connecting states
Connected Transmit Active states

Data
Shift Hold Park Low power states
Fig. 1.9.6 Connectionmode relationship in Bluetooth technology

In the Bluetooth network when a device is in connection state it is synchronized to
the piconet. They can be in any one of the four possible modes.
Modes
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Active Hold Sniff Park

mode mode mode mode
TM

If a Bluetooth device is in active mode it transmits and receives packets, which may
be of data or control packets. Each slave is assigned a bit address to differentiate it from
a packed device. It is valid as long as the slave is a member of the piconet setup. The
other three modes are mainly intented for saving power by reducing their own duty
cycles.
When the device is in hold mode it has intermediate power efficiency which is
achieved by making the particular device inactive temporarily for short time intervals.
For this purpose a timer is used internally.
The sniff mode is good in prolonging or safe guarding the life of battery by
minimising unnecessary transmission of the poll packets. Whenever communication
between master and slave is large sniff mode is more suitable. Devices that are in sniff
mode have least power efficiency with highest duty cycle than other modes.
When a slave decides to be inactive for a particular time interval it enters into park
mode that has larger duration than hold and sniff modes. Though this slave device does
not participate in data traffic it maintains its synchronization with the master device in
piconet.
Applications
TCS RFCOMM SDP

Control Logical link control
Audio L2 CAP and adaptation protocol
LMP Link management protocol
Baseband
Radio frequency
Fig. 1.9.7 Bluetooth protocol stack-Architecture

There are four modes compatible with Bluetooth devices in a piconet arrangement.
1.9.6 Bluetooth Protocol Stack Architecture

In Bluetooth the protocol stack enables communication with many devices. It
includes voice, data and control signalling in Bluetooth. Radio modem is specified by RF
layer. The link control at packet and bit levels are specified by the baseband layer. The
link management protocol (LMP) is capable of configuring links with other devices. It
provides power modes, traffic scheduling, packet format, state of units in piconet,
authentication and encryption. With L2CAP connection-oriented and connectionless data
TM

services to that of the upper layers protocol. It may include services like segmentation,
reassembly protocol multiplexing and also group abstractions for the data packets. The
control informations can be exchanged. The Service Discovery Procotol (SDP) enables
two or more Bluetooth devices in case of supporting a particular service. The Telephone
Control Protocol (TCP) is used to define the both call control.
Signalling and mobility management in connection with cordless telephone
applications. Finally the RFCOMM in Bluetooth stack is a 'cable replacement' protocol
that will provide RS232 control and also data signals of Bluetooth baseband signal.
1.9.7 Some of the Advantages of Bluetooth
· Eliminates the usage of cables linking computers to keyboards, mouse and

printers.
· Call home from a distant place to turn any appliances on and off, set alarm etc.
· Enables MP3 players in wireless fashion, to other machines.
· To make calls from a wireless headset which is connected remotely to a cellular

phone.
· It also helps in monitoring remotely the home networks, air conditioners, ovens
etc.
· The control is possible with bluetooth upto 10 meters. It is developed such that
can be used by many users.
· The 'piconet setup' i.e. eight small devices can communicate in a small network
helps to develop networking for a short range. Also upto ten piconets can be in a
same coverage range of the Bluetooth radio.
· To provide security each link is protected and encoded and hence Bluetooth
technology assures user authentication.
· The short range wireless connectivity oriented applications like cable replacement,
Ad hoc networking and data-voice accessing are possible with Bluetooth.
1.9.8 Three Classes of Bluetooth Protocol
It can be divided into three different classes or groups.

Class 1 :
The Bluetooth specific protocols mainly for its baseband are LMP, L2CAP and SDP.
Class 2 :
The Bluetooth protocols that are developed based on the already existing protocols
are TCP and RFCOMM.
TM

Class 3 :
It mainly comprises of the existing protocols which are actually adopted by the
Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). It includes protocols like PPP, WAP, WAE,
UDP/TCP/IP, OBEX, V-card, V-cal etc.
1.9.9 Bluetooth MAC-Mechanism

The access mechanism under Bluetooth is a voice oriented system. The MAC in
Bluetooth is fast FH-CDMA/TDD method which employs polling scheme for
establishing a link. That is a fast hop of even 1600 hops per second is possible. Bluetooth
is mainly a CDMA system and implemented using the frequency hopping spread
spectrum scheme.
1.9.10 Topology of Bluetooth
The Bluetooth devices in a piconet consists of master and slave configuration. The
piconet has structures like single-slave piconet, multi-slave piconet and scatternet. In
single-slave piconet one slave is connected to a single master.
S
M
M S
M M
S
S M
S
S
S
S S S
S S S
1 2 3
Master (M) 1 - Single-slave piconet
2 - Multi-slave piconet
Slave (S)
3 - Scatternet
Fig. 1.9.8 Topologies of Networked bluetooth modules

Generally Bluetooth topology adopts multiple piconet structure. It may take
point-to-point (or) point to multipoint type of connection. The third type other than
single-slave and multi-slave piconets is the scatternet. It has several piconets linked
together within it.
TM

1.9.11 Frame Format in Bluetooth
In the Bluetooth specification one packet per hop is enabled and a single slot packet
with duration of 625 msec is extended to three other slots of 1875 msec duration is
allowed. Different data rates (speed) of data and voice applications regarding to form a
piconet is possible. In the frame format given below there are 74 bits for accessing a
code field and 54 bits for the header field different payloads that can even be 5 slots are
enabled in bluetooth packet setup.
Preamble (4) Synchronization word (64) Trailer (4)
Access code (72) Header (54) Payload (upto 2744)
S-add (3) Type (4) Flow (1) ARQ (1) SEQ (1) HEC (8)
18 Bits repeats
three times
Fig. 1.9.9 Bluetooth packet frame format
In this format the header field has 18 bits and it is repeated three times and
considered as 54 bits. The four bit packet type can allow sixteen choices for various
voice and data services including control packets.
1.9.12 Connection Management in Bluetooth
In an ad hoc environment like short range Bluetooth specification establishing and

maintaining connections is complex and should be designed carefully, since there is no
central unit, available to monitor.
Bluetooth uses unique inquiry and page algorithm. In the state diagram given above
in a piconet initially all the devices are in standby (SB) mode. Then one terminal
becomes a 'M' terminal (master). It registers all the standby (SB) terminals and then it
becomes a slave (S) terminal, during the time of inquiry. Using the FHS packets timing
of all the 'S' terminals are sent to ‘M’ terminals. Connection starts with that of a 'PAGE'
message sending the information about ‘M’ terminal to ‘S’ terminal and then a
communication session follows. The hold, sniff and park are three power saving
methods. In hold mode the data transfer will restart. During the sniff mode the slave (S)
mode carefully listens to piconet, and in the park mode a device will give up its MAC
TM

address and it will be still synchronized with that of the piconet of the setup. A device
in this park mode will not be a part of broadcasting phase.
SB Unconnected stand by
state
nquiry Page Connecting state
Transmit Connected Active state

Data
Park Sniff Hold Low power state
Fig. 1.9.10 Bluetooth "functional overview"
The connection establishment thus in bluetooth specification is more effective though

it is an ad hoc mode.
1.9.13 Comparison of Wireless LAN and Bluetooth Technology
Sr. No. Parameter Bluetooth Technology Wireless LAN (WLAN)
1. Developed for Helps cable replacement with Office WLAN/Campus/home.

limited wireless network
capabilities.
2. Distance For 10 meter, 100 meter distances For 15-150 meters/300 meters for
with high transmit power. indoor and outdoors areas.
3. Frequency 2.4 GHz, 1600 hops/sec radio, Example :

1 MHz channels over 79 MHz. 802.11a-5GHz in 20 MHz
channels.
4. Network It is Ad hoc in nature. No usage of piconets. It is

features effective at random access.
5. Data rate Uses slower data rate : 1 Mbps Example : 802.11a standard : 24
raw data. Rate future version may to 54 mbps, with 5 GHz
deal with 2 Mbps data rate. bandwidth.
6. Size Very high integrated and smaller Larger in size.

in size.
TM

7. Power Lower current draw and longer High current draw and shorter
battery life. battery life.
8. Security The key length of algorithm is 64 bit and 128 bit encryption
selectable within the range of 8 or capability available.
128 bits.
9. Cost Lower. Higher.
10. Interference Frequency Hopping Spread Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

tolerance Spectrum (FHSS) is used, and (DSSS) is used with interference
interference is reduced. reduction in 802.11b standard.
11. Noise More noise resistant. Less noise resistant.
1.10 WPAN
The Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN) works effectively in promoting user
needs. One such example of WPAN is Bluetooth technology. It is a short range
technology and works with 2.4 GHz frequency. The wavelength is around 12.5 cms.
The Bluetooth technology lies under Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). The
wireless LAN setup provides more benefits than wired LAN by avoiding the cost of
installing LAN cabling and makes simple relocation whenever a network’s structure has
to be changed.
The Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) uses infrared rays and radio waves
for communication, establishment. i.e. It is made possible for a Personal Computer (PC)
to communicate with another Infrared device, IRDA (Infrared Data Association) like
another Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) or a PC or a mobile phone.
One of the PAN technology standard is known as Bluetooth. It mainly uses radio
instead of infrared. The data rate is of 1 Mbps for a distance of 10 meters, approx.
It is independent of line of sight technique. Hence the wireless PAN (WPAN) works
in ad hoc mode only.
1.11 Wireless USB (WUSB)

WUSB is designed to enable connecting peripherals such as printers, monitors, media
players, external hard disks etc. to the PC using wireless technology.
In case there is no inbuilt support to the WUSB a dongle is to be installed so that
the USB port acts as WUSB. In recent times the PC comes with a WUSB antenna and so
a dongle is not necessary. A dongle antenna enables to connect around 127 devices. The
transfer rate from WUSB is inversly proportional to the distance of the device from the
PC.
TM

A transfer rate of 480 Mbps is possible within a 3 m radius from the PC. If the
distance increases then the transfer rate also decreases.
WUSB works on a frequency range from 3.1 GHz to 10.6 GHz.
1.12 IEEE 802.15.4

The IEEE 802.15.4 group standardizes low-rate wireless personal area networks
[LR WPAN].
It enable extremely low power consumptions and low-cost wireless communication
services. IEEE 802.15.4 provides two different PHY options with Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS). For example with frequency 868 / 916 MHz PHY operates in the
Europe say at 868.0 to 868.6 MHz. In US it operates at 902 to 928 MHz frequency. The
main advantages of lower frequencies is efficient propagation conditions. But, at the
same time there is chances of interference is possible in these frequency bands due to
other analog transmission systems. There may be some propagation loss.
But, the MAC layer of IEEE 802.15.4 is simpler when compared to WPAN Bluetooth
radio. Also, the low rate WPAN IEEE 802.15.4 offers a superframe mode. With this
mode the PAN coordinator sends beacons in predetermined time intervals say 15 msec
to 245 sec. Due to the beacons in transmissions the medium access scheme can have a
time period whenever contention is possible and a time period when there is no
contention.
Security :
The IEEE 802.15.4 specifies three levels of security. Security is important for industry
control applications.
Zigbee is a low-rate, low-cost protocol that works under IEEE 802.15.4
standardization.
1.13 Zigbee
It is a specification based on IEEE 802.15.4 standard. It is essentially a wireless
ad hoc network employing top end communication protocols for personal networks. It is
suitable for a confide network covering small area such as office automation etc. where
small bandwidth and minimum power could be used. It is simple and cost effective than
Wireless Personal Area Networks. In places where data transfer is only over a short
range such as applications in home automation it can be used effectively. The rate of
transfer in Zigbee is in the range of 250 kbits/s. Power consumption is low for distances
within 100 m in the line of sight. Data transfer through a mesh network is also possible
in Zigbee to transmit data over large distances. It is a wireless technology designed for
low cost/ low power utility. It is mainly a two way communication linking the sensor
and the control system. Zigbee thus encompasses wireless technology with an open
global standard which caters to networking, low cost, low power consumption and
security.
TM

1.14 6LoWPAN
It is a protocol which facilitates carrying of IPv6 packets on the top of low power
networks which adhere to IEEE 802.15.4. Initially an adaption layer “IP over Foo”
adhering to the constraints of IPv6 was envisaged to cater to 1280 byte MTU with larger
address sizes. Hence, a set of headers accommodating large IPv6 headers compressed
into a small header of nearly 4 bytes was designed. This also used mesh networks,
fragmentation/reassembly when required. This was to enable even smaller devices use
Internet protocol.
In 6LoWPAN instead of using a single header e.g. As in Zigbee, it has used stacked
headers associated with IPv6. As it cuts down the cost as header are sent only when
absolutely required. Further, this results in energy saving so as to ensure “low cost, low
power.”
A prefix is used to identify the header. The dispatch header indicates the header
types which follows the dispatch header (6 bits) essentially, defines the compressed
header of IPv6. The mesh Header (4 bytes) has two single but fields indicating the
source or destination. The fragmentation header (3 bytes) takes care of the 6LoWPAN
was initially designed by IETF (Inernet Engineering Task Force) for usage is small
networks.
6LoWPAN is essentially smaller than Zigbee etc. as shown in Fig. 1.14.1 below.
Parameter 6LoWPAN
RAM 4K
Header overhead 2 - 7 bytes
Network size 264
Transport layer UDP/TCP
Internet connectivity Bridge/Router
RF radio supports IEEE 802.15.4 ++
Code size with mesh 22 K
Code size without mesh 12 K
Fig. 1.14.1 Few parameters of 6LoWPAN

Fragmentation and reassembly of the payload when it is large in size. A datagram
tag in the fragmentation header indicates the original size of the datagram and the
sequence in which they are to be received the fragmentation mechanism is shown in
Fig. 1.14.2 below.
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Uncompressed
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 IPV6 address, 40 bytes
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 HCI, Fully compressed, 1 byte
(i)
hops Original Final

10
address address
(ii)
11 0 Tag size
(iii)
Fig. 1.14.2 A 6LoWPAN header layout

(i) Dispatch header (ii) Mesh header (iii) Fragmentation header
By stacking all the headers the compatibility is achieved for the network. The
concept of stacked header is shown in Fig. 1.14.3 below.
6LoWPAN also allows header compression to suit IPv6.
Destination (D) Source (src)

D Pan S Pan
EUID 64 EUID 64
NETWORK HEADER
D Src
Preamble Fctr Fch
16 16
APPLICATION
DATA
Frag
1st
IP
UPP
Fig. 1.14.3 An example of packet layout IP-Internet

protocol UDP-user datagram protocol
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1.15 Wireless HART

It is a wireless sensor network adhering to Highway Addressable Remote Transducer
Protocol (HART).
Wireless HART is a widely used licence free transfer medium which supports
multiple technologies like Bluetooth, Zigbee, WLAN etc. It operates in 2.4 GHz and uses
flat mesh network formed by a number of field devices.
Each station acts as a signal source and also as a repeater simultaneously. Therefore,
control systems of various configurations are able to merge easily.
The original message is transmitted to its neighbour and relayed until it reaches the
base station and the receiver. As multiple routes are identified even in the initial stage,
if the message hits an obstacle it can be easily rerouted and transmitted by an alternate
route. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) is used to synchronise the devices on the
network. A robust network is thus enabled thereby reducing the lead and lag times
when the station is required to be active.
Further, adhering to IEEE 802.15.4 wireless HART uses FHSS (Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum) so as to obviate the possibility of jamming.
When a channel is in use it is effectively blacked out so that jamming is avoided.
Wireless HART was approved by the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) as IEC 62591.
Review Questions
Part A
1. Define a network and wireless network.
2. Mention three parameters of an efficient network.
3. Compare LAN, MAN and WAN networks.
4. Define metropolitan area network.
5. Define local area network.
6. Define wide area network.
7. Draw an internetwork arrangement.
8. List three applications of WLAN.
9. What is 802.11 standard ?
10. What are the advantages of 802.11 standard ?
11. What is known as DLC ?
12. What is known as LLC ?
13. Define medium access control.
14. Differentiate DLC and PHY under MAC.
15. Draw the protocol stack of IEEE 802.11 standard.
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16. Comment on authentication facilities in 802.11 standard.

17. What are the functional layers available in 802.11 standard ?
18. Draw the IEEE 802.11 protocol standard architecture.
19. What are the services defined by IEEE 802.11 standard ?
20. What is HIPERLAN ?
21. What are the three phases of terminal access when a channel is busy in HIPERLAN-1 standard ?
22. What are the topologies available in HIPERLAN-2 standard ?
23. Draw the protocol stack structure of HIPERLAN-2 standard.
24. What are the transmission principles in OFDM ?
25. What are the channels available in HIPERLAN-2 standard ?
26. What are the maximum throughput and frequency range in IEEE 802.11 standard ?
27. What are the responsibilities of convergence layer ?
28. What are the applications of HIPERLAN-1 ?
29. What are the types of antennas used for HIPERLAN-1 and HIPERLAN-2 standards ?
30. Write short note on bluetooth technology.
31. Write a short note on dipole antenna.
32. What are the antenna parameters that can affect the efficiency of Bluetooth technology ?
33. Define “Return loss “ and “Polarization”.
34. Write short note on Ad hoc network.
35. What is known as piconet connection ?
36. Define scatternet.
37. Draw a point to multipoint connection set up.
38. Give an example for scatternet diagram.
39. What is known as bluetooth device address ?
40. What are the four possible modes a bluetooth device can select in a piconet arrangement ?
41. Define active and hard modes.
42. What is known as a sniff mode ?
43. List some of the advantages of bluetooth technology.
44. Draw the bluetooth protocol stack architecture.
45. What are the different topologies of bluetooth modules ?
46. What are the three classes of bluetooth protocol ?
47. Compare bluetooth and wireless technologies.
48. What are the two different profiles supported by bluetooth 1.1 version ?
49. List the nine different applications profiles of bluetooth 1.1 version.
50. What are the advantages of a bluetooth radio ?
51. Write a note on WATM
52. What is known as BRAN ?
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Part B
1. Explain WLAN technologies including infrared, UHF narrowband and spread spectrum in detail.
2. Explain the system architecture, protocol architecture of IEEE 802.11 standard in detail?
3. Describe the physical layer and MAC layer in IEEE 802.11 standard with neat sketches.
4. What are IEEE 802.11 a and IEEE 802.11 b ? Explain.
5. Explain the architecture of bluetooth with its radiolayer baseband layer and link manager protocol in
detail.
6. i) Explain sequence control in IEEE 802.11 ?
ii) Explain IEEE 802.11a standard ?
7. i) Explain connection management in bluetooth radio.
ii) Comment on frame format in bluetooth technology.
8. Explain the following,
i) Wireless USB
ii) Zigbee
iii) 6LoWPAN
9. Explain IEEE 802.15.4 standard and wireless HART in detail.
University Questions with Answers
Part A
1. State the significance of Radio transmission over infrared. (Refer section 1.2.1)
AU : May - 17, Marks 2
2. Give any three differences between HIPERLAN 1 and HIPERLAN 2. (Refer sections 1.3 and 1.9)
3. What is IEEE 802.11 ? What are the functions of MAC layer in 1EEE 802.11 ?
(Refer sections 1.3 and 1.3.2) AU : May - 18, Marks 2
4. What is the principle behind infrared technology ? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
infrared technology ? (Refer sections 1.2.1 and 1.1.1) AU : Dec. - 18, Marks 2
5. Identify the need of WATM systems. (Refer sections 1.7.1) AU : May - 19, Marks 2
Part B
1. Explain and compare the medium access mechanism of DCF methods adopted in IEEE 802.11
WLAN. (Refer section 1.3.2) AU : May - 17, Marks 16
2. Describe the user scenario architecture and protocol stack of Bluetooth technology.
(Refer section 1.9.6) AU : May - 17, Marks 16
3. Explain in detail about the IEEE 802.11 protocol architecture and bridging with other networks.
(Refer section 1.3.2) AU : Dec. - 17, Marks 16
4. Define hiperlan-2. Discuss about the various operation modes and protocol stack in hiperlan-2.
(Refer sections 1.9, 1.9.5 and 1.9.6) AU : Dec. - 17, Marks 16
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5. With neat sketch describe the architecture of IEEE 802.11 and explain the MAC management
techniques. (Refer section 1.3.2) AU : May - 18, Marks 16
6. Elucidate the advantages of WLAN techniques. (Refer sections 1.1 and 1.1.1)
7. Explain the architecture of hyperlan II protocol. (Refer sections 1.9 and 1.9.6)
8. Compare infrared vs radio transmissiion techniques. (Refer sections 1.2, 1.2.1, 1.2.2 and 1.2.3)
AU : Dec. - 18, Marks 8
9. Elucidate the advantages of WLAN technique. (Refer sections 1.1.1 and 1.2)
10. Draw the protocol architecture of WLAN (802.11). Explain the physical lauyer and MAC
management layer of 802.11. (Refer section 1.3.2) AU : Dec. - 18, Marks 16
11. Describe the IEEE 802.11 MAC data frame format with relevant diagram. (Refer section 1.3.2)
12. Give the strategy of logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP).
(Refer sections 1.3.2 and 1.3.3) AU : May - 19, Marks 13
qqq
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Notes
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Unit
Mobile Network Layer
II
Syllabus
Introduction - Mobile IP: IP packet delivery, Agent discovery, tunneling and encapsulation,
IPV6-Network layer in the internet- Mobile IP session initiation protocol - mobile ad-hoc network:
Routing: Destination Sequence distance vector, IoT : CoAP.
Contents
2.1 Mobile IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 18 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 16
2.2 Goals and Requirements of Mobile IP . . . . . . . . . . May-17, 18, 19, Dec. - 18 · · · · · Marks 16
2.3 Agent Discovery in Mobile IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec.-17, 18, May - 19 · · · · · · · Marks 16
2.4 IP-in-IP Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 17, 19, Dec.-17 · · · · · · · Marks 16
2.5 IP Packet Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. - 18· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 8
2.6 IPv6
2.7 Entities and Terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec.-17, May - 19 · · · · · · · · · · Marks 15
2.8 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 18, 19, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · Marks 16
2.9 Mobile Ad-hoc Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 19 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 2
2.10 Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May-17, 18, Dec.-17, 18 · · · · · · Marks 16
2.11 Comparison of Cellular Networks and Ad-hoc Networks ... May-18· · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 2
(2 - 1)
Wireless Networks 2-2 Mobile Network Layer
Introduction : Overview
Whenever the user is connected to an application(s) across the Internet it is said to
be in mobile status. The routers actually uses the IP address in IP datagram to do the
routing function. The network portion of an IP address helps routers to send datagram
from source computer to network where the target computer is attached (connected)
with. Mobile IP can also deal with dynamic IP addresses.
Terminologies related to mobile IP :
· Home address : The IP address on the network is known as home address.
· Home network : A mobile node is designated to a network which is called as
home network.
· Foreign agent : The router on the foreign network is called as foreign agent.
· Foreign network : Whenever the mobile node moves the attachment point to
another network then it is called as foreign network.
Home agent : The mobile node that communicates with the router of its home
network is called as a “home agent”.
Care of address : It is the address that is used to identify the location of foreign
agent.
2.1 Mobile IP AU : May - 18
The mobile internet protocol is denoted as mobile IP.

The ‘MOBILE IP’ is similar to the handoff or roaming situation in cellular mobile
network. The handoff technique helps the user to continue conversation inspite of his
mobility.
Likewise the user who is connected through Internet and his point of attachment
changes dynamically. But all the connections established are maintained without any
disturbances though his underlying network properties change. Basically the IP address
changes from one network to another network. It holds good if the user is static in his
particular network. The ‘MOBILE IP’ enhances the efficiency of network and friendly
with the users.
Inspite of mobility the user finds the connections are still available by this technique.
2.2 Goals and Requirements of Mobile IP AU : May-17, 18, 19, Dec. - 18
In wireless and wired networks as soon as a person leaves his home network packet
data reception is immediately stopped. Because of routing mechanisms packet reception
in mobile status is not possible. On the otherhand addresses of all the computers in
internet has to be kept stored but it is not practically implementable.
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Only if the receiver is available within the physical subnet it will continue to get
data packet. For this the correct topological address is a must. Also higher layer
protocols like TCP always relays on the IP addresses. Hence any change of IP address
may break the TCP connection. A TCP connection can be identified with informations
like
- Source IP address
- Source port
- Destinations IP address
- Destination port.
A charge of IP address will affect TCP connection that has been established. Change
of IP address may be a quick solution but it does not work practically.
Hence apart from this some of the requirements as an alternate to this quick
solutions are
- Compatibility with other computers
- Transparency of mobility status
- Scalability
- Efficiency
- Security.
2.2.1 Terminologies related to Mobile IP
Node : Node is a router or a host.

Mobile node : It is not a must that a mobile node should change its location with
changing of its IP address. A host may change its attachment point from one network to
another.
Home agent
It (router on home network on mobile node) tunnels datagrams to mobile node
whenever mobile node is away from its home network. Home agent also maintains the
location data (information) for mobile node.
Home address
It is an IP address assigned for a period to a mobile node. Wherever the home agent
is connected to network this address remains unchanged.
Correspondent node
The mobile node communicates with a peer and called as correspondent node. It can
be stationary or mobile.
TM

Link
It is a medium used for communication of nodes at link layer.
Tunnel
It is the path that is followed by datagram when encapsulated. At destination side
the delivered datagram is decapsulated.
Foreign network
Except mobile nodes’s home network all other network can be treated as foreign
network.
Care-of-address
Whenever mobile node is away from its home network the care-of-address is the
termination point of a tunnel (path) towards the mobile node.
Home network
Mobile node which is assigned to network is called as home network.
Foreign agent
A router available on a foreign network is known as foreign agent.
2.3 Agent Discovery in Mobile IP AU : Dec.-17, 18, May - 19
Three basic capabilities of mobile IP to support and enhance its operations :

The three basic capabilities, namely ;
Basic capabilities
(1) (2) (3)

Discovery Registration Tunnelling
Fig. 2.3.1
i) Discovery
ii) Registration
iii) Tunneling, are discussed below.
i) Discovery :
Each mobile node uses a particular discovery procedure to identify the respective
home and foreign agents. This mobile IP discovery procedure is built on the top of an
TM

existing router discovery. The router can detect the entry of any new mobile node. The
router will periodically issue a router advertisement message. The mobile node by
noticing this advertisement message will compare the network portion of the router IP
address with network portion of its IP address allocated by the home network.
ii) Registration :
If a mobile node obtains an address (care-of-address) from the distant network

(foreign) then it should be registered with the home agent. The mobile node sends a
request for registration to its home agent along with care-of-address information.
Whenever the home agent receives the registration request information the routing table
is updated and it sends back the registration reply to the mobile node. Registration thus
is done to inform the home agent about its address.
iii) Tunnelling
Introduction
A tunnel basically establishes a pipe (virtual pipe) for their data packets to travel
from tunnel entry and tunnel end point.
But tunnelling a packet does not affect the data. Tunnelling is done using
encapsulation.
The encapsulation is a mechanism of picking a data packet containing a packet
header and data and then fitting it together into the data packet of next new packet. An
opposite procedure of the same is called as decapsulation.
REGISTRATION DISCOVERY TUNNELLING
NTERNET
USER
CONTROL
DATAGRAM
MESSAGE
PROTOCOL
PROTOCOL
INTERNET
PROTOCOL
Fig. 2.3.2 Mobile IP - Protocol support concept

TM

A schematic diagram of mobile IP is given below. The connectivity in the network is

represented as links.
MOBILE
NODE X
HOME
X
NETWORK
FOR
X
3
HOME 2 FOREIGN
AGENT AGENT
INTERNET
1 5
SERVER
NODE A
Fig. 2.3.3 Mobile IP schematic diagram architecture

Case study
The server ‘A’ (say) wants to send an IP datagram to a node X. The home address
of X is known to A. The server A does not know whether X is in its home network or
not. A sends packet to X with home address of X as its destination Internet protocol
address in the IP header. The IP datagram then routed to X’s home network area.
At the X’s home location network the IP datagram is intercepted by the available
home agent. The home agent also discovers that ‘X’ is a foreign network. Then the home
agent encapsulates the full datagram inside a new IP datagram.
At the distant network the IP datagram which is incoming is intercepted by the
foreign agent. The foreign agent acts as a counter part of this home agent in the foreign
network.
X intends to respond to the message and it sends traffic to ‘A’. In this example A is
not mobile. Hence A has a fixed Internet Protocol (IP) address. For routing X’s IP
datagram to A, each datagram is sent to a router in a foreign network, and this router is
a foreign agent.
The IP datagram from X to A then travels across the network using A’s address (IP)
as its destination address.
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2.4 IP-in-IP Encapsulation AU : May - 17, 19, Dec.-17
Original Original
IP header data
New
New data
IP header
Outer header Inner data Original data
Fig. 2.4.1 IP encapsulation

For performing encapsulation their are different ways available. In case of Mobile IP
it is conventional method to use IP-in-IP encapsulation.
In IP-in-IP encapsulation the version is 4 for IP version 4 as mentioned. The Internet
Header Length (IHL) denotes the length of outer header with 32-bit words. TTL must
be high such that it helps packets to reach the end point of tunnel. Other fields are also
shown in IP encapsulation in mobile IP Fig. 2.4.3 on next page.
Minimal encapsulation
VERSION IHL ToS Length
Flags Fragment
ID Identification
offset
Minimal
TTL IP checksum
encapsulation
IP address of HA
Care-of-address
Layer
S Reserved IP checksum
4 protocol
IP address of MN
Original sender IP address when S = 1
PAYLOAD
Fig. 2.4.2 Minimal encapsulation

TM

In the IP-in-IP encapsulation method several fields are just redundant. Hence it is
better to use minimal encapsulation as an optimal method of encapsulation. The tunnel
entry and end point are defined. Here the field for header consists of value 55. The type
of protocol and the address of mobile nodes are required. For fragmentation offset no
field is specified in minimal encapsulation.
The 'S' is set bit. IP cheksum TTL, flags, IP identification are available as shown in
Fig. 2.4.2. The minimal encapsulation will not entertain/work with previously
fragmented data packets.
In the tunnelling operation of mobile-IP, IP-within-IP encapsulation (embedding)
mechanism is applied. For this a new IP header called as tunnel header is added by
home agent. Therefore the home agents address is the tunnel source IP address itself.
VERSION SERVICE TOTAL

IHL
4 TYPE LENGTH
NEW IP HEADER PORTION
FRAGMENT
IDENTIFICATION FLAGS
OFFSET
TIME TO PROTOCOL HEADER

LIVE 4 CHECKSUM
SOURCE ADDRESS/ ADDRESS OF HOME AGENT
DESTINATION ADDRESS/ CARE-OF-ADDRESS
VERSION TYPE OF TOTAL

IHL
4 SERVICE LENGTH
OLD IP HEADER PORTION
FRAGMENT
OFFSET
TIME TO HEADER
LIVE PROTOCOL CHECKSUM
SOURCE ADDRESS/ ORIGINAL ADDRESS
DESTINATION ADDRESS/ HOME ADDRESS
IP PAYLOAD
Fig. 2.4.3 IP encapsulation in mobile IP
TM

2.5 IP Packet Delivery AU : Dec. - 18
For the delivery of data packets to and from the mobile node the needed entities are
- Home network
- Router (Home Agent) - (HA)
- Router (Foreign Agent) - (FA)
- Internet
- Mobile Node (MN)
- Correspondent Node (CN)
If CN want to transmit a packet to MN the mobile IP should be capable to support
the hiding of mobility of MN, because the CN need not be informed about the status of
MN.
Once if a packet is being sent to MN from CN, the Internet that does not have the
location of MN currently will route the packet to the HA to which MN belongs to.
This HA will know the present location of MN. The data packet is not simply
forwarded to the subnet but prior to that it is encapsulated and then tunnelled to
Care-of-Address(CoA). A new header is also added.
Then the Foreign Agent (FA) will decapsulate it and eliminate this header added
additionally forward it to the destination node.
Path 3
Home Router Mobile

Path Router
network (HA) node
2 (FA) (MN)
Path 4
Internet
Foreign
network
Path 1
CN Router
Fig. 2.5.1 Packet delivery procedure
Thus the packet delivery procedure through Internet takes place with the help of
routers and agents as discussed above.
TM

Wireless Networks 2 - 10 Mobile Network Layer
Note : Shaded fields in the IP encapsulation represents the fields that are carried
directly from inner IP header to that of the outer IP header portion.
2.6 IPv6
Every packet in IPv6 consists of a base header and a payload. Each payload is
composed of two parts namely extension headers and data packets from upper layers.
Base Pay load

header
Data packet
Extension from upper
header layer
Fig. 2.6.1 Packet Format - IPv6
In IPv6 the version number is 6. A four bit priority field defines the priority of
packets.
Version PRI Flow label
(VER) (4 bits) (24 bits)
6 bits
Next header Hopping limit

Payload length
(8 bits) (8 bits)
Address of source (16 bytes)

Address of destination (16 bytes)
Payload extension
header + Data packets of
upper layer
Fig. 2.6.2 IPv6 datagram format
There is eight-bit hop limit field. The source and destination address fields are of
16 bytes each. Priority of each packet is defined in the priority field in IPv6.
A sequence of packets that emerges from a particular source to an intented
destination requires special kind of handling by the routers. This is known as flow of
packets.
IPv6 provides many features than IPv4 to broden the internet protocol.
Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6 packet headers :
· The header field length is deleted in IPv6 and its length is fixed.
· The service type field is also eliminated.
TM

· The identification (ID), offset and flag fields are included in the fragmentation
extension header.
· The header checksum is provided by the upper layer protocols.
· In IPv4 there is optional field available. It is implemented as extension headers in
the IPv6 protocol.
Introduction to IPv6 :
The Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) provides access to different information
sources across the globe. The address space is expandable. The IPv6 makes use of 128
bit addresses for every packet. There are both local and global addresses available. The
link local addresses are present within the subnet whereas global addresses are helpful
in routing process of global Internet.
In IPv6 a three level addressing is used. This hierarchical addressing includes .
· A public topology
· Site topology and
· An interface identifier.
2.6.1 IPv6 Security
In IPv6 all the nodes mainly implements authentication and required encryption. It
results in strong Internet security.
IPv6 integrates different security techniques in the system such as,
· Public key cryptography to provide two- party identities.
· Bulk encryption algorithm to provide data encryption.
· Digital ID cards methods in which authenticated signed digital certificates are
used.
· IP network layer encryption is ensured.
· Diffie-Hellman key exchanging mechanisms for key deriving procedures within
peer users, etc.
2.6.2 Mobility Support for IPv6
Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) has many features for providing mobility support.
In IPv4 (version-4) has no such feature. IPv6 also has stateless configuration and
neighbour discovery facility with the hierarchical addressing schemes IPv6 is able to
manage IP mobility. The process of renumbering is simplified to some extent. IPv6
retains the guidelines of home agent, home network and the encapsulation procedures
TM

for delivering data packets to the mobile node's present point of attachment from the
home network.
In case if discovery of care-of-address in still in process then a node can configure its
care-of-address with the help of applying stateless address autoconfiguration and
neighbour discovery in the IP network layer. Hence in IPv6 it does not require and
foreign agents to provide mobility support.
2.7 Entities and Terminologies AU : Dec.-17, May - 19
i) Mobile Node (MN) :

A mobile node (MN) is a router or an end-system that is capable of changing its
point of connection to the internet with the help of mobile IP. Mobile need not be
smaller devices. For example a router onboard of an aircraft is a mobile node.
ii) Home Network :
A home network is nothing but a subnet to which a mobile node belongs to (with
corresponding IP address). Within the home network there is no need of mobile IP.
iii) Correspondent Node (CN) :
For a mobile node atleast one partner is required. The correspondent node (CN)
acts as partner for MN and CN can be mobile or a fixed node.
iv) Foreign Network (FN) :
The foreign network is a current subnet to which the mobile node visits. It is
completely different from home network.
COA
HOME ROUTER ROUTER
NETWORK (HA) (FA) MOBILE
NODE
(MN)
INTERNET FOREIGN
NETWORK
CORRESPONDENCE
NODE ROUTER
(CN)
Fig. 2.7.1 Mobile IP network

v) Foreign Agent (FA) :
The FA provides many services to the mobile node during its visit to that the
foreign network. This FA can act as default router for the mobile node.
TM

vi) Care-of Address (COA) :

COA
The current location of MN is defined by care-of
address (with respect to IP). The packets sent to that
of the MN are delivered to COA and they are not
delivered directly to the MN's IP address. The address a. Foreign b. Co-located
agent COA
at which the packets finally exit is known as tunnel. COA
The COA express the tunnel endpoint. Fig. 2.7.2
a. Foreign agent COA :
The COA may be an IP address of foreign agent (FA). It can be located at FA.
b. Co-located COA :
The COA will be co-located if the mobile node (MN) has acquired an extra IP
address that acts as COA. This address may be topologically correct. Here the tunnel
end point will be at the MN.
Note :
The co-located addresses can be acquired using the services like dynamic host
configuration protocol (DHCP).
vii) Home Agent (HA) :
It is located in home network and it provides several services for the MN. Only at
HA the tunnel for packets towards MN will start.
Three methods of implementation of HA
HA can
HA can HA can be implemented
be implemented be implemented on router but HA
on router on an acts only as manager
arbitrary for the mobile
node nodes that belong
to a virtual home network
Fig. 2.7.3
2.7.1 Mobile IP Schematic Architecture
Mobile internet protocol is denoted as mobile IP. A schematic diagram of it is shown

below. The connectivity in the network is represented as links.
TM

MOBILE
NODE X
HOME
X
NETWORK
FOR
X
3
HOME 2 FOREIGN
AGENT AGENT
INTERNET
1 5
SERVER
NODE A
Fig. 2.7.4 Mobile IP schematic diagram architecture
Case study
The server ‘A’ (say) wants to send an IP datagram to a node X. The home address
of X is known to A. The server A does not know whether X is in its home network or
not. A sends packet to X with home address of X as its destination internet protocol
address in the IP header. The IP datagram then routed to X’s home network area.
At the X’s home location network the IP datagram is intercepted by the available
home agent. The home agent also discovers that ‘X’ is a foreign network. Then the home
agent encapsulates the full datagram inside a new IP datagram.
At the distant network the IP datagram which is incoming is intercepted by the
foreign agent. The foreign agent acts as a counterpart of this home agent in the foreign
network.
X intends to respond to the message and it sends traffic to ‘A’. In this example A is
not mobile. Hence A has a fixed Internet Protocol (IP) address. For routing X’s IP
datagram to A, each datagram is sent to a router in a foreign network, and this router is
a foreign agent.
The IP datagram from X to A then travels across the network using A’s address (IP)
as its destination address.
TM

It is important that a mobile IP should have three basic capabilities.

i) Discovery
ii) Registration
iii) Tunneling
Each of the above are discussed in detail below.
i) Discovery :
Each mobile node uses a particular discovery procedure to identify the respective
home and foreign agents. This mobile IP discovery procedure is built on the top of an
eisting router discovery. The router can detect the entry of any new mobile node. The
router will periodically issue a router advertisement message. The mobile node by
noticing this advertisement message will compare the network portion of the router IP
address with network portion of its IP address allocated by the home network.
ii) Registration :
If a mobile node obtains an address (care-of-address) from the distant network
(foreign) then it should be registered with the home agent. The mobile node sends a
request for registration to its home agent along with care-of-address information.
Whenever the home agent receives the registration request information the routing table
is updated and it sends back the registration reply to the mobile node. Registration thus
is done to inform the home agent about its address.
· Authentication
It is a part of registration phase. The mobile host has to be authenticated. A digital
signature is generated using the MD5 hashing algorithm and 128 bit secret key. The
mobile node and the home agent will share a common key for security purpose and this
key is not known by any third party or intruders. A triplet (home address, registration
life time and care-of-address) is maintained at the home agent at the end of registration.
This is known as binding the mobile node.
The registration process has four important steps.
1. The mobile node sends a registration request to foreign agent for forwarding its
service from the foreign agent.
2. This request from mobile node is relayed to home agent of mobile node by the
foreign node.
3. The home agent rejects or accepts it and reply is sent.
4. Finally the foreign agent relays the reply message to the corresponding mobile
node which actually requested it.
iii) Tunnelling
In the tunneling operation of mobile - IP, IP - within - IP encapsulation (embedding)
mechanism is applied. For this a new IP header called as tunnel header is added by
home agent. Therefore the home agents address is the tunnel source IP address itself.
TM

VERSION SERVICE TOTAL

IHL
4 TYPE LENGTH
NEW IP HEADER PORTION

FRAGMENT
OFFSET
TIME TO PROTOCOL HEADER

LIVE 4 CHECKSUM
SOURCE ADDRESS/ ADDRESS OF HOME AGENT
DESTINATION ADDRESS/ CARE-OF-ADDRESS
VERSION TYPE OF TOTAL

IHL
4 SERVICE LENGTH
OLD IP HEADER PORTION
FRAGMENT
OFFSET
TIME TO HEADER
LIVE PROTOCOL CHECKSUM
SOURCE ADDRESS/ ORIGINAL ADDRESS
DESTINATION ADDRESS/ HOME ADDRESS
IP PAYLOAD
Fig. 2.7.5 IP encapsulation in mobile IP
· Note : Shaded fields in the IP encapsulation represents the fields that are carried
directly from inner IP header to that of the outer IP header portion.
2.8 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) AU : May - 18, 19, Dec.-18
A simple VoIP architecture subject to Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is given here.
This protocol mainly pertains to Voice over IP and specifically suited for the
Internet. Mobile users can establish a call, connect or terminate as desired. The SIP
supports various types to establish and terminate the multimedia communications as
below
· User location -For communication determining the location and end system that
has to be used.
· User availability - Finding if person called is available.
· User capability- Type of media that is to be used
· Call setup - Engaging the call by dialling to establish the connection
· Call handling - Deals with transfer of voice data
· Call termination - When call is over resources are released
TM

Location Redirect Registrar

server server unit
Proxy Proxy
server server
hp
Gateway PSTN
User
agent
SIP components
Fig. 2.8.1 SIP Architecture
· Communication can be effected between two computers or mobiles in the

network. The other devices which take part in the VoIP are
· Proxy server
· Gateways
· Location server
· Registrar server
· Redirect server
Each plays a role in the communication
2.9 Mobile Ad-hoc Network AU : May - 19
In recent years wireless network nodes became popular and as the applications
using Internet is high. Sometimes an user may be interested in using a laptop computer
without making routing functions via global internet. For such cases internet protocols
will not be required. Thus the mobile computer users can be allowed to set up a short
lived network with wireless communication devices, for a particular moment. This
network is known as ad-hoc network. It is independent of infrastructure. Thus even
when there is no infrastructure available an ad-hoc network can be formed.
TM

The wireless computing devices are able to communicate with each other in ad-hoc
networking, it is possible even there is no,
* Routers or
* Base stations or
* Internet service providers
The ad-hoc network and mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) are discussed in this
chapter.
2.9.1 Characteristics of Ad-hoc Networks
· The topology of ad-hoc networks is dynamic in nature and changes in their

topology is possible. But to attain a reliable output quality frequent changes can
be avoided.
· Due to wireless transmission their physical security is limited.
· The capacity of these network is lower when compared with wired networks.
· They experience higher loss rates, higher delays and also the jitter than the fixed
type of networks.
· They use either exhaustible power supplies or batteries for getting energy. In
network design it is very important to consider power saving.
· In a perfect 'ad-hoc network' it has all the seven layers from physical layer to
application layer.
· In designing an ad-hoc network their exists high complexity with physical layer
setups but in case of mobile networks it will be taken care by their base stations.
· The informations related to network destiny, link failures, nodes distributions has
to be clearly defined for ad-hoc networks.
· To obtain a better network structure it is important that the MAC layer and
network layer should collaborate with each other.
· The ad-hoc network is independent of any central control or infrastructure.
The ad-hoc networks has ability of providing

· Instant infrastructure in case of sudden meetings, unplanned interpersonal
communications etc. Planned infrastructures are not required.
· Remote area networking : In parsley populated areas where infrastructure setup
is difficult ad-hoc networks can be established.
TM

· Effective system : The ad-hoc packet oriented network setup is less expensive and
also effective. These ad-hoc networks provides a better solution for application
specific cases.
A working group at IETF under ad-hoc networks focused on mobile ad-hoc
networking termed as 'MANET' in the year of 2002.
A relation between MANET and mobile IP is shown in the Fig. 2.9.3. (See Fig. 2.9.3
on page 22)
2.9.2 Overview of MANET's
The "mobile ad-hoc networks" MANETs have many advantages and one of the most
important advantage is its "Infrastructure independent" nature. The ad-hoc networks
does not need infrastructure's that is required for other wireless networks. The term
infrastructure includes need of base stations, routers etc.
The ad-hoc networks are composed of the equal nodes that can communicate with
each other through wireless links. Their is no central control for their work.
The important features of ad-hoc networks and MANET's are discussed in detail in
this chapter.
The term MANET describes mobile, wireless, distributed multihop networks that
could operate independent of infrastructure. A MANET network is composed of mobile,
autonomous, wireless nodes that could be connected at network edges to that of the
fixed wired internet. Initially MANET is developed due to military requirements where
infrastructure less, line of sight operations are required.
2.9.3 Salient features of MANET includes

1) Network Size
It refers to the geographical coverage area that could be covered by the network. The
number of nodes for a given geographical area represent network density.
2) Connectivity
It refers to many issues. One such is the number of neighbouring nodes that could
link to them directly. This link may be bidirectional. Connectivity also refers to link
capacity between any two nodes.
3) Network Topology
The user mobility can affect the network topology. Due to it the network protocols
has to adapt to topology changes. Conversely when nodes are inoperative due to dead
batteries their will be rapid changes in topology.
TM

4) User Traffic
The design of MANET is thick related with user traffic. It includes some conditions
like,
· Does the user traffic consist of bursty, shorter packets without periodic delays ?
· Does it contain longer packets sent periodically with fixed time bounds ?
· Or is it a combination of these two suitations ?
5) Operational Environment
It refers to terrain whether it is a urban, rural or maritime etc. Due to any one of
this LOS may not exist.
6) Energy
In MANET there is no availability of fixed base stations. A low energy network
approach is tried with battery operated store and forward nodes in the network.
If some nodes are not participating in network operations shutting them for some
time can be done.
In addition to there issues cost involved in MANET designed is also high that has to
be planned with a proper balance with network features.
2.9.4 Example for MANET
An example of MANET connected to an internet is shown in Fig. 2.9.1. Individual

nodes transmits and receives data with globalized internet arrangement.
A simple ad-hoc network composed of nodes and the complexity involved with
network setup are shown in following diagrams.
hp
hp
Global
Internet
hp
hp
hp
hp
hp
Fig. 2.9.1 MANET connected to internet

TM

hp hp
hp
hp
Fig. 2.9.2 Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET)
R1 R2 R3
Mobile
router
(R1-R3)
MANET
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
Mobile
devices
(D1 - D7)
Mobile IP
DHCP
Fixed
network
Fig. 2.9.3 MANET and mobile IP [ ® Router ; ® End system ]
The mobile router (I) and mobile devices (II) forms MANET as shown here. It's
relation with fixed network is established.
TM

Highly dynamic,
Scarce Shared
unpredictable
link links
networks
resources
Effects Several
due to rapid updates
topology in routing
Lower Access
changes
bandwidths to the
overhead
information
Efficiency
Many
algorithms
at various
time scales.
Control over
the transmission
parameters
Several
algorithms
Integrated algorithms
that can be complex and
would violate layering
Fig. 2.9.4 Complexities in 'ad-hoc' network arrangement
2.10 Routing AU : May-17, 18, Dec.-17, 18
Routing is a complex task in ad-hoc networks. The destination node may be out of
range with respect to source node which is transmitting data packets.
The purpose of routing is to find correct path between the source and destination for
forwarding packets. If infrastructure is available in wireless networks routing will be an
easier task because there the cells are defined.
But in ad-hoc network independent of infrastructure routine is tough task.
Thus in ad-hoc networks,
· The traditional routing algorithms will not be suitable.
· Centralized approaches will not be appropriate.
· Several nodes in network should have routing capability.
· They have no connection and ad-hoc network between nodes and they experience
fast changing environment.
· If the load is less a method called as "flooding" can be applied in ad-hoc
networking. But flooding is not an efficient method. To avoid looping as packets
are forwarded, a hop counter should be used because the knowledge of
maximum number of hops is very important. Still this flooding technique is not
much used for packet forwarding.
TM

2.10.1 MANET Vs Traditional Routing
· In MANET's each node is a potential router whereas most of the nodes in

traditional wired networks do not route the packets.
· In MANET the nodes transmit and receive their own packets and they also
forward packets to other nodes.
· In MANET the topology is dynamic because of the mobile nodes but relatively it
is static in case of traditional routing methods.
· The routing in MANET must consider the layer 2 and layer 3 informations
whereas in traditional routing protocols they rely on layer 3 information only.
· In MANET the link layer informations includes the data about connectivity and
interferences.
Main issues to be addressed by routing protocol in MANET are ;
1) Routing discovery
2) Data forwarding
3) Route maintenance
2.10.2 Types of MANET Routing
The MANET's routing protocols are classified as proactive (table-driven) and reactive
(on-demand) types.
MANET routing protocols
1 2
Proactive Reactive
Hybrid
Fig. 2.10.1
These classification depends upon how they respond to any changes in network
topology.
If a host is running a proactive protocol will react to topology change by
propagating routing related informations to the neighbours. Such information
transmission takes place whenever there is a change in link state is detected.
2.10.3 Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV)
The Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV) is a table driven

algorithm based on Bellman Ford routing mechanism. It is highly useful for mobile
networks. There are two types of mobile networks namely,
TM

1. Infrastructured network
2. Ad hoc network.
In the first type it has the fixed and wired gateways and in the second type it
consists of infrastructureless mobile network. It has no fixed routers. All the nodes are
flexible with dynamic connections in the network in a arbitrary manner. The applications
of ad hoc network are meetings where quick information sharing is a must and
emergency search and rescue operation cases etc. The ad hoc network of early days had
few drawbacks like the following.
1. High power consumption 2. Low bandwidth. 3. High error rates
The routing information must be properly advertised by broadcasting or multicasting
the packets that are transmitted periodically.
Decision has to be made based on the data and delaying of advertising the routes
are allowed. The idea of delaying is to avoid many number of rebroadcasts in the
network due to instability.
The two types of protocols are table driven routing protocol and source initiated
(demand-driven type) routing protocol.
The table driven routing protocol tries to maintain consistent and up-to-date routing
related information from each node to every other node in the network.
The DSDV protocol under this category requires every mobile station to advertise to
every current neighbour. The entries of the list may dynamically change and it makes
way for requirement of frequent advertisements to take place. Hence every node can
have knowledge about every other mobile computer.
The DSDV protocol enables shortest number of hops for a route to a destination. The
mobile computers frequently link with base stations that allows them to exchange
information with other computers connected in the wired networks.
In an ad hoc network movement of host (mobile host) is supported by this protocol.
For example the mobile host (MH 1 , MH 2 , MH 3 ....) can move in an ad hoc network.
MH3 MH4
MH5
MH2 MH6 MH8
Mobile
host
MH7
MH1 MH1
Fig. 2.10.2 Movement enabled in an ad hoc network

TM

The movement of each mobile host (MH i ) is possible and each one has its sequence
number. A table is maintained and updated as the hopping takes place. Advertisements
of routing information in the network is made whenever required. The DSDV routing
protocol well suits the movement of mobile hosts.
The fluctuations of routing has to be avoided. The updation of routes are done as
per few important criteria.
1. Routes are preferred if sequence numbers are same and still the metric is lower.
2. Routes are preferred (most of the time) if the sequence numbers are newer.
To avoid damping fluctuations setting time has to be properly used. The setting has
three fields keyed with first field.
1. Destination address field
2. Last settling time field
3. Average settling time field.
Advantages of DSDV protocol

1) The Dynamic Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) routing protocol guarantees
loop free paths to every destination.
2) Effective protocol under table driven category for movement of mobile hosts.
3) It maintains stability.
4) Compatible with Ad hoc networks.
5) It is good for the system in steady state condition.
6) DSDV protocol models mobile computers as routers that co-operates to forward
packets according to the needs of the network.
7) It can be utilized at either network layer (layer 3) or below the network layer
(above the MAC layer), with few additional information along with the routing
informations.
8) DSDV uses settling time and sequence number and hence enables the routing
table free from damped fluctuations.
2.10.4 IoT : CoAP
CoAP in Constrained Application Protocol and it is an IoT protocol. It is well

defined in RFC7252. CoAP is a protocol with low overhead. It is suitable for
microcontroller devices.
It is designed for the operation of controlled devices and controlled networks.
It comprises of
· Web protocol used in M2M
TM

· Asynchronous message transfer

· Low overhead
· URI, content
· Proxy and caching.
Though there are similarities to the HTTP we must understand that CoAP is tailor
made for IoT.
APPLICATION
REQUEST or
RESPONSE
COAP
MESSAGES
UDP
Fig. 2.10.3 CoAP - Abstraction protocol layer
As seen in Fig. 2.10.3 above the request/response and messages layers from the
CoAP protocol.
CoAP supports following types of messages
· Confirmable
· Non confirmable
· Acknowledgement
· Reset.
The CoAP comprises (i) A binary header (ii) A compact option (iii) The payload.
The CoAP generates two types of messages (a) Confirmable and
(b) Non-confirmable.
Confirmable message (CON) is obtained from reliable source. Confirmable message
is acknowledge by (ACK) message as shown in Fig. 2.10.4 below.
TM

Client Server
Confirmable message
CON (ID : 0 × BB51)
Acknowledgment message
ACK (ID : 0 × BB51)
Fig. 2.10.4 CON and ACK massages - An example
The Non confirmable (NON) messages however do not require an ACK message as
shown in Fig. 2.10.5.
Client Server
Non-confirmable message
NON (ID : 0 × BB51)
Fig. 2.10.5 Non message - An example
The request is sent by the client by a CON or NON message. The server then sends
its ACK message of the request is in CON message form.
CoAP uses User Datagram Protocol [UDP] to transport data and UDP security
aspects cover its information.
2.11 Comparison of Cellular Networks and Ad-hoc Networks

AU : May-18
The cellular wireless networks like GSM, CDMA are infrastructure type. The cellular
network consists of a main central entity say base station and other mobile devices are
mobile subscribers. Any communication between mobile devices and mobile transceiver
station (MTS) takes place through the base station. Depending upon the range both
macrocell and microcell works with its base station.
But in Ad-hoc networks it operates without any infrastructure. They are self
organising multihop networks. There is no central entity like cellular networks. The
mesh networks and WSN networks are few examples of Ad-hoc networks. A simple
comparison of cellular networks with the Ad-hoc networks is tabulated below.
TM

Parameter Specification Cellular Networks Ad-hoc Networks
Topology Star type Mesh type
Bandwidth Mechanism Allocation is guaranteed Allocation is based on the

shared channels
Routing Routing is centralized Decentralized
Number of hops Single hop type Multiple hops
Switching type Circuit switching Packet switching
Cost Higher cost involved Lower cost
Time Takes more time for deployment It does not take more time for
deployment
Network Maintenance It needs periodic maintenance Since the nodes are self
organising maintenance is easier
Frequency reuse Static frequency reuse is applied Using a carrier sence

mechanism a dynamic
frequency re-use is applied
Call drop problem Lower call drops Higher call drops
Thus cellular networks differs from Ad-hoc networks in several aspects respectively.
Review Questions
Part A
1. Define ‘mobile IP’.
2. List any three important features of mobile IP.
3. What is known as home address ?
4. Write short notes on link and tunnel.
5. Write short note on Internet protocol.
6. Explain architecture of mobile IP.
7. Write a note on tunnelling.
8. What is known as DHCP ?
9. What are the applications of DHCP ?
10. How DHCP helps to maintain proper number of IP addresses ?
11. What are the advantages of DHCP ?
12. What is a ‘BOOTP’ ?
13. What are the constraints in using ‘BOOTP’ ?
14. Write a short note on ‘Routing’ ?
15. List four devices which are connected with internet.
TM

16. What is the function of a ‘Router’ ?

17. Define ‘gateway’ ?
18. Explain : a) Gateways b) Bridges and c) Repeaters.
19. What are types of a bridge device ?
20. Explain the different aspects that can influence LAN’s which are connected with bridges.
21. What are : a) Least cost routing b) Adaptive routing c) Non adaptive routing ? Explain.
22. What is ‘DSDV’ ? Explain in detail.
23. What are the three mechanisms applied for IP address allocation ?
24. Explain dynamic source routing in detail.
25. Write a short note on : a) Minimum route change metrics and b) Link change rate.
26. Define ‘link duration’.
27. Explain ‘Mobile IP’ in detail.
28. What is known as MANET ?
29. What are the advantages of MANET ?
30. Write short note on properties of MANET ?
31. What are the routing algorithms used in MANET ?
32. Write short note on security in MANET.
33. Draw the structure of MANET and mobile IP.
34. Differentiate wired and ad-hoc networks.
35. Define routing.
36. Write short note on dynamic topology.
37. Write short note on DSDV.
38. List the types of messages supported by CoAP.
39. Give an example for confirmable message in CoAP.
40. Draw the simple abstraction protocol layers in CoAP.
41. Give an example for non-confirmable message in CoAP ?
42. What is the advantages of CoAP in IoT ?
Part B
1. Explain destination sequence distance vector in detail.
2. Explain dynamic source routing in detail.
3. Explain MANET in detail.
4. Explain security in MANET's in detail.
5. Explain the structure of MANET's and mobile IP with a neat sketch.
6. Explain various routing algorithms in detail.
7. Explain security in MANET's and applications of ad-hoc networks.
8. Write short notes on i) DSDV and ii) Advantages of routing.
9. Explain the properties and advantages of MANET in detail.
10. Explain DSDV protocol in detail.
11. Explain CoAP in detail.
TM

12. Write short notes an,

i) IPVb ii) CoAP in IoT.
13. Explain the concept of mobile IP, SIP and agent discovery procedure.
Part A
1. What is care of address in mobile IP ? (Refer section 2.2.1) AU : May - 17, Marks 2
2. What is Encapsulation in mobile IP ? (Refer section 2.4) AU : May - 17, Marks 2
3. When the agent solicitation message has to be sent by mobile node ? (Refer section 2.7.1)
4. Why is routing in multi-hop ad-hoc networks complicated ? (Refer section 2.10)
5. What is a Mobile IP ? What are the entities of Mobile IP ? (Refer sections 2.1 and 2.2)
6. Differentiate an ad hoc network with respect to :
a) Bandwidth usage b) Cost effectiveness. (Refer sections 2.11) AU : May - 18, Marks 2
7. Define SIP. Write the funtions of SIP. (Refer section 2.8) AU : Dec. - 18, Marks 2
8. Differentiate proactive and reactive routing protocols. Write examples for each.
(Refer section 2.10.2) AU : Dec. - 18, Marks 2
9. Define the term Care of address in mobile IP. (Refer section 2.2.1) AU : May - 19, Marks 2
10. Outline the characteristics of MANET. (Refer section 2.9.1) AU : May - 19, Marks 2
Part B
1. State the entities and terminologies used in Mobile IP along with tunneling and also explain the
three types of encapsulation mechanisms used in mobile IP. (Refer section 2.2.1 and 2.4)
AU : May-17, Marks 16
2. Explain and compare the working mechanism of both destination sequence distance vector and
dynamic source routing protocol when applied on a mobile network scenario.
(Refer section 2.2.1 and Appendix Q.54) AU : May-17, Marks 16
3. Explain how tunneling works in general especially for mobile IP using IP in IP, minimal and
generic routing encapsulation respectively. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these three
methods. (Refer sections 2.3 and 2.4) AU : Dec.-17, Marks 16
4. Explain the Mobile IP session intiation protocol for IP pocket delivery in Mobile IP Networks.
(Refer sections 2.1 and 2.8) AU : May-18, Marks 16
5. Explain with neat diagram and example the destination sequence distance vector routing algorithm
of Adhoc Networks. (Refer section 2.10.3) AU : May-18, Marks 16
6. Imagine the following scenario. A Japanese and a German meet at a conference on Hawaii. Both
want to use their laptops for exchanging data, both run mobile IP for mobility support. Explain the
optimizations speed in this mobile IP networks. (Refer sections 2.3 and 2.5)
AU : Dec.-18, Marks 8
TM

7. Discuss on the entities and terminolgy of mobile IP Networks. (Refer section 2.2.1)
8. Explain the destination sequence distance vector routing protocol. Mention its features.
(Refer section 2.10.3) AU : Dec.-18, Marks 16
9. How the tunneling and IP in IP encapsulation occur in the mobile IP ?
10. Analyse all possible solutions to be adopted for giving mobility support in the network layer such
that both delay constraints along with throughput levels are achieved.
(Refer sections 2.7, 2.7.1 and 2.8) AU : May-19, Marks 15
qqq
TM

Notes
TM

Unit
3G Overview
III
Syllabus
Overview of UTMS Terrestrial Radio access network-UMTS Core network Architecture : 3GPP
Architecture, User equipment, CDMA2000 overview - Radio and Network components, Network
structure, Radio Network, TD-CDMA, TD - SCDMA
Contents
3.1 Overview of UMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 18,19· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 2
3.2 Basic Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 17, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 2
3.3 Air Interface Protocol Structure fo UMTS . . . . . . May - 17,18,19, Dec.-17 · · · · · · Marks 16
3.4 UMTS Core Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . May - 17,18, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · · Marks 16
3.5 Third Generation (3G) Standards and Networks
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 17,19, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · · Marks 16
3.6 UTRA-TDD (TD-CDMA)
3.7 TD-SCDMA
(3 - 1)
Wireless Networks 3-2 3G Overview
3.1 Overview of UMTS AU : May-18,19
The European proposal for IMT-2000 is called as Universal Mobile

Telecommunication System (UMTS). It made a big revolution in the third generation era.
The group of special mobile (GSM) enhancement towards UMTS is often known as
“EDGE” technology which stands for enhanced data rates are upto 384 kbits/sec using
200 kHz wide carrier with same frequencies as that of GSM. The basic structure of
UMTS comprises of user equipment, radio network subsystem and core network. UMTS
supports FDD and TDD modes. The FDD mode for UTRA uses the wideband CDMA
(W-CDMA) with direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) scheme. Hence the up and
downlinks under FDD uses different frequencies. The uplink carrier is around 1920 to
1980 MHz.
GSM also fits itself into ETSI and termed as global multimedia mobility (GMM).
UMTS provides different services.
1. Real time services
2. Bearer services
3. Non real time services
4. Circuit and packet switched methods of transmissions.
3.2 Basic Block Diagram AU : May-17, Dec.-18
UE UTRAN CN
UE - User Equipment
UTRAN - UTRA Network
CN - Core Network
Fig. 3.2.1 UMTS - Basic block diagram
The UTRA network called as ‘UTRAN’ enables cell level mobilities and it has many
radio network subsystems (RNS). The main functions of RNS is listed below.
1. Call handover control
2. Channel ciphering and deciphering
3. Radio resource management
In the architecture of UMTS, the user equipment (UE) is connected to core network
‘CN’ via UTRAN block.
Functions like
1. Gateways to other (external) networks
2. Inter system handover are handled by core network
There are two types of modes compatible with UTRA system.
TM

a. UTRA FDD mode

b. UTRA TDD mode
The wideband CDMA namely W-CDMA is used for UTRA FDD and up and
downlinks use separate frequencies. FDD mode can provide 250 channels (approx), for
handling user traffic; (e.g. voice channel facility). Direct sequence spread spectrum (DS)
coding is compatible and data rate of 2 Mbits/sec can be achieved here. Many logical
and physical channels can be assigned. User data (from layer two and higher layer) is
sent over uplink dedicated physical data channel (uplink DPDCH) and in UTRA, the
FDD mode makes use of wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) along with direct sequence
spreading (DSS). The mobile uplink frequency range is from 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz
and the downlink frequency used by base station is from 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz. It is
possible to accommodate 250 channels approximately with this specified frequency
spectrum range. Like GSM, in UTRA technology there are logical and physical channels
available for the users. In uplink the uplink dedicated physical data channel (uplink
DPDCH) is used to transport user data/information. The uplink dedicated physical
control channel (uplink DPCCH) is used in transport layer to control data (like data
used for controlling power).
The control data from mobile station is carried by physical random access channel
(PRACH) for random access purposes.
In downlink case the user data/information and control data from layer one are
carried by downlink dedicated physical channel (DPCH downlink). The chip rate may be
4.096 Mchip/sec and it may be extended for different applications in future upto
16.384 Mchip/sec.
The modulation scheme used is QPSK. CDMA technique which is compatible with
UTRA has many features like,
i) Localization of mobile stations.
ii) Soft handovers.
iii) High degree of accuracy.
CDMA scheme has a drawback of “complex power control” during a “call progress”.
3.2.1 UTRA - TDD Mode AU : May-17
The time division duplexing mode of the UTRA technology makes use of wideband
TDMA/CDMA for the medium access and the up/down links uses the same frequency.
The data rate is 2 Mbit/sec for about 120 channels (approx) in case of the user traffic.
The direct sequence (DSS) type of spreading code is applied and the modulation scheme
used is QPSK. In TDD the power controlling can be slower than the FDD because the
number of power controlling cycles in one second are less. It is worth noting that the
TM

frame structures of FDD and TDD are same and hence both the schemes can coexist in
necessary conditions.
3.3 Air Interface Protocol Structure of UMTS AU : Dec.-17, May-17,18,19
The W-CDMA-UMTS is also called as UTRA-FDD. The physical layer of this

standard can be related to be radio interface when observing one particular link between
base station and a terminal. The air interface protocol structure of WCDMA is shown
below.
The physical layer provides transfer services information to the next layer using
various types of channels. While considering channels there are three important types
of channels which have to be considered. They are
i) Logical channels
ii) Transport channels
iii) Physical channels

In the protocol structure block diagram all the three channels are shown. The logical
channels are responsible for transfer of information between RLC and MAC layers. The
physical channel clearly defines the required code and frequency ranges for both up and
downlinks. The characteristics of the data/information is sent over the channel by
transport channels. In the W-CDMA the physical layer provides services to the
respective MAC layer through the transport channels.
Physical channels in W-CDMA.
In W-CDMA some of the physical channels carry information on the downlink
channels as listed below.
· CPICH (Common Pilot Channel)
· SCH (Synchronization Channel)
· AICH (Acquisition Indication channel)
· PICH (Paging Indication Channel)
· CSICH (CPCH Status Indication Channel)
· CD/CA-ICH (Collision Detection/Channel)
· Assignment indication channel (See Fig. 3.3.1 On next page)

The first two channels CPICH and SCH have to be transmitted by every base
station. The various transport channels are mapped on different physical channels. A
few physical and transport channels are identical. Let this group be X.
TM

Control Plane Signalling User Plane Information
Radio Resource
Control (RRC)
Radio
Bearers
Layer - 2
Packet Data
Convergence
Control
Protocol (PDCP)
Control
Control
Control
Layer - 2
Control Broadcast
Multicast
Control (BMC)
Layer - 2 Radio Link Control (RLC)

Logical Channels
Layer - 2 Medium Access Control (MAC)
Transport Channels
Layer - 2 Medium Access Control (MAC)
Physical Channal
Air Interface
Fig. 3.3.1 Air interface protocol structure of W-CDMA(UMTS)

On the other hand a few physical channels act as carriers for a portion of the
transport channels. This group of channels let it be denoted as Y. A simple mapping of
transport channels onto physical channels is shown below.
Transport channel Physical channels
Group X RACH ® PRACH (Physical Random Access Channel)
BCH ® PCCPCH (Primary Common Control Physical Channel
DSCH ® PDSCH (Physical Downlink Shared Channel)
CPCH ® PCPCH (Physical Common Packet Channel)
PCH ù ® SCCPCH (Secondary Common Control Physical

FACHúû Channel)
Group Y ® DPCCH (Dedicated Physical Control Channel)

DCH
® DPDCH (Dedicated Physical Data Channel)
Thus the transport channels are mapped onto the physical channels.
TM

Then the important transmission characteristics of W-CDMA includes,

1) Identical characteristics of up and downlinks.
i) Radio frame structure of 10 msec.
ii) Spreading/channelization codes (OVSF codes)
iii) System frame number (SFN) of 12 bits.
iv) Chip rate of 3.84 Megachips/sec
v) Channel spacing of 5 MHz.
vi) Long code of 38400 chips.
2) Uplink channel characteristics.
In W-CDMA the uplink channel characteristics the main operations are
i) Spreading
ii) Scrambling
iii) Modulation
After spreading and scrambling it forms the CDMA signal.
cos( t)
DPDCH I Real
q(t)
Adder
+ Adder O/P
DPCCH Q I jQ Img
j q(t)
Scrambling sin( t)
code
Spreading Scrambling Modulation

(a)
Bit rate Chip rate Chip rate
DATA
Channelization Scambling
code code
(b)
Fig. 3.3.2 Transmission characteristics

a) W-CDMA (UMTS) uplink spreading, scrambling and modulation operations
b) Spreading and scrambling
The Walsh codes are used in WCDMA. The spreading codes in WCDMA are known
as orthogonal variable spreading factor (OVSF) codes. Then spreading factor can vary
from 4 to 512. This standard uses 3.84 megachips/sec chip rate and maintained as
TM

constant. By using shorter spreading codes higher data rates and by using longer
spreading codes lower data rates are obtained. Thus by decreasing spreading factor the
data rate can be increased. But it will also reduce the number of cellular users which can
be supported. The reason is fewer codes are only available in case of shorter spreading
factor.
In case of demodulation pilot symbols are used. The channels DPCH, CCPCH and
the PRACH carriers pilot symbols.
In spreading at the transmitter end, the channelization code is capable of identifying
the physical data channels DPDCH and control channels (DPCCH) with the code length.
The process of scrambling follows the spreading. It uses gold code that has a
pseudorandom characteristics. The long code has 10 msec frame and used at rake
receiver in base station. The short code is used when the base station applies multiuser
detection techniques.
In modulation combine Inphase-Quadrature, code multiplexing is used (i.e. dual
channel QPSK scheme).
The transmission power can be reduced by having faster power control in the
uplinks.
In downlink channel characteristics the same functions dealt under uplink are done
and at first the DPCH serial bits are converted to parallel bits so as to have correct
mapping in inphase and quadrature branches effectively.
C.C S.C cos( t)
I
q(t)
Serial
to
DPCH Adder O/P
parallel
bits Q
q(t)
C.C S.C sin( t)
Spreading Scrambling Modulation
Fig. 3.3.3 WCDMA (UMTS) Downlink operations, spreading, scrambling and modulation
S.C - Scrambling code
C.C. - Channel code
In spreading that is based on OVSF codes operating limit is upto 512 chips. The
scrambling uses gold codes for a time frame of 10 msec (i.e. 38400 chips). Under
TM

channels SCH, the primary and secondary SCH are used. The primary SCH consists of a
code of 256 chips and in secondary SCH it can generate upto 64 various code words, for
identifying common channels having continuous transmission. In modulation quadrature
phase shift keying with relevant time-multiplexed data and control system are used.
Transport channels :
The main characteristics of information that the transport channels can provide is
summarized below :
i) The shared information for up or downlink.
ii) The control information for up or downlink.
iii) Power control characteristics.
iv) Managing the collision risk.
v) Mobile station identification.
vi) Beam forming information.
vii) Data rate variation.
viii) Broadcast coverage area
- In entire cellular area or in a selected cell alone.
TC1 TC2 Transport Transport

block and block and
error error
indication indication
Transport Transport
block block Transport Transport
block and block and
Transport Transport error error
TFI TFI TFI TFI
block block indication indication
Higher layers
physical layers
TFCI Coding and TFCI Decoding and

Multiplexing Decoding Demultiplexing
Physical Physical Physical Physical

control data control data
channel channel channel channel
TC1, TC2 - Transport channel 1,2
TFI - Transport Format Indicator
TFCI - Transport Format Combination Indicator
Fig. 3.3.4 Higher layers and physical layers (W-CDMA (UMTS))
TM

The interaction between physical and higher layers are shown in the diagram. Every
transport channel carries the transport format indicator (TFI). The physical layer does the
function of combining all the TFI information from various transport channels to form
the Transport Format Combination Indicator denoted as TFCI. This TFCI is useful as it
informs the mobile equipment about availability of active transport channel, in the
current frame.
The TFI is added to each TC such that
{TFI + TC} is done where
{TC} ® Coding and multiplexing in bank of transport channels.
and {TFI} ® Physical control channel (PCEH)
It is possible to divide the transport channels into common channel and dedicated
channel for a specific operation.
TRANSPORT CHANNELS
Common channels (CH) Dedicated channels (DCH)
Resoure is shared between It is reserved for a single

many users or a group of user and can be identified by
users in a cell specific code on a
(6 common channels) particular frequency
4 downlink 2 uplink The DCH channel

channels channels are property mapped on
two physical channels as
i) Forward access i) Random access i) Dedicated physical
channel (FACH) channel (RACH) control channel
ii) Broadcast ii) Uplink common (DPCCH).
channel (BCH) packet channel It's bit rate is
iii) Paging channel (DCH) constant
(PCH) ii) Dedicated physical
iv) Downlink shard data channel
channel (DSCH) (DPDCH).
It's bit rate varies for
every frame.
Hence the transport channel has common and dedicated channels and uses them
according to the nature of the operational requirement, in transport channels of
W-CDMA(UMTS).
TM

Wireless Networks 3 - 10 3G Overview
DPDCH DPDCH data of N bits
2560 chips
k
(10 2 bits) ; k 0 to 6 that depends
on the spreading factor
Pilot TFCI FBI TPC

DPCCH bits bits bits bits
2560 chips (10 bits)
Slot Slot Slot Slot

0 1 i 14
1 Radio frame = 10 msec
DPDCH - Dedicated Physical Data Channel

DPCCH - Dedicated Physical Control Channel
Fig. 3.3.5 The uplink DPDCH and DPCCH frame and slot structures
User data transmission :

In the user data transmission it makes use of slot structure of radio frame with 15
slots in 10 msec time period. The duration of a slot is about 2560 chips. It has a chip
rate of 3.84 megachips/sec. The parallel code channels are being used for handling
higher data rates.
The user data transmission when combined with Random Access Channel (RACH)
has a particular future preamble and it is sent before the data transmission. The uplink
frame and slot structure is shown in the diagram above where one radio frame period is
10 msec. For fast power control the uplink common packet channel is used.
In case of downlink the bit rates and symbol rates are same as the uplink. The
downlink channel is of dedicated physical channel (DPCH) and (DPDCH) type. The bit
rate in DPDCH is not fixed and it varies. It also uses time multiplexing for physical
control information and also the user data information respectively.
Also there are three classes of frames in RLP. They are
i) New data frame :
They are transmitted with lowest priority.
ii) Control frames :
They are used to carry control information and it is given top priority.
iii) Retransmitted data frame :
TM

They are meant for retransmitting the old data frame according to instructions
given.
Thus the radio layer protocol does important functionalities in MAC layer under
cdma 2000.
3.4 UMTS Core Network Architecture AU : May-17,18, Dec.-18
The simple UMTS core network comprises of the network connected to entities like
UTRAN, SS7 (for signalling), Packet Data Network (PDN) and circuit switching system.
The UMTS Core Network (UCN) has specific packed-based services.
The larger two areas circuit switching CS data services and packet-data services.
The CS area or domain has its functional modules such as ;
· Entities that supports CS services E.g. : 3G-MSC/VLR
· Entities that supports PS services E.g. : 3G-SGSN, 3G-GGSN
· Entitites that supports both CS and PS services E.g. : 3G-HLR
· Service Control Point (SCP), and Service Signalling Point SSP etc., denoted as IN
system.
· Billing, element and service managements etc. under "Network Management"
system.
· Swtiching and transport.
SS7
Circuit Signalling
switching
UMTS
Core
Network
(UCN)
Packet Data
UTR AN Network (PDN)
È
Fig. 3.4.1 UMTS architecture
The 3G-MSC, 3G-SGSN, 3GGSN etc. does their own function assigned in the UMTS
Core Network architecture.
TM

3.4.1 3G-MSC
This 3G-Mobile Switching Centre (3G-MSC) provides the CS services in the network.
Its services also includes control and signalling such as SS7, MAP, ISDN user part
(ISUP). 3G-MSC provides interconnection to other networks. For example connection
with PSTN and ISDN. Some of the significant functionalities of 3G-MSC are namely,
3.4.1.1 Mobility Management

In mobile communication the mobile node changes its own physical location (i.e.
address) in very less time. The mobility of user has to be strictly supervised so that it is
easier to continue call communication smoothly. The methods of managing the mobility
is hence very important. In such a procedure of mobility management there are two
important types known as,
i) Location management. ii) Handoff management.
The location management procedure has two operations i.e. search and update.
Search operation : It is invoked by a node which needs connection establishment
with that of a mobile node.
Update operation : It is also called as registration operation that is it gives
information about the node's current location. The search operation is supported by the
update operation. The search overhead (Cost) mainly depends on granularity and
currency of the location information. Also organization of the location databases, location
registrars is important because it stores the location related informations of the nodes.
Handoff management is the second task after performing location management. The
aim of the technique is to ensure the connectivity of the network with the mobile node.
The handoff procedure involves many subtasks. Like,
i) Deciding the time of handoff to access point.
ii) Choosing new access point from many access points in mobile node's vicinity.
iii) Getting resources (channels)
iv) Sending information to old access point so that it can reroute the packets.
The decision to make handoff initiated by two methods,
i) Either by the mobile node [Mobile Controlled Handoff (MCHO)].
ii) By the Access Point (AP) [Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)]
It depends on many factors such as,
a) Quality of mobile communication between AP and mobile node.
b) Load on current AP that is running out of the communication channels.
The CDMA based technology assumes accurate and smooth handoffs.
TM

Selecting a base station to which the handoff has to be made depends on few factors
like,
i) SNR of beacon signals from access points.
ii) Mobile node's region may move in very short time intervals.
iii) Availability of the resources at the access point.
The main resources that has to be acquired in new cell are uplink and downlink
channels.
Location management - It assists in establishing new connections.

Handoff management. - It ensures the connectivity of the mobile node
with the network.
Both the operations completes mobility management.

Location management principles : The location management schemes uses many
databases known as location registrars for maintaining the locations and other related
information like service profile and preferences. One of the simple location management
scheme which uses single location registrar is known as Home Location Registrar (HLR).
It maintains location information of all mobile nodes in the network.
As a whole simple location management scheme performs both search and update
functions.
Design issues :
To perform better location management an average time for which mobile node stays
within a cell is known as cell residency time. It has be calculated accurately. The
periodic time-based updates (dynamic updates) has to be monitored.
· As a mobile node is switched on then its HLR has to notified to ensure the
current position of the node.
· To find the current location of mobile node first its HLR is notified and then the
HLR contacts the current base station of cell where the node is available.
Dynamic update schemes :
The Registration Areas (RA) based location updates is a static update scheme. It does
not include measurements of dynamic mobilities of the mobile node. Boundaries of RAs
found with the aggregate mobility information patterns of mobile nodes.
The static boundaries leads to many location updates of mobile nodes two adjacent
RAs. These type of ping-pong effects are avoided in dynamic update procedures.
The periodic updates are dynamic updates. They are example of dynamic update
scheme. Apart from this there are some more dynamic update schemes. They are ;
i) Movement-based updates. ii) Distance-based updates.
TM

Both the methods are dynamic location update schemes.
Note : To avoid roaming mobile node's location very often the technique known as
per-user location caching can be used. For efficient implementation of the caching
scheme the two parameters to consider are,
i) Location at which registrars has to be informed for caching.
ii) At what time the location information has to be cached ?
The location information can be replicated. Partial replication is done under two
organizations of location registrars. They are hierarchical and flat organization.
These location management procedures ensures the current location of the node. It is
followed by the second task handoff procedure. Hence in mobility management both
location and handoff management are done.
3.4.1.2 Call Management

It handles all call set-up message and interacts with UE.
· Supplementary services like call waiting.
· CS data services such as FAX
· Signalling interfaces like SS7, MAP and RANAP.
· The call completion in the network is taken care here.
· Vocoding techniques
· Short Message Services (SMS)
It allows the subscriber to send and also receive data with the SMS-GMSC or
SMS-Interworking MSC (SMS-IWMSC)
· VLR (Visitor Location Register data base functions)
· Operation, Administration and the Maintenance (OAM) functionalities etc.
3.4.2 3G-SGSN AU : May-18
For the Packet-based Services (PS) 3G-SGSN is useful.

The 3G-SGSN allows necessary control functionalities for UE and 3G-GGSN. All
signalling and data interfaces are done including connection to an ;
· IP-based network towards the 3G-GGSN
· SS7 towards HLR/AUC/EIR
· TCP/IP or the SS7 towards UTRA Network (UTRAN)
The 3G-SGSN provides functions such as,
· Session management that can handle set-up messages between UE and GGSN.
It also can operate admission control and quality of service QoS mechanisms.
TM

ATM/AAL5
The physical connection to the UTRA Network for the transportation of the user
data plane traffic via I u interface with the help of GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP).
· In and G n MAP intefaces :
The 3G-SGSN with the help of these interfaces is capable of completing the sessions
[originating or terminating] in the network by interacting with other entities like GGSN,
HLR etc.
· Short Message Services (SMS)
· Mobility Management
This includes the functions such as,
· Handling attach function,
· Authentication issues,
· Updating HLR, relocations, and intersystem handovers.
· Subscriber database
Its function is to serve as an intermediate storage of user data for supporting further
mobility, in the network.
· Charging information
The SGSN gathers the charging information of radio network usages by the
subscribers/users
· OAM
It includes all Operation, Administration and Maintenance functionalities in the
network.
3.4.3 3G-GGSN AU : Dec.-18
The interworking with external PS network is being provided by GGSN. It is

connected through the IP-based network. The functions that are provided by 3G-GGSN
includes,
· Maintains informations about locations at the SGSN level.
· Access methods to intranet.
· Like IP and X-25 standard, gateway between UMTS Packet Network (UMTS-PN)
and External Data Networks (EDN).
· User data screening / security
· User level address allocations are possible
· Operation, administration and maintenance functionalities.
TM

3.5 Third Generation (3G) Standards and Networks

AU : May-17,19, Dec.-18
The third generation (3G) cellular systems have the goal to fulfil the demands of
several services. The 3G systems provide global mobile multimedia communication
facilities in an attractive way. It has minimum performance quality equal to that of ISDN
speed (144 kb/sec). Coming to the mobility services in microcell and macrocell
environment it uses 384 kb/sec and 2 Mb sec for the low mobility services mainly in
picocellular and microcellular environments. The evolutions of 3G system for CDMA
has led to the CDMA 2000 standard. In a similar way the evolution of 3G for IS - 136,
GSM etc. has led to wide band CDMA (W - CDMA) standard. It is also known as
Universal Mobile Telecommunication Service (UMTS).
The 3G systems guarantee an efficient wireless access with high performance quality.
They adopt intelligent new protocols to meet the cellular needs of the modern world.
Some of the important characteristics of 3G systems are summarized below :
· 3G system supports packet-switched and circuit switched services like Internet
traffic and voice services.
· It supports roaming.
· It provides backward compatability and inter operatibility.
· It supports symmetric and asymmetric traffic.
· It is compatible with running many servicess simultaneously in same terminal.
· It can create 'Virtual Home Environment' (VHE), that is creating a personalized
set of services for a user and also when the user is in movement it can be
maintained as such.
These 3G systems were standardized and it was initiated in the year 1992 by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU). As a result of this 3G standardization the
International Mobile Telecommunication 2000 (IMT - 2000) was introduced which has
different 3G standards in it.
Also a smooth beginning 3G standard with a better backward compatibility with 2G
standards was the aim of IMT - 2000. The 3G systems tries to converge several
applications including telephony, multimedia services and internet etc in an effective
manner.
It is also worth noting that a combination of different networks like 3G, ATM,
Ethernet and X.25 will serve effectively if used for a single multimedia session. The 3G
data service requires novel protocols to serve better and it is sure that if efficient
middle-ware protocols are used it will help 3G system to provide improved applications.
TM

IMT 2000
FDD mode FDD mode TDD

direct spread multicarrier mode
Bandwidth 5 MHz/ 5 MHz/

5 MHz
(Bw) 1.25 MHz 1.6 MHz
3.686 Mchips/sec 3.8 Mchips/sec

Chiprate 3.8 Mchips/sec or or
1.23 Mchips/sec 1.28 Mchips/sec
Common
pilot signal CDM CDM TDM
Dedicated
pilot signal TDM CDM TDM
Synchronization Asynchronous Synchronous

as Synchronous
signal Synchronous
cdma 2000
Core
GSM - MAP/IP ANSI - 41/IP GSM - MAP/IP
network
Fig. 3.5.1 Third generation (3G) standard systems

FDD - Frequency division multiplexing.
CDM - Code division mulitplexing.
TDD - Time division duplex.
TDM - Time division mulitiplexing
TM

Some of the notable features of 3G system are

· Provision for multirate services.
· For a coherent uplink, user-dedicated pilot is allowed.
· Multiuser detection is possible.
· Intercarrier handover.
The ITU has mentioned that the minimum requirement for cellular system
performance of a 3G system includes both the packet-switched data and circuit switched
data.
Three popular data rates used are as follows :
i) For pedestrian environment the data rate is 384 kb/sec.
ii) For vehicular environment the data rate is 144 kb/sec.
iii) For fixed indoor and the picocell environment the data rate is 2 Mb/sec.
3.5.1 Cdma 2000 - 3G System
The cdma 2000 is a 3G standard. It has a smooth transition and a better backward
compatability with 2G CDMA systems. The cdma-2000 can be used as an air interface.
The protocol stack diagram of cdma 2000 consists of the important entities including
signalling TCP, IP, UDP, high speed networks, voice and packet data related
applications in top layers, link access control, medium access control layers correspond
to layer 2 of OS2 and the fundamental physical layer that corresponds to layer 1 of OSI
model.
The terms used in protocol stack block diagram are,
i) TCP - Transport control protocol.
ii) UDP - User datagram protocol.
iii) IP - Internet protocol.
iv) LAC - Link access control.
v) MAC - Medium access control.
vi) QoS - Quality of service.
In second generation (2G) systems the IS - 95 family called as cdma one that is
based on CDMA technique. Thus for 3G systems some hardware approaches are only
required that will help to develop many service application under 3G which had a
smooth upgradation from 2G to 3G. Thus 3G has backward compatability.
The cdma 2000 is thus an advancement of CDMA technology developed by the
Qualcomm and meant for high data rate (HDR) packet standard. The standard also uses
the adjacent three 1.25 MHz channels that can be used together for providing packet
TM

data throughputs and it will rely on vehicle speed, cell traffic loading and propagation
environments.
Packet Circuit
data Voice data
S applications
applications applications
I
G
N
OSI
A
layers
L High-speed
from TCP UDP
L circuit
3 to 7
I
network
N layer
G services
IP
LAC LAC Null

layer protocol LAC
Medium Access layer (MAC)

OSI
layer 2 Additional Best
medium effort of
access control delivery RLP
states
Multiplexing Quality of
service
OSI Physical layer

layer 1
Fig. 3.5.2 3G - cdma 2000 protocol stack diagram
Physical layer :
In the cdma 2000 physical layer, originally two spreading modes were made use of
namely Multicarrier (MC) and Direct Spread (DS) techniques. There are two non direct
spread modes in cdma 2000 known as 1X and 3X. That is under the 1X mode it uses a
cdma one carrier whereas the 3X is the popular multicarrier system. The simplest
version of the cdma 2000 standard is the 1X mode.
The uplink and downlink characteristics are summarized for the stake of
understanding the future enhancements.
TM

Uplink Characteristics :
i) Using open or closed power control :
The uplink is permitted to opt both the open loop power control and fast closed
loop power control which is derived from 2G cdma one, and a good development is
observed in CDMA technology in 3G systems.
ii) Pilot-based coherent detection :
In uplink performance of cdma 2000 is enhanced by the usage of Reverse Pilot
Channel (R - PICH) and it provides a way for the base station to do the required
coherent demodulation of the traffic received.
Downlink Characteristics :
Fast power control :
The closed-loop fast power control is used in cdma 2000. The power of the downlink
traffic is measured by the mobile stations. Then according to the observation they give a
'power-up' or 'power-down' command to the base stations. A significant performance for
high speed transfers is seen in a low-mobility environment.
Transmit diversity :
Transmit diversity is used at the base station, and it is required that diversity has to
be applied at receiver end also to make the system effective. It can be applied for both
direct spread and multicarrier approaches. In multicarrier method the basestation uses
different antennas that are spatially separated for transmitting sub carrier. The signals
that are originating from various antennas fade and are not dependable which leads to
frequency diversity. Under direct spread approach the base station spreads the stream of
data into two substreams and then they are transmitted with two antenna separately. To
have better spreading of code, orthogonality between the two streams of data is
maintained.
Synchronized base station operation :

Synchronization between the base stations is done, since it leads to faster handovers
between the 2G and 3G systems that is cdma one and cdma 2000 respectively.
Pilot Signals :
There are two important pilot signals which are called as
i) Common Pilot
ii) Auxiliary Pilot.
A common code multiplexed pilot signal for all the users on the downlink is used.
The information regarding multipath fading and channel conditions will be shared by
the mobile nodes through these channels. The auxiliary pilot signals are basically
optional and they are intended to support the smart antenna systems.
TM

Common Characteristics
i) Turbo codes :
The cdma 2000 standard uses turbo codes for its coding for the supplemental
channels. It is applied to increase robustness in case of high n-speed data service
applications.
Double number of Walsh codes :
It is possible to use even upto 128 Walsh codes in cdma 2000 for variable spreading
procedure. The carrier capacity is thus increased twice when compared to cdma one
standard.
Independent data channels :
There are two types of physical data channels which are used. They are (i)
fundamental channels (FCH's), (ii) supplemental channels (SCH's). They are coded
separately and then interleaved. High data rate services are possible with the SCH's.
5 msec frame options :
The common frames have frame duration of 20 msec. A latency of 5 msec is also
permitted for low latency type of transmission.
Chiprates with backward compatability :
The chiprates used in cdma 2000 are actually multiples of the chiprates used in
cdma one standard. This is one of the simplified mode of chiprates adapted in cdma
2000 by its backward compatability.
3.5.1.1 Different Physical Channels in Cdma 2000

The different channels disscussed under cdma 2000 are ;
i) Data traffic physical channel.
iii) Uplink physical channel.
iii) Downlink physical channel.
i) Data traffic physical channel

There are two data traffic channels namely supplemental and fundamental (SCH and
FCH) channels and they are code-multiplexed in downlink and uplink. The encoding
parameters and the modulation parameters are specified by the radio configuration (RC).
There can be upto nine radio configurations where, the first two radio configurations are
specified regarding backward compatability with the cdma one.
ii) Uplink (Reverse link) physical channel

* Reverse pilot channel (R-PICH)
* Reverse access channel (R-ACH)
TM

* Reverse enhanced access channel (R-EACH)

* Reverse common control channel (R-CCCH)
* Reverse data traffic channel.
R-PICH :
Using this R-PICH channel the base station detects a mobile's transmission. It is an
unmodulated spread spectrum signal channel. The R-PICH is used to send the power
control signals to the respective base stations.
R-ACH :
For initiating communication, the mobile stations use R-ACH channels and it is done
as a response to the paging messages.
R-EACH :
This channel is used to initiate communication with base stations, and it is used by
mobile stations.
R-CCCH :
This signal is intented for conveying user and signalling informations to base station
whenever the reverse traffic channels are not in use.
Along with these channels the reverse data traffic channels are also used. (Forward
link) Physical channel :
iii) Downlink
The downlink physical channels are,
* Forward pilot channel (F-PICH)
* Forward auxiliary pilot channel (F-APICH)
* Transmit diversity pilot channel (F-TDPICH)
* Forward common control channel (F-CCCH)
* Forward sync channel (F-SYNCH)
* Forward paging channel (F-PCH)
* Forward broadcast channel (F-BCH)
* Forward quick paging channel (F-QPCH)
* Forward common power control channel (F-CPCCH)
* Forward common assignment channel (F-CACH)
* Forward data traffic channel.
TM

i) F-PICH :
This channel is used to get the multipath fading and the channel conditions. This
channel is shared by the mobile nodes to obtain the above mentioned information.
ii) F-APICH :
The number of these channels can be many. These F-APICH channels are used along
with the smart antennas (array of antennas) in beam-forming applications. It was
observed that the coverage of smart antennas are increased by the help of these
channels. Each APICH channel is assigned a unique Walsh code under code multiplexed
scheme in downlink.
F-TDPICH :
These channels are intended for synchronization by the mobile within a particular
cell.
F-CCCH :
It is used to send high-layer messages (e.g. MAC layer) to the mobile units. The
F-CCCH channel is used by the base station.
F-SYNCH :
This forward sync channel is used for providing initial synchronization related
informations to the mobile stations.
Two types of forward sync channels are used.
1) Wideband sync channel.
2) Shared sync channel.
The wideband synchronization channel is compatible with both the non-overlay and
overlay configurations. The shared synchronization channel is compatible with overlay
configuration and it is used in both cdma 2000 and IS-95 channels.
F-PCH :
This channel is used by base stations. The channel is intended to transmit the mobile
station specific messages and the overhead messages. Here also two types of channels
are used.
Forward paging channel
1) Wideband paging channel
2) Shared paging channel
The wideband paging channel is compatible with both the overlay and non-overlay
configurations. It is modulated across the 3G cdma 2000 wideband channel completely.
The shared paging channel is compatible with overlay configuration of the 3G cdma
TM

2000 standard over the 2G IS-95 standard. It is also used for both cdma 2000 and IS-95
channels.
F-BCH :
This channel is intended to transmit control information to the respective mobile
stations effectively which have not been allotted a traffic channel.
F-QPCH :
This quick paging channel is used by the paging channel for providing control
information to the mobile stations.
F-CPCCH :
The necessary power control information of uplink common control channels are
conveyed by base stations using this channel.
F-CACH :
The quick assignments of reverse common control (uplink) channel is done by base
station using this channel.
In addition to these channels the forward data traffic channels are also used in
downlink (forward) physical channels in cdma 200 standard.
3.5.1.2 Data Link Control Layer (DLC) Issues - Cdma 2000

The data link control (DLC) layer in cdma 2000 mainly uses a logical channel
structure for having information exchange. So far we have discussed the physical layer
aspects in cdma 2000. In general there are four protocol layers specified in cdma 2000.
They are
1. Physical layer (Layer 1)
2. MAC sublayer (Layer 2)
3. LLC sublayer (Layer 2)
4. Upper layer (Layer 3)
3.6 UTRA-TDD (TD-CDMA)

The time division duplexing mode of the UTRA technology makes use of wideband
TDMA/CDMA for the medium access and the up/down links uses the same frequency.
The data rate is 2 Mbit/sec for about 120 channels (approx) in case of the user traffic.
The direct sequence (DSS) type of spreading code is applied and the modulation scheme
used is QPSK. In TDD the power controlling can be slower than the FDD because the
number of power controlling cycles in one second are less. It is worth noting that the
frame structures of FDD and TDD are same and hence both the schemes can coexist in
necessary conditions.
TM

3.6.1 UTRA-TDD (TD-CDMA) - Frame Structure
The TDD frame can be symmetrical or asymmetrical for reflecting different user
requirements. A simple frame structure is shown here. Applying burst type it may result
in data rates of 414, 828, 1,656, 3,312 and 6,624 kb/sec. It considers that all the slots are
being used for the data transmission. A burst of type 2 is shown here in which has two
data fields of 1,104 chips each. For these two data fields spreading is applied . In
addition to this for training and channel estimation a midamble of 256 chips is used.
RADIO FRAME
10
0 1 2 3 11 12 13 14
msec
TIME SLOT
666.7 data midamble data TRAFFIC

sec 1.104 chips [256 chips] 1104 chips GP
BURST
2560 chips
GP : Guard period
GP : 96 chips
Fig. 3.6.1 UTRA-TDD (TD-CDMA) - A simple frame structure
The UTRA-TDD (TD-CDMA) occupies 5 MHz bandwidth frequency for a channel

TDD is more economical compared to FDD.
3.7 TD-SCDMA
As the evolution of UTRA-FDD and UTRA-TDD radio technologies used for UMTS
the TD-synchronous CDMA (TD-SCDMA) is also very useful.
The TD-SCDMA is basically a chinese proporsal for third generation cellular systems
and its integrated with UTRA-TDD.
Some of the development of various generations of cellular telecommunication
systems are shown hare as a simpler classification.
There are five groups of third generation (3G) radio access technologies are used for
cellular communication.
IMT-DS ® The direct spread technology consists of wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)
TM

IMT-TC ® It has time code in UTRA-TDD system and uses time-division CDMA
(TD-CDMA)
IMT-MC ® The cdma2000 is a multicarrier technique.
IMT-SC ® An enhancementof US-TDMA systems. for example UNC-136 is a single
carries technology.
IMT-FT ® It is frequency time technology and it is an enhanced version of the
cordless and telephone standards say DECT.
In standardization process the main triggering forces are namely 3GPP and 3GPP2
respectively.
FDMA CT 0/1
AMPS CT 2
NMT
IS - 136 DECT
TDMA
D - AMPS EDGE
IMT-SC
GSM GPRS
TDMA IS 136
PDC
(Personal
Digital
Cellular)
IMT - DS
UTRA FDD/W - CDMA technology
IMT - TC
CDMA
UTRA TDD/TD - CDMA technology
TD - SCDMA Synchronous CDMA
IS - 95 cdma 2000 IMT - TC

[cdma One] IMT - MC . . . .
Generation 1G 2G 2.5G 3G . . . .
Fig. 3.7.1 Various generations of cellular telecommunications
TM

Part - A
Q.1 Name the 3G radio access scheme identified to support different spectrum scenario.
(Refer sections 3.2 and 3.2.1) AU : May-17, Marks 2
Q.2 How is isolation between users in the downlink accomplished in a WCDMA system ?
(Refer section 3.3) AU : Dec.-17, Marks 2
Q.3 What is UMTS ? What are the layers of UMTS ? (Refer section 3.1)
Q.4 Give the significance about link adaption scheme. (Refer section 3.4.2)
Q.5 Name the functions of Radio Network Control (RNC). (Refer section 3.2)
Q.6 List the funtions provided by 3G-GGSN. (Refer section 3.4.3)

Q.7 dentify the characteristics to be considered while deploying applications over 3G

wireless links. (Refer section 3.5) AU : May-19, Marks 2
Q.8 What is UMTS ? (Refer section 3.1) AU : May-19, Marks 2
Part - B
Q.9 Explain the UMTS network architecture with GSM, 3G and also explain the reference
architecture. (Refer section 3.3 and 3.5) AU : May-17, Marks 16
Q.10 Explain UMTS Core network architecture. (Refer section 3.4)

Q.11 Discuss the role of the access link control application part (ALCAP) in the UMTS.
(Refer section 3.3) AU : Dec.-17, Marks 16
Q.12 Explain the techniques about UMTS Network Reference Architecture.

(Refer section 3.4) AU : May-18, Marks 8
Q.13 Describe Channel Structure in UMTS Terrestrial Radio. (Refer section 3.3)
Q.14 With neat diagram, explain the reference Architecture of UMTS. (Refer section 3.4)
Q.15 Describe Channel Structure in UMTS Terrrestrial Radio.

(Refer sections 3.3 and 3.5) AU : Dec.-18, Marks 16
Q.16 Outline the overview of UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network.

qqq
TM

Notes
TM

Unit Internetworking between
IV WLANS and WWANS
Syllabus
Internetworking objectives and requirements, Schemes to connect WLANS and 3G Networks,
Session Mobility, Internetworking Architecture for WLAN and GPRS, System Description, Local
Multipoint Distribution Service, Multichannel Multipoint Distribution System.
Contents
4.1 Internetworking Objectives and Requirements
4.2 Schemes to Connect WLANs and 3G Networks
4.3 Session Mobility
4.4 Internetworking Architectures for WLAN and GPRS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May - 19 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 15
4.5 Local Multipoint Distribution System [LMDS]
4.6 Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service [MMDS]
(4 - 1)
Wireless Networks 4-2 Internetworking between WLANS and WWANS
4.1 Internetworking Objectives and Requirements
4.1.1 Interworking Objectives
The main objective of interworking is to adopt the independent WLAN and 3GPP
standards. The objective is to curtail the interdependence between the standards to the
maximum extent possible.
While a user is availing 3GPP services and is using a WLAN device, it must be
made possible to use the 3GPP facility without hardware/software upgrades. 3GPP
services must be made available effortlessly to the end user without any additional
expenditure on his side.
4.1.2 Requirements for Interworking
· To enable a mobile subscriber to use his (SIM/USIM) to avail the WLAN services.
Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA) is required for WLAN uses
to access 3GPP data networks.
· To enable WLAN subscribers to use 3GPP based packet switched services. This
allows WLAN uses to access 3GPP data services in both 3GPP and WLAN
networks.
· To enable common billing for users who access WLAN and 3GPP data networks.
· The service provided should be smooth across both 3GPP and WLAN systems
without compromising on quantity and totally avoiding disruptions.
· Another objective is offering circuit switched services by the 3GPP provider for
the WLAN systems also.
4.2 Schemes to Connect WLANs and 3G Networks

Interworking is made possible by mobile IP mechanism, gateway approach and
Emulator approach.
In the mobile IP mechanism the mobile IP devices such as Home agent and Foreign
agent have to be installed.
A few problems likely to be encountered are packet delay and loss of packet as
response has to be sent back to its home network. As and when route optimization is
not supported these problems are faced in routing.
Gateway approach : Is like a bridge to connect two different networks. A new node
placed between the networks acts as device to exchange information, dispersing packets
etc. between the networks.
TM

This enables the network to act independently while the gateway node helps in
roaming operation between the two networks.
As the networks operate independently delay and loss during hand off can be
minimized.
Emulator approach : This is also called as tight coupling approach. It uses WLAN as
basic access in the 3G networks. The emulator approach also replaces 3G basic accesses
by WLAN layer 1 and layer 2.
The Access Point (AP) of WLAN could be viewed as 3G network controller. It is like
a serving GPRS support node say SGSN respectively.
4.2.1 Advantages
· The main use of emulator approach is that the mobile IP is not needed. The 3GPP
core network takes care of packet routing and forwarding processes.
· The packet loss is reduced to a significant level. Delay is also minimized.
4.2.2 Disadvantages
· This approach has less flexibility because of the tightly coupled networks
arrangement. The operators of them has to be same only, then more information
could be exchanged.
· The gateway GPRS support node [GGSN] is the only point to the Internet. Hence,
all the data packets have to travel first through this node. GGSN acts as a
bottleneck at some point of time.
4.3 Session Mobility

When there is a flow of packets in a networked environment session mobility
enables easy roaming.
So, when a mobile device is able to connect through WLAN and 3GPP networks it
must be ensured that the session is not expired due to movement from one network to
the other. The switchover should be seamless and effortless. The user need not take any
steps to make smooth transition from one network to other. Session mobility is useful in
Internet working efficiently and enhances the network performance.
4.4 Internetworking Architectures for WLAN and GPRS AU : May-19
Introduction : In Internet working of WLAN and other cellular standards like GPRS
aims to provide high-quality circuit-switched voice service to the mobile users. The
different characteristics of cellular network interacts with the Wireless Local area
Networks (WLANS) effectively. The cellular data network GPRS and the 3G cellular
TM

standards such as UMTS, cdma 2000 works with WLANs and data communication takes
place.
4.4.1 Challenges in Internetworking
In Internetworking scenario of 3G Partnership Project (3GPP) and 3GPP2 there are

several difficulties met. It works on different radio access techniques, the cellular
networks and WLANs experiences problems of
i) Mobility management
ii) Quality of Service (QoS)
iii) Security supports etc.
Hence, in developing the interworking schemes these issues has to be addressed
carefully so as to attain a seamless integrated working.
In cellular networks different mobility levels are supported as it allows faster
handoffs. But, in WLAN it specifies on the physical layer and Medium Access Control
(MAC) layers only. As far as the upper layers are concerned, it is assumed to adopt the
same protocols as that of the wired networks.
4.4.2 A Simple Architecture for Internetworking of UMTS/GPRS

Networks with 802.11 WLANs AU : May-19, Marks 15
A simplified schematic of architecture of UMTS/GPRS with WLAN is shown here.

In the architecture schematic , the important notations are :
· AAA : Authentication, Authorization and Accounting server/ proxy
· PSTN : Public Service Telephone Network
· MSC : Mobile Switching Center
· HSS : Home Subscriber Server
· HLR/VLR : Home/ Visitor Location Registers
· RNC : Radio Network Controller
· HA (FA) : Home (Foreign) Agent
· MMS : Multimedia Messenging Service
· GGSN : Gateway GPRS Support Node
· SGSN : Serving GPRS Support Node
· IWG : Interworking Gateway
TM

IP
MULTI -
Wireless Networks
MMS MEDIA
GPRS
CORE NETWORK
HA
HLR/ AAA
HSS SGSN IP
FA NETWORK
PSTN
MSC/
VLR
GGSN
SGSN
GPRS NODE
q INTERNET
p r
TM
4-5
IWG
WLANs
IWG
RNC IEEE
RNC 802.11 WLAN
AAA IP NETWORK
UTRAN IP BACKBONE
FA NETWORK
Node
C DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEM
Node Node
C C
Node
C
AP AP
AP
AP
Fig. 4.4.1 A Simple Architecture of Internetworking UMTS/GPRS networks with IEEE 802.11
Internetworking between WLANS and WWANS
The UTRAN and the GPRS core network are connected to WLAN base IP network.
The PSTN, CS core network, Internet operators IP networks are interlinked. The support
nodes are useful for linking. The dotted lines p,q represent tight coupling and r is for
loose coupling in the networks.
For interworking of 3G networks with WLAN location-aware authentication and a
secured roaming services are important.
Also, roaming functionalities addresses intradomain micro-mobility and interdomain
macro-mobility.
The authentication, authorization and accounting (AAA) proxy browser and AAA
server are useful in handling micro mobility and macro mobility.
The AAA proxy browser and AAA server takes care of reauthentication functions.
The AAA server/ proxy is connected to IP backbone network and through the network
it monitors the billing system.
The guaranteed services of the 3G cellular networks with WLAN interworking
includes,
i) Privacy and security
ii) Quality of Service [QoS]
iii) Global service roaming
iv) Handover procedures including mobility management.
Better location-aware schemes are applied in interworking network.
4.4.2.1 Types of Coupling

There are two generic approaches available for the interworking namely tight
coupling and loose coupling.
Using the tight coupling say the Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is connected
to the 3GPP [e.g. : GPRS] core network. The WLAN data traffic travels through this
3GPP core network just before reaching its destination packet data network.
Tight Coupling
Interworking involves connecting WLAN and 3GPP networks. A number of users
have to be addressed regarding architecture, handoff, data security etc.
Two methods which are widely suggested are tight coupling and loose coupling.
Tight coupling of WLAN and 3GPP are linked through the core network (GPRS).
In the loose coupling the WLAN bypasses the GPRS network.
TM

Base access control and changing adhering to 3GPP are used in tight coupling. GPRS
based services are extended from 3GPP users to operate in WLAN also. Normal voice
calls are enabled from WLAN network to 3GPP smoothly by tight coupling.
Loose Coupling
In the case of loose coupling WLAN is applied as an access network. It uses no data
interfaces to the 3GPP (GPRS) core network but WLAN utilizes the subscribers databases
available in the GPRS network.
With loose coupling WLAN could bypass the GPRS network. It provides a direct
simple access to the destination packet data networks. The loose coupling is flexible to
some extent to the subscribers that the SIM card can be reused and they can access a set
of wireless data services with WLAN.
On the other hand in the tight coupling 3GPP system-based access control and
charging is being used.
The ultimate goal of 3GPP circuit-switched services is to permit the operator to
provide access to the circuit-stitched services from a WLAN arrangement, say usage of
normal voice calls in the system.
4.4.2.2 Disadvantages of tight coupling

Another issue the system in coupling approaches to address is larger volume of
WLAN traffic travelling through 3G core network. WLAN should hold a protocol stack
compatible with 3G networks. The 3G and WLAN domains are likely to be handled by
different operators for which an interface in 3G core network is exposed to WLAN is
required.
4.4.2.3 Advantages of tight coupling

Architecture between WLAN and GPRS is taken for consideration.
· A seamless continuation is possible between WLAN and GPRS.
· Subscribers can maintain their data session in spite of their movement between
WLAN and GPRS.
· The entire seamless service continuation is subject to that of WLAN Quality of
Services (QoS) capabilities.
· Reuse of GPRS infrastructure is allowed. For example core network resources,
subscriber databases etc. are reused.
· Lawful interception for the WLAN subscribers is supported.
· The GPRS authentication and ciphering can be used on WLAN ciphering.
· Hence, high degree of security is there.
TM

· Common customer care.

· Access to GPRS services such as Short Message Service (SMS), Multimedia
Message Service(MMS) and Location Based Service (LMS).
· Thus, this architecture provides several network services to the users.
4.5 Local Multipoint Distribution System [LMDS]
4.5.1 Introduction
The Local Multipoint Distribution Service [LMDS] is a broadband wireless point to

multipoint communication system. It enables reliable digital two-way voice, Internet and
data services. Here in the MDS term local is used because the signals range is limited.
Multipoint indicates the broadcast signal from the users.
4.5.2 Advantages of LMDS
· A wide range of data can be transmitted with this distribution service.

· The LMDS operates at frequencies above 10 GHz range.
· Generally, the 28 GHz frequency band was intended as LMDS band. It works
effectively in U.S. It provides many services.
· LMDS is very cost effective.
· Operator invest on equipment only if customer signs up. Hence, major percentage
of investments is done in customer premise equipment.
· A scalable architecture ensures large services.
· Network management and maintenance in system are cost effective.
4.5.3 LMDS and DVB
· The advent of LMDS channel was mainly driven by the digital TV applications.
· It was standardized and initiated in Europe with the project say Digital Video
Broadcasting (DVB).It was developed in European broadcasting union.
· With DVB the LMDS was useful for wider broadcasting markets.
· It was same as the ‘direct to home” satellite services.
· They use QPSK modulation and a concatenated Forward Error Correction (FEC)
coding technique.
· Also, a convolution inner code and Read Soloman outcode is used.
· Also, the transmission frame is based on the MPEG2 transport data stream.
TM

· Consider the outer code could carry 188 information bytes and it has a block
length of say 204 bytes. It is capable of correcting errors upto 8 bytes in each
black. This code is attained using the Reed-Solomon code. That is by shortening
the RS(255,239) code.
· The convolution inter-leaver say with interleaving depth I = 12 is inserted
between the inner and outer encoder units.
· Then errors could be uniformly distributed that occur due to bursts in receiver.
· The interleaved and deinterleaved blocks are shown here as a simple example.
i) · · · · · · · ·
ii) · · · · · · · ·
Fig. 4.5.1 : A convolution interleaver
The input data bytes are fed to a parallel branches with first in first out parallel shift
registers. There are delays that starts from 0 and increases by multiples of 17 say second
branch. Then a 17 byte delay would be there and it goes on.
· The output switch is made to move cyclically with the input switch.
· The deinterleaves has the same structure except the reverse order of the time
delays.
· The Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) specifications mentions all the transmission
and receive functions including all system parameters. It does not include the
symbol rate of the modern operations.
TM

Wireless Networks 4 - 10 Internetworking between WLANS and WWANS
· Thus, the Local Multipoint Distribution System (LMDS) is a system for the
broadband microwave wireless transmission direct from the local antenna to
home premises and business area without the LOS radius. It provides several
services to the subscribers.
4.6 Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service [MMDS]
The Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (MMDS) is basically a

broadcasting and communications service. It operates in Ultra-High-frequency [UHF] of
the radio spectrum. It ranges between 2.1 GHZ to 2.7 GHz.
The MMDS was formerly termed as Broadband Radio Services (BRS). MMDS is also
called as wireless cable and has applications in data, telephone or fax communications.
· In the MMDS technology a medium power transmitter is situated with an
omnidirectional antenna and enables better coverage.
· In flat terrain area a workable radius reaches upto 70 miles.
· MMDS frequency band allows several analog or digital video channels in
addition to narrowband channels that could be used by subscribers to
communicate with the network.
· MMDS provides high speed Internet access services without the constraints of
cable connections in the transmission.
· MMDS is also termed as Multipoint Microwave Distribution System.
· Hence, MMDS provides a better broadband radio service and greater range than
LMDS.
Review Questions
Part A
1. What are objectives of Internet working ?
2. List the Internet working requirements ?
3. Write a note on WLAN.
4. Define GPRS.
5. What is known as LMDS ?
6. Write a note on multichannel multipoint distribution system ?
7. What are the advantages of LMDS ?
8. List any two requirements of Internet working.
9. Write a short note on specifications of LMDS.
10. Write a note about WLAN and 3GPP data networks.
TM

Part B
1. Explain Internet working objectives and its requirements.
2. Write a detailed notes on,
i) Schemes to connect WLAN and 3G networks.
ii) Internet working requirements.
3. What is known as session mobility ? Explain the objectives of Internet working ?
4. Explain the interworking architecture for WLAN and GPRS ?
5. What is LMDS ? Explain LMDS system in detail.
6. Explain multichannel multipoint distribution system in detail.
University Question with Answer
Q.1 How does the 3G GGSN/MSC differ from the GPRS architecture elements
(2G GGSN/MSC) ? What sort of enhancements are carried out in UMTS to meet out
its specifications. (Refer sections 4.4 and 4.4.2) AU : May-19, Marks 15
qqq
TM

Notes
TM

Unit
4G and Beyond
V
Syllabus
Introduction - 4G vision - 4G features and challenges - Applications of 4G - 4G Technologies :
Multicarrier Modulation, Smart antenna techniques, IMS Architecture, LTE, Advanced Broadband
Wireless Access and Services, MVNO.
Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 4G Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May -18, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 10
5.3 Comparison of 4G and 3G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May -18, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 11
5.4 4G Features and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May -17,19, Dec.-18 · · · · · · · · Marks 13
5.5 Applications of 4G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec.-17· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 2
5.6 4G Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May -17,19 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 16
5.7 LTE - Network Architecture and Protocol . . . . . May -18, 19 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Marks 16
5.8 Advanced Broadband Wireless Access and Services
5.9 Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO)
(5 - 1)
Wireless Networks 5-2 4G and Beyond
5.1 Introduction
The objective of 4G mobile systems are to integrate Present wireless technologies
including WWAN, WLAN, Bluetooth technique etc. A real convergence of mobile radio
and Internet is possible with 4G. There is a great improvement in throughout from bytes
(for SMS) to KB/Sec (For MMS) is allowed. The Wireless transmission techniques are
used which includes digital audio broadcast (DAB); digital video broadcast (DVB).
In addition to this, local multipoint distributional services (LMDS) and the
multichannel multipoint distribution service (MMDS).
Cellular GSM
2G and 2G
Short range
Cellular
PAN/LAN/
UMTS 3G
MAN/WAN Connection
IP based
Core Network
Broadcast (IPCN)
DAB/DVB
WLAN
Layer HIPERLAN
Cellular
4G
Fig. 5.1.1 A seemless connections of the networks
Note : (In above Fig. 5.1.1)

LAN : Local Area Network
PAN : Personal Access Network
WAN : Wide Area Network
DAB : Digital Analog Broadcast
MAN : Metropolitan Area Network
UMTS : Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
WLAN : Wireless Local Area Network
DVB : Digital Video Braodcast
For the fixed wireless accesses.
In WLAN the IEEE 802.11 standards extend its performances to public domains.
The 4G system are compatible and interoperable with 2G and 3G standards and the
broadcasting systems. This is turn integrates to the wireless local loop (WLL), wireless
personal area networks (WPAN's).
Thus 4G technology has brought a communication revolution in wireless scanario to
greater extent.
TM

5.2 4G Vision AU : May-18, Dec.-18
Some of the difficulties of 3G networks are being overcome by 4G networks. The

services of 4G includes,
· High-quality voice
· High - definition video to the high data rate wireless channels.
· Several kind of broadband wireless access communication systems.
· With 4G Networks it is possible to have
n Mobile multimedia services.
n Anytime anywhere accesses
n Global mobility supports
n Integrated solution in wireless environments
n Customized personalized services and interoperable with other standards and
fixed wired networks.
In 4G Informations can be received anywhere, anytime with connection to a wide
range of informations and services.
Also a large volume of information pictures, data video etc can be received with 4G
infrastructures.
4G Mobile communication
Application Fixed
Mobile
end backbone Air
terminal access Terminal Subscriber
unit Interface
points
Fig. 5.2.1 4G Visions Scenario
A simple 4G Visions Scenario is shown here. A subscriber to that of Application

End are included. Further developments of 4G Systems would include several networks
using Internet Protocol (IP) as a common Protocol for them.
The 4G networks assures,
· Broader Bandwidth
· Smoother and faster handoffs
· Higher data rates
· An enhanced services across multiple of wireless networks and wireless systems.
TM

5.3 Comparison of 4G and 3G AU : May-18, Dec.-18
A simple comparison of 4G with the 3G with respect to some of their parameters are
tabulated below.
Sr. Parameters 2.5G, 3G 4G

No.
1. Network's Architecture Wide are cell-based Hybrid type integration of

Architecture WLAN (e.g. Bluetooth) and
WAN.
2. Speed Around 384 kb/sec 20 to 100 Mb /sec in the

to 2 Mb/sec. mobile nodes.
3. Driving Architecture Mainly Voice - driven and Converging of data and

add - on data. voice over the IP.
4. .Bandwidth 5 to 20 MHz 100 MHz or more than

that
5. Access Technology cdma 2000, WCDMA Multicarrier (MC) - CDMA,

OFDM technique.
6. Internet Protocol (IP) Several airline protocols All the Internet protocols
used (e.g. IPv5.0) used (e.g. IPv6.0)
7. Forward error corrections Convultional codes Concatenated coding

techniques are used.
8. Top speed of mobile 200 kmph 200 kmph.
5.4 4G Features and Challenges AU : May-17,19 Dec.-18
The Fourth Generation Networks or 4G are mainly designed to facilitate better

wireless capabilities, improved technologies and Networks operating speeds etc. The
virtual objective of 4G is allowing every subscriber to access the Internet at anytime and
from everywhere.
5.4.1 Features AU : May-19
Unlike 3G the 4G is a IP based network where every subsriber connected to Internet

is provided with an IP address.
A key features of 4G networks is its higher level of user - level customization. By

this feature every subscriber can select their preferred level of quality of services (QoS).
Wireless radio environment and so on.
TM

Fully
converged
services Diverse
user's
devices
Year
2010 Several
autonomous
Mobile networks
accesses
Software
independency
Fig. 5.4.1 Some 4G features
Other key features of 4G networks includes ;
· Anytime, Anywhere with any other device, enables higher usability
· Personalized communication facilities
· Integrated Services
· Supporting multimedia services at lesser cost.
· Provides telecommunication, Data and multimedia services.
· 4G Networks are basically all IP based heterogeneous networks. They provide
anytime anywhere services.
User
È
Application Mobile Other
end devices terminals
(Eg : PDA)
Fig. 5.4.2 4G - Access to internet from anywhere using any wireless device
Hence the features of 4G are more attractive and it has captured the mobile market
replacing the bottolenecks of 3G Networks.
Accessing Internet from, Anywhere, Anytime with Any device is a popular feature
of 4G standard.
5.4.2 4G Challenges AU : May-17,19, Dec.-18
The main 4G Network's Chanllenes are

· Security and privacy
· Quality of Service (QoS)
TM

In QoS the process of IP - based devices and Non IP - based devices is a difficult
task. Some of the 4G challanges and their possible solutions are tabulated below :
Sr. No. End System Challanges Possible Solutions
I) Mobile Station
i) Wireless System discovery Discovery of other mobile Network interface

devices by processing the Downloading Applications
signal sent by them. to Suit the user module.
ii) Selection of wireless system Each wirless system has its The system is to be
own characterisitics. choosen in a manner tailor
Choosing an appopriate made for the users
technology emerging requirements among
wirless technologies. multiple.
iii) Multimode user termnials Designing a single user The user terminal has to be
terminal which can made adaptable to the
operatue in various network interfaces.
wireless networks. To
overcome. Problems like
device size, backward
comptability and power
consumption.
II) System Design :
i) Network Infrastucture and Task of Integrating Inter-Network compatibility

support of QoS. IP-based and Non IP based should be ensured to
systems. Providing Qos maintain QoS in the
guarantee for the end to network.
end systems which
involves different wireless
systems.
ii) Terminal Mobility Location management and Adaptable handoff

updating data about mechanisms could be
termibnals in different introduced.
systems.
Performing horizontal and
vertical handoffs as needed
with minimum packet loss
and handover latencies.
TM

iii) Security Complex security issues Security over the wireless

due to heterogenety of networks has to be ensured
wireless networks. or handoff's with suitable
Dynamic and adaptions will minimize
reconfigurable security security complexities.
technquies are required.
iv) Fault Tolerance To reduce failures and their Rebustbness of topology

impacts in any kind of free has to be ensured.
like design topology. Failure recovery protocols
are required.
Fault tolerant system
architectures has to be
developed.
III) Services
i) Personal Mobility In heterogenous system The personal mobility

providing smooth personal frameworks can be
mobility to the users proposed and in many
without alltering the cases mobile agents are
existing servers. used.
ii) Billing System, multiple Billing with detailed Serveral billing and
service providers informations. accounting frameworks are
Collecting managing and applied and processed.
storing of users accounting
informations from many
service providers.
The challanges of 4G Networks could be dealt with these possible solutions so as to

attain an effective performance.
5.5 Applications of 4G AU : Dec.-17
Some of the applications of 4G systems includes ;
Virtual navigation :
An user can get the navigation informations and receives the required database
about the streets, path, buildings where the travels etc. This indeed needs a high speed
transmission.
Virtual presence :
The 4G system provides virtual presence environment. Even if an user is on off-site
user services will be available for him. Thus anywhere, anytime is made possible.
TM

Education :
The 4G system facilitates on-line education to students from anywhere in the world
in affordable costs.
Tele medicine :
The remote health monitoring of patients with the help of video conferencing for the
physicians from anywhere and at any time.
Tele-geo-processing related applications

An user can receive location querying informations by this system. That is the 4G
network enables combining of Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical
Information System (GIS). By this facility location quering is made very easy for the
users.
Thus 4G network is available to the users and render services by the attractive
method as,
"Anywhere, anytime and access to internet from any wireless device".
4G
3.5G
Carrier Service
Carrier Speed Protocol Freq. Distance
network High speed offered
downlink
packet Europe MBS 34 Mb/sec OFDM 60 GHz 100 M
access
(HSDPA)
used Europe WSI >34Mb/sec OFDM 40 GHz >100 M
– speed
10 Mb/sec MBS - Mobile Broadband System WSI - Wireless Strategic Initiative
Wi-Fi
Europe HyperLAN 2 34 Mb/sec 802.11a 5 GHz 100 M
IEEE and
3G MIND 34 Mb/sec 802.11a(IPV6) 17 GHz 100 M
Europe
ETSI BRAN 34 Mb/sec 802.11a 17 GHz 100 M
World WiFi 6 to 11 Mb/sec 802.11b 40 GHz > 100 M
Sprint 10 to 72
802.16a OFDM 2150 MHz 35 Miles
Mb/sec
Multi - channel OFDM [Smart antenna used]

Multipoint Distribution
Service (MMDS)
Fig. 5.5.1 Example of carrier migration in 3.5G to 4G
TM

5.6 4G Technologies AU : May-17,19
Some of the important fourth-generation (4G) technologies includes

· Multicarrier Modulation (MCM),
· Smart antenna techniques
· OFDM-MIMO systems
· Adaptive modulation and coding with time slot scheduler
· The cognitive radio
5.6.1 Multicarrier Modulation AU : May-17
The Multicarrier Modulation (MCM) is noting but a derivative of the frequency

division multiplexing (FDM). The MCM is popularly used by several applications such
as in digital audio/video broadcast (DAB/DVB) systems.
The MCM is a technique where to transmit informations it uses parallel equal
bandwidth subchannels and with Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) techniques this can be
implemented. In wireless communication there is a main problem known as inter-symbol
interference (ISI) environment.
· In this ISI, MCM assures a better performance.
· Also MCM gives avoidance of single-frequency interferers in the network.
To overcome the ISI a guard band or cyclic extension has to be appended to the
information data.
Let the difference 'D' of peak-to-average (p-ave), between those MCM and single
carrier system is expressed as number of subcarriers say 'N' then D in dB would be
given as,
D(dB) = 10 log N....
If there is any increase in the value of 'p-ave' ratio of a signal then an increase in
system linearty is required, so as to minimize distortion.
The Linearization techniques will help in this situation but it is not very economical
to offord in the system.
Considering the block length as ' L b ', the channels response length be ' L c ' then the
new length of cyclically extended symbol is expressed as,
· New Length = L b + L c – 1
· It has no ISI
· The uncoded bits are appended to the data.
TM

Wireless Networks 5 - 10 4G and Beyond
· In the MCM receiver end just the ' L b ' samples processed where as ' L c – 1'
samples would be discarded.
This results in a loss in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). This is given as,
Lb +Lc – 1
· (SNR)losses = 10 log indB
Lb
In 4G networks there are two types of MCM techniques are applied and they are ;
i) Multicarrier code division multiple access (MC-CDMA)
The MC-CDMA is nothing but OFDM with a CDMA overlay on it.
ii) Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) using the time division
multiple access (TDMA) technique.
The users or subscribers are distinguished with an orthogonal codes in MC-CDMA.
Here data is spreaded in frequency or time. Each user could be assigned several codes.
The MC-CDMA uses QPSK for its modulation.
In next one, OFDM with TDMA technique the users are allocated time slots for
tranceiving data. In OFDA with TDMA uses high-level modulation like,
multilevel quadrature amplitude modulation (M-QAM) in which 'M' can be 4 to 256.
H(f) Broadband
channel
Parallel
narrow
H(f) band
channel
Fig. 5.6.1 Broadband channel is divided into many parallel narrowband channels in
OFDM - TDMA
Adaptive modulation technique can be used to optimize system performance. Based

on the measured parameters the level of quadrature amplitude modulation.
(QAM) for all the subcarriers is selected.
TM

Amp
Users Allocated bandwidth
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Freq.
Fig. 5.6.2 The overlapping of subchannels
The subcarrier pulse shape in OFDM is square in nature. Using inverse FFT (IFFT)
the pulse forming and modulation is being performed. For decoding purpose FFT is
implemented.
The OFDM scheme divides the available broadband channel into several parallel
subchannels. The OFDM receiver unit receive the signal transmitted and senses it. If
required it does the necessary correction over it before the transmitted signal is
extracted.
Note : An attractive advantage of OFDM is that even though the subchannels overlap
with each other their is no risk of interference between them. This is because each of
the frequencies in OFDM is an integer multiple of that of a fundamental frequency.
5.6.2 Smart Antenna Techniques AU : May-17,19
In the smart antenna techniques like multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) systems

provides the users with
· Higher throughout for mobile high-speed data application.
In MIMO systems several antennas are used in design both at transmitter and
receiver. This increases capacity of wireless radio channels.
TA RA
Tr Rr
(a) Basic block of MIMO system
TM

I|P 1
Tr1 Rr1
I|P 2
Tr2 Rr2
Signal
processing
unit
I|P 3
Tr3 Rr3
I|P 4
Tr4 Rr4
Mobile Roof
transmitters top
receivers
L.O. L.O.
(b) A MIMO system

Fig. 5.6.3 MIMO system
Advanced antenna techniques are used in which the facilities includes,
· Single data stream per user is possible.
· For coverage, the beam-forming and longer battery life are ensured.
· Use multiple antennas for spatially spacing the beams in radio.
· Link robustness is guaranteed.
· With spatial multiplexing higher data rate support and spectral efficiency are
obtained.
With MIMO systems different signals are being transmitted from each antenna
element out of the antenna array simultaneously with same bandwidth. It will be
separated at the receiver end.
Consider that there are four antennas at the transmitter and receiver. This MIMO
system can provide four times of data rate when compared to a single antenna system.
But this is possible with no extra bandwidth or transmit power.
The MIMO systems also supports multiple independent channels using the same
bandwidth. This can be assured with better line-of-sight LoS environment between the
transmitter and receiver system.
Let the number of transmitting antennas be M and number of the receiving antennas
be N in which
N ³ M is satisfied
There are four possible cases applied in wireless system, such as ;
TM

· Multiple-input, single output [MISO]

· Multiple-input, multiple output [MIMO]
· Single-Input, Single Output (SISO) and
· Single-Input, Multiple Output (SIMO)
Case i) MISO : Consider there are 'M' transmitting antennas. The power will be divided
into 'M' transmitter antenna branches.
At the receiving antenna end if signals are added up coherently we might get an
M-fold of increase in SNR value when compared to SISO system.
é(SignalPower)ù
Increase inü M2 –ê ú
ï ~ ë M û
SNR ý -
Noise
(approx) ïþ
i.e. SNR ~
- M ´ SNR 0 ; Where SNR 0 is the average SNR value
Case ii) MIMO :
The MIMO system is just as a combined system of MISO and SIMO radio channels.
Here an increase of MN fold of average value of SNR 0 could be obtained.
This may yield a channel capacity 'C' as,
Capacity = C ~
- B log 2(1+ M ´ N ´ SNR 0 )
Where N ³ M , and different signals are transmitted with the same bandwidth (B).
Let the capacity of each channel in these channels be
~ æ N ö
C single - mB log 2 ç 1+ ´ SNR 0 ÷ ,
channel
è M ø
Then the total system capacity will be approximately equal to

æ N ö
C ~
- mB log 2 ç 1+ ´ SNR 0 ÷ ,
è M ø
assuming there are 'M' transmitting antennas in the system.
Case iii) SISO

Consider the channel bandwidth as 'B', transmitter power as Pt , and let the signal at
receiver has an average signal to noise ratio (SNR 0 ) ;
According to Shannon limit on radio channel capacity (C), it is given as,
- B log 2 (1+ SNR 0 ) .....
C ~
TM

Case iv) SIMO

Consider there are 'N' number of antennas at the receiver. In case the received
signals are of same amplitude them a coherent addition is possible. It will lead to
produce an increase (N 2 ) in the power level.
An 'N' sets of noise sources are also added up in coherent which would result in an
N-fold increase.
S.No. Type of Channel Capacity (Mb/sec)
1) MISO 5.35 B
2a) MIMO (With same input) 7.64 B
2b) MIMO (With different inputs) 15 B
3) SISO 3.45 B
4) SIMO 5.66 B
Table 5.6.1 Comparisson of the channel capacity

in the noise power. By this an overall increase in SNR in SIMO system would be,
N 2( SignalPower )
SNR ~
- ....
N ´(noise)
Þ N ´ SNR 0
The channel capacity of the channel is roughly equal to the value such as,
C ~
- B log 2 [1 + N ´ SNR 0 ] ....
A comparision of channel capacity for different channels are shown in the above
table. The four different schemes MISO, MIMO, SISO, and SIMO schemes has an unique
channel capacity C and average SNR value. We observe a linear increase in capacity
according to the transmitting antennas from SISO to MIMO schemes.
5.6.3 IMS Architecture
It is essentially the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS). It is designed to provide a

common platform using the capabilities of IP thus providing a combined service
architecture.
The benefits accrued due to IMS deployment are multifaceted. IMS widely supports
business models while being faster. As the cost is low and does not affect the devices
and access systems it is cost effective and advantageous. It provides enhanced services at
optimised costs.
TM

As it has an open architecture it is able to support multiple devices (e.g. laptop,

handy cam). The services such as voice, data video are independently handled by the
integrated services platform.
FROM TO
VOIP IM MAIL VOD ····

USER
DB INTEGRATED
SERVICES PLATFORM
SERVICES
VOICE
DATA
IP
CONTROL
PHYSICAL
NETWORK
TRANSPORT
PHYSICAL
NETWORK
· · · ·
Cell
phone Camera PC ····
Fig. 5.6.4 IMS - Reference architecture with service enhancements
IMS architecture-schematic :
This architecture is standardized using the IP domain to provide multimedia
services. Multimedia sessions are easily carried forward using IP transport as oppose to
circuit switched networks. The All-IP domain encompasses the Application Layer,
Control Layer and Transport Layer. Therefore switching of service providers, flexibility
and enhanced service convergence is easily enabled.
TM

MAP
Wireless Networks
OSA - AS SIP - AS CSE
LAYER
APPLICATION
OSA - SCS SIP IM - SSF
SLF S - CSCF
LAYER
CONTROL
HSS I - CSCF BGCF MGCF SGW
TM
5 - 16
ACCESS AND
TRANSPORT P - CSCF MRFC
LAYER
PUBLIC SWITCHED
INTERNET TELEPHONE
IP NETWORK
CORE
UTRAN N/W
[ UMTS ] GGSN MRFP MGW

PSTN/ PLMN
FIXED BRAS
NETWORKS
DSLAM
Fig. 5.6.5 ‘IMS - ARCHITECTURE’ - A simple schematic

GPRS
NODE
4G and Beyond
Call session control function :

CSCF are used for SIP session control within the IMS domain. This takes care of call
routing, call detail records, user authentication, etc.
Proxy Call Session Control Function (PCSCF) :

It is the initial contact point which takes care of registration requests, forwarding SIP
messages, interacting with the UE. This is designed to enhance the security and protects
the user privacy.
Interrogations Call Session Control Function (I-CSSF) :

If serves to forward the SIP packets. The IP address is made available in the DNS of
the domain.
Serving Call Session Control Function (S-CSCF) :

Handles the SIP registrations, provide the routing arrangement along the network.
User Profile Server Function (UPSF) :

Maintain user identity authentication, registration details and service information.
Subscription Locator Function (SLF) :

The ICSCF once S-CSCF are essentially brought into use by the SLF. It mainly acts
as a Redirect platform.
Media Resonance Function (MRF) :

It acts as a source along the home network and takes care of Audio/Video and
Voice, etc. The Breakout Gateway Control Function to link to a circuit switched network.
The media Gateway Control Function Links with the PSTN in case of a breakout or else
the signal is forwarded simply to another network.
The application servers uses the SIP to luck with S-CSCF. The services offered
include -
i) SMS, MMS
ii) Voice call
iii) Conference call
iv) Call forwarding / transfer
v) Call hold / pick up
vi) Caller ID
Thus as mentioned above IMS provides several user friendly services.
TM

5.7 LTE AU : May-18,19
5.7.1 Introduction AU : May-18,19
The initial System Architecture Evolution (SAE) focusses on

· Enhanced packet switched technology capable to manage with rapidly growing IP
traffic in wireless environment.
In this it concentrate to provide
® Lower latency
® Higher data rates
® Efficient packet optimised system
This objective are enforced through the design techniques including,
® Fully IP based networks
® Simple network architecture
® Distributed system control
5.7.2 LTE / SAE Core Network Architecture AU : May-18
The goal of LTE / SAE architecture is to optimize the wireless system for packet
data transmission that is supported by the packet core networks.
An inter-connection between core network and radio access network is done. Here
the core network takes core of the core network related functions such as,
· Security
· Terminals context and
· Mobility management etc.
The other Radio Access Network (RAN) does all the wireless radio interface related
functions.
Also the architecture is compatible such that can be used by non-3GPP access
wireless networks, for example LAN, WiMAX, WLAN etc.
By this different packet access systems finds a real convergence.
The LTE/SAE architecture is efficient in its performances and provides ;
® Attaining mobility within its evolved access system
® Evolved access system is implied on existing and the new frequency bands
® Inter-system mobility
® Indentification of roaming interfaces
TM

GE-
RAN PCR
SGSN
function
GPRS
core HSS
UT-RAN
IP
server
3GPP SAE (eg :IMS)
Evolved MM
Entity Anchor Anchor
RAN
unit unit
Evolved
packet
core
WLAN
Non-
3GPP
3GPP
IP
IP Access
Access
Fig. 5.7.1 LTE-System Architecture Evolution
® Policy controls and changing schemes

® Solutions related to user equipments or terminals (UE)
® Migration techniques
® Seemless coverage with better access system etc.
Note : In Fig. 5.7.1,
SAE - System Architecture Evolution

PCR function - Policy and charging function
SGSN - Serving GPRS support node
HSS - Home subscriber server
MM entity - Mobility management entity
In LTE in addition to the IP Multimedia System (IMS) present in 3G, an equivalent

circuit switching services could be provided because circuit switching zone is not
supported in this LTE.
TM

® In access gateway entity, both mobility management and user plan entities
might be collacated.
® To provide effective connectivity to IP multimedia system, LTE suggests
lesser number of nodes in the packet core arrangement when compared to 3G.
® The physical layer provides fundamental bit transmission functions over air
interface.
® This physical layer is driven by SC-FDMA in the uplink and OFDMA in
the downlink.
® Dynamic mapping of physical channels to the resources available.
® With transport channels the physical channel offers data transmission
functionalities to next higher layers.
® All resource mapping is dynamically done and it is driven by the
scheduler.
® Due to this efficient scheduling process, there are no dedicated physical
channels and transport channels as in the case of 2G.GSM or 3G-WCDMA.
The LTE/SAE core network architecture thus provides faster communication and
attends user services in an effective approach in wireless networks.
5.8 Advanced Broadband Wireless Access and Services

Broadband wireless access callers to easy mobility between two fixed networks.
Signal coverage across the networks including routing forwarding functions have to be
carried out. This ensure Internet access and access to other networks over a wide area
Broadband Wireless Access is standardized by IEEE 802.16 W, MAX. Wireless broadband
technology provide access through wireless media. Technologies such as 3GPP. UMIS
LTE have been developed to enhance the geographical reach the recent trends try to
utilize the fixed network as the back-end and wireless technologies in the front end.
BWA can have a reach upto 50 km. High speed data and internet services are provided
through WLAN. If also provides connectivity through mobile phones which are
supported by fixed and mobile wireless connectivity wireless broadband can be located
is small campuses by fixed wireless broadband using Local Multipoint Distribution
Service (CMDS) and Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (MMDS).
3G and 4G is designed to give high speed Internet connection. Browsing is enabled
over long distances. Easier and faster downloads even in remote areas. It offers more
flexibility and at lower costs in the wireless transmission.
TM

5.9 Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO)

For the wireless communication services the Mobile Virtual Network Operator
(MVNO) acts as a reseller end.
It leases the wanted wireless capacity from a third-party mobile network operator
say MNO. It purchases at wholesale prices and then resells it to end users at reduced
retail prices, under its business brand in the system.
The network capacity has to be efficiently utilized.
The MVNO's have no infrastructure to build and there is no requirements of
maintenances. It has low overhead and hence MVNO's give more concentration on
marketing.
Also MVNO's offers prepaid wireless plans on their subscription basis. The customer
services and sales are handled directly. Some times it is taken care by an entity known
as mobile virtual network enabler [MVNE].
The purpose of this MVNE's is that to establish the marketing and administering the
mobile services in the network. Together MVNO's and MVNE's work efficiently in the
wireless scenario.
Review Questions
Part A
1. Compare 3G and 4G with any four points.
2. Write a note on 4G vision.
3. List any three features of 4G services.
4. What are the applications of 4G ?
5. Define MCM
6. Write a note on smart antennas ?
7. What is SISO and SIMO ?
8. What is MISO and MIMO ?
9. Write an equation of channel capacity for a SISO system.
10. Write an equation of total system capacity in a MIMO system ?
11. Compare SISO and SIMO systems.
12. What are advantages of smart antennas ?
Part B
1. a) Explain the 4G vision.
b) What are the features and challenges of 4G ? Explain.
2. a) What are the applications of 4G ?
b) Compare 3G and 4G networks.
3. Explain the 4G technologies MCM, and OFDM-MIMO system in detail. What is a MIMO system?
TM

4. Explain smart antenna techniques in detail.

5. Write a short note on
a) 4G vision,
b) Application of 4G
c) Multicarrier modulation
6. Explain IMS architecture in detail.
7. Write short note on (i) Smart antennas (ii) MVNO.
8. Define multicarrier modulation. Describe the advanced broadband wireless access and services in
detail.
Part - A
Q.1 Mention the features and challenges of 4G. (Refer section 5.4.2)
Q.2 Define multi carrier modulation. (Refer section 5.6.1) AU : May-17, Marks 2
Q.3 List some of the applications of 4G system. (Refer section 5.5)

Q.4 List the characteristics of 4G network. (Refer section 5.2) AU : May-18, Marks 2
Q.5 What are the techniques to improve network survivaility in differernt layers ? Name
the challanges faced by 4G. (Refer section 5.4.2) AU : Dec.-18, Marks 2
Q.6 Define the Long Term Evolution (LTE). (Refer section 5.7.1) AU : May-19, Marks 2
Q.7 List the features of 4G. (Refer section 5.4.1) AU : May-19, Marks 2
Part - B
Q.8 Write your understanding on behavior of smart techniques.(Refer section 5.6.2)

Q.9 Explain in detail about LTE wireless systems. (Refer sections 5.7.1 and 5.7.2)
Q.10 Define 4G and compare the key parameters of 4G with 3G. (Refer section 5.3)
Q.11 What is 4G ? Compare the key parameters of 4G with 3G.

(Refer sections 5.2 and 5.3) AU : Dec.-18, Marks 10
Q.12 Categorize the four types of smart antenna technique and explain in detail.
(Refer section 5.6.2) AU : May-19, Marks 13
Q.13 Summarize the 4G key challenges and mention the proposed solutions.
(Refer section 5.4.2) AU : May-19, Marks 13
qqq
TM

Extra Long and
A Two Marks Questions
with Answers
Q.1 What are the basic fixed channel assignment types ?
Ans. : i) Frequency division multiple access
ii) Time division multiple access
iii) Code division multiple access.
Q.2 What is FDMA ?

Ans. : In FDMA individual users are allotted separate radio channels. The channels
are unique for each user. The entire frequency band is divided into many slices.
Q.3 Mention any three features of spread spectrum system.

Ans. : i) Reduced interference.
ii) Anti jamming capabilities.
iii) Efficient and high degree of security is ensured.
iv) Higher resolution.
Q.4 What are the types of random access methods for mobile data networks ?
Ans. : i) ALOHA based access methods.
ii) Carrier - sense random access methods.
Q.5 What is the advantage of CSMA protocol over ALOHA protocol ?

Ans. : The CSMA protocol comparitively reduces packet collisions than the ALOHA
protocol.
Q.6 What is combing ?

Ans. : It is a technique used for collision avoidance in CSMA/CA is called combing.
The time period is divided into comb structure. Each station alternates between listening
and transmissions in the comb periods.
Q.7 In what situations handoff is required ?

Ans. : Handoff is required in situations like :
i) At the cell boundary.
ii) Whenever the mobile reaches a hole/gap within the cell.
(A - 1)
TM

Wireless Networks A-2 Appendix - A
Q.8 Define MAHO.

Ans. : MAHO is Mobile Assisted Handoff. It provides faster handoffs and it is suitable
for microcellular geographical areas. Soft handoff are more appropriate for CDMA
cellular standards.
Q.9 What is privacy ?

Ans. : Confidentiality or privacy is a kind of security service which gives resistance to
any security attacks.
Q.10 What are the two types of power optimization ?

Ans. : i) Centralized power control
ii) Distributed power control.
Q.11 What are the logical channels used in AMPS ?

Ans. : The logical channels are,
i) Forward control channel
ii) Reverse control channel
iii) Forward voice channel
iv) Reverse voice channel.
Q.12 What are the three main stages in network management operations in AMPS ?
Ans. : i) Mobility Management
ii) Authentication and
iii) Radio Resource Management.
Q.13 What is NAMPS ?

Ans. : It is narrowband AMPS developed by Motorola in the year 1991. NAMPS
resembles AMPS in making use of supervisory audio tones. FM deviation is reduced in
it upto 10 kHz.
Q.14 List some of the 2G standards and mention a 2G TDMA standard.

Ans. : IS-95, GSM, IS-136 are examples of 2G standard. The GSM cellular standard is
an efficient TDMA 2G standard.
Q.15 Mention any two features of IS-136.

Ans. : i) IS-136 operates in 800-1900 MHz frequency band.
ii) Channel bandwidth provided is 30 kHz.
TM

Q.16 Write a note on security in GSM.

Ans. : In GSM there are security procedures including confidentiality, anonymity,
authentication and access control are applied.
Q.17 What are services of GSM ?

Ans. : The services of GSM includes,
i) Telephone Services
ii) Bearer Services
iii) Short Message Services (SMS)
Q.18 What is GPRS ?

Ans. : The General packet radio service (GPRS) provides efficient data transfer. It
supports many services like unicast, multicast and broadcast. GPRS can handle data
rates upto 150 kbps.
Q.19 Mention any two 3G cellular systems.

Ans. : i) Cdma 2000 ii) WCDMA.
Q.20 List few physical channels in cdma 2000.

Ans. : i) Data traffic physical channel
ii) Uplink physical channel
iii) Downlink physical channel.
Q.21 What are the entities of UMTS ?

Ans. : The major entities available in UMTS are user equipment, 'UTRA' network and
core network.
Q.22 What is the classification of a network ?

Ans. : A network can be classified into three groups. They are LAN, MAN and WAN.
Q.23 What is WAN ?

Ans. : WAN is wide area network. It consists several MAN's. A WAN has no
restrictions of range in developing a network.
Q.24 Mention the major standards of WLAN.

Ans. : The standards of WLAN are
i) IEEE 802.11 ii) HIPERLAN.
Q.25 What is privacy in IEEE 802.11 ?

Ans. : Privacy is a security procedure in IEEE 802.11. The data is hidden and it cannot
be intruded in the process.
TM

Q.26 Mention few other standards of IEEE 802.11 with its description.
Ans. :
IEEE 802.11c It bridges operation procedures.
IEEE 802.11d Aims at International roaming extensions.
IEEE 802.11e Enhanecment of quality of services.
Q.27 What are the two time periods of contension phase ?

Ans. : i) Elimination period ii) Yield period
Q.28 What are the network topologies possible with HIPERLAN - 2 standard ?
Ans. : i) Infrastructure type ii) Ad-hoc type
Q.29 What is Wi-Max ?

Ans. : The wireless broadband technology is known as Wi-Max. IEEE 802 developed
Wireless MAN for broadband wireless access. The IEEE 802.16.3 provides better air
interface for frequencies of 2 GHz to 11 GHz.
Q.30 What is HIPERLAN ?

Ans. : It is High Performance Radio LAN which is an European standard initiated in
the year 1999. The frequency range used by WLAN initially was around 5 GHz.
Q.31 List any two characteristics of Ad-hoc networks.

Ans. : i) It is infra-structure independent.
ii) Topology of Ad-hoc network is dynamic and re-structurable.
iii) In an Ad-hoc network has all the seven layers of OSI.
Q.32 What is MANET ?

Ans. : MANET is Mobile Ad-hoc Network. It is independent of infra-structure. The
number of nodes in it represents network density. MANET has no fixed base stations. It
depends on battery power for active node operations.
Q.33 Compare MANET and traditional routing.

Ans. : In MANET each node is a potential router unlike traditional routing.
Also every node transmit and receive packet which is not done in traditional routing
in wired networks.
Q.34 What are the applications of sensor networks ?

Ans. : i) Sensor networks are useful in military applications.
ii) Used in medical field and industrial applications.
TM

Q.35 What are the types of sensor network architecture ?

Ans. : i) Layered architecture ii) Clustered architecture
Q.36 What are the devices associated with Internet for routing procedures ?
Ans. : i) Repeaters ii) Bridges iii) Routers.
Q.37 Mention few routing protocols in MANET.

Ans. : i) Destination sequenced distance vector routing
ii) Dynamic source routing
Q.38 What are the multicast protocols for MANET ?

Ans. : i) Source - based protocol ii) Core - based protocol
Q.39 How the routing protocols are grouped ?

Ans. : There are three main groups based on timing of route discovery and updations.
They are proactive, reactive and hybrid routing.
Q.40 What is known as LAR and DREAM ?

Ans. : LAR - Location Aided Routing Protocol
DREAM - Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
Q.41 What is WMAN ?

Ans. : Wireless MAN (WMAN) was developed by IEEE 802 committee in 1999 for
establishing wireless broadband. It consists of a group of LAN's that communicates with
each other.
Q.42 Give an wireless PAN.

Ans. : Bluetooth radio is a wireless personal area network. It initially worked in
2.4 GHz. Vertical and dipole antennas are useful in bluetooth radio.
Q.43 What is P2P ?

Ans. : It is a simple and direct network and it connects two devices with each other.
One device is assumed to be a piconet master device (M) and the other device is
assumed as a slave (S).
Q.44 What is scatternet ?

Ans. : Scatternet provides maximum data transfer. It enables bluetooth devices to
communicate with many piconets at a time. The spectrum utilization is optimized. A
device in scatternet can play master/slave roles in different piconets but at the same
time no single device can act as master in more than one piconet within a scatternet.
TM

Q.45 What are the advantages of bluetooth ?

Ans. : i) It eliminates usage of cables.
ii) Enables MP3 players in wireless environment.
iii) It assures user authentication.
iv) It provides short range wireless connectivity.
Q.46 What are the states possible in bluetooth functionality ?

Ans. : i) Park state ii) Sniff state iii) Hole state etc.
Q.47 What is the range handled in WLAN ?

Ans. : It can handle range of 15 - 150 m or 300 m for the indoor and outdoor areas.
Q.48 List any two features of nodes in sensor networks.

Ans. : i) Sensor nodes are capable to transmit and receive messages.
ii) It provides high accuracy.
iii) Nodes can combine digitial logic with sensing.
Q.49 What are fundamentals steps in routing ?

Ans. : i) Forwarding packets to next hop.
ii) Minimize the packet delay.
iii) Minimize cost.
iv) Minimize packet loss.
Q.50 What are the indicators used to estimate the performance of routing protocols
in MANET ?
Ans. : The indicators of estimating protocol performance includes
i) Data packet delivery ratio
ii) End - to - end delay
iii) Protocol overhead.
Q.51 Write a note on Indirect TCP. Mention its advantages.

Ans. : Indirect TCP :
The traditional TCP had the problem of poor performance with wireless links. Also
the TCP available within a fixed network cannot be altered. Due to these reasons the
'Indirect TCP' (I-TCP) emerged slowly. The I-TCP emerged slowly. The I-TCP segments
the TCP connection into two parts namely,
1) Fixed part
2) Wireless part.
TM

In the below diagram the mobile host is connected through a wireless link and an
Access Point (AP) to the wired internet. The correspondent host resides here. The
foreign agent can control the mobility of mobile host. Also it can handover the existing
connection to next foreign agent whenever the mobile moves on.
Access
point-AP hp
Foreign agent
Wired
Internet
Standard TCP
Wireless
Mobile TCP
host
Fig. 3.6.1 Indirect TCP segments
If handover takes place I-TCP needs several actions to happen. The I-TCP has many
advantages and they are listed below :
The I-TCP does not need any changes in TCP protocol when used by hosts in fixed
network. All optimizations for TCP works between correspondent host and foreign
agent.
Because of the strict partitioning into two connections in I-TCP the transmission
errors if any would not propagate into fixed network.
In I-TCP new mechanisms can be introduced between foreign agent and mobile host.
It allows different tests to be applied.
It is also possible to apply different transport layer protocol between mobile host and
foreign agent. Compressed headers can also used in I-TCP.
But with the technique of segmentation in I-TCP there are also same demerits. Some
of the demerits are listed below :
The correspondent node is not aware of partitioning done. A crashing access node
may crash applications that runs on correspondent node and assumes a reliable
end-to-end delivery.
Increased handover latency creates problem.
The foreign agent involved should be a trusted entity or otherwise their will be
security problems.
Q.52 Write a note on mobile TCP. Mention its merits.
TM

Ans. : Mobile TCP :

It is important to address the problem of occurrence of lengthy and frequent
disconnections.
The mobile-TCP (M-TCP) has same goals as I-TCP and snooping TCP; to avoid the
sender window from disconnection or shrinking if bit errors cause but not the
congestion causes current problem.
· This Mobile-TCP aims to improve system throughput.

· M-TCP lower delay time.
· M-TCP maintains end-to-end semantics of TCP.
When there is frequent or lengthy disconnections in network then mobile-TCP may

be suitable to compensate it and increases system throughput.
The M-TCP also segments TCP connection into two as I-TCP. But an unmodified TCP
is used on standard host-supervisory host (SH) connection.
The M-TCP achieves low bit error rate, in case of wireless links.
The Supervisory Host (SH) supervises all the packets transmitted to Mobile Host
(MH) and ACK's sent by MH's. In case ACK not received from MH then SH decides
that the MH is disconnected. Now it sets the sender's window size as '0' and sender is
now said to be in persistant mode.
The sender's state remain constant whatever be the time for which the receiver is
disconnected. This is persistant mode.
An adapted TCP is used by wireless link and it is capable of recovering from packet
losses. It does not use slow start. The M-TCP also needs a bandwidth manager to
provide fair sharing over wireless links.
Merits of M-TCP :
· Maintains end-to-end TCP semantics.
· It can avoid unwanted retransmissions in case of MH disconnections.
· Lost packets will be retransmitted automatically.
Q.53 Why firewall is used in UMTS ?
Ans. : The purpose of firewall in UMTS is to provide security. To prevent any data
hacking it is useful in the network.
Q.54 Write a short note on DSR ?

Ans. : The Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol is an on-demand protocol which is
designed for multihopping wireless ad-hoc networks. It provides two functions.
TM

1) Route Discovery
2) Route Maintenance.
Route Discovery : It is performed whenever a node wants to send a packet of data to
a particular destination for which it does not have a route.
Route Maintenance : It identifies a link failure on an active route or path. Once route
failure is found then it is informed in such a way that it is maintained. Both the route
discovery and route maintenance are available on an on-demand situation. Information
cannot be exchanged in a periodical way.
A main difficulty in operation with Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is handling
congestion. While dealing with DSR protocol it is important to consider mobile status of
devices. The impact they have created is high. Since ad hoc devices consists of mobile
devices, stability of routes in the network often change. Due to changes in delivery, the
packets become instable, as the mobile network enter and exit freely.
It is better to select lesser number of hops on a particular route. Distance matters a
lot, and as the range of transmission increases the quality of wireless radio channel
starts decreases providing less reliable transmission. This in turn increases more packet
losses and necessitates retransmission thus reducing system efficiency.
Node mobility impacts on routes available. It is also complex to monitor congestion
levels in the network. Final throughput will be less due to this level of mobility of
nodes. If it is high stability of routes will decrease and throughput will naturally
decrease. These may be known to the initiator because of the collapse of the routes
created by high mobility in the network.
Hence protocols including dynamic source routed protocol (DSR) dealing with mobile
ad hoc networks has to take into account so many criterion for improving the entire
system's performance.
Q.55 What is traditional TCP ? Explain.

Ans. : Traditional TCP
In mobile environment TCP applies several mechanisms to improve efficiency. The
topics to be discussed in traditional TCP are
i) Congestion control ii) Fast retransmit/Fast recovery

iii) Slow start iv) Implications on mobility.
Each of these topics are dealt here in detail.

Congestion Control
The TCP is basically designed for fixed type of networks with fixed end systems. For
data transmission takes place using :
TM

Wireless Networks A - 10 Appendix - A
· Network adapters
· Fiber optics
· Copper wires
· Special hardware for routers.
In data transmission there may be packet loss due to some problem in transmission
path such as "Congestion" in node.
To ensure reliable data delivery controlling this congestion is important. Even if a
network is designed carefully congestion may occur. In router the packet buffers would
be filled and the router will be unable to forward packets.
Now the sum of input rates of the packets intended for an output link will be
higher than output link capacity.
If there is a packet loss receiver unit will recognize it later by noticing a gap in
packet stream. But upto the missing packet state the receiver sends acknowledge the
sequence to the sender.
The sender by noticing a missing acknowledgement in the sequence of
acknowledgement recognizes a packet loss occurance, due to congestion in path.
To avoid congestion now TCP reduces the rate of packet transmission drastically so
that accumulation of packets gets slow down.
Note : In heavy load TCP guarantees sharing of bandwidth. Also by using reliable
hardware like special routers, network adapters and software the congestion in
transmission path can be controlled.
Fast Retransmit / Fast Recovery

Two important features will lead to reduce congestion threshold. They are ;
1) Fast retransmit
2) Fast recovery.
If the sender receives acknowledgements continuously for same packet then sender
assumes that the receiver has received packets upto acknowledged packet in the
sequence. The gap in packet stream may be due to an error in transmission path or due
to a severe congestion.
Once packet loss is noticed by sender it retransmits the missing packets before the
allotted time expires. Such a behaviour is called as 'fast retransmit'.
If acknowledgements are received continuously it shows that there is no congestion
and the sender would continue the same current congestion window. The sender always
TM

performs a 'fast recovery' from packet loss strategy. By this mechanism efficiency of TCP
is improved.
Slow Start
If there is missing acknowledgement due to a packet loss TCP reacts fast. It may not
come out of congestion quickly. But its behavior exhibits slow start after the congestion
detection. The sender calculates a congestion window and its start size is one segment.
After arrival of an acknowledgement sender increases the window by one. Then after
arrival of two acknowledgements, sender increases congestion window by two. It
continues and if another two acknowledgments are received the congestion window is
again increases by two and now it will be equal to 4. Such a mechanism is called as
exponential growth of congestion window in slow start technique.
Every time an acknowledgement coming back will take one Round Trip Time (RTT)
So far we noticed that congestion window was doubled every time. But the steps
might be very large and hance doubling is not good. The exponential growth of
congestion window stops at the congestion threshold.
Note : As the congestion window reaches the congestion threshold level then after
that if an acknowledgement is received then the window will be increased only by
(linearly) and doubling the size is avoided.
Implications on Mobility
The mobility itself may induce packet loss. Always soft handover may not be possible
from one system to another.
Fundamental design problem in TCP is if there is packet loss the cause for it cannot
be distinguished easily. Sometime error control mechanism is misused for congestion
control. But end result will be packet loss for both cases.
When using the mobile IP there may be some packet available in transit to the old
agent (foreign agent) where as the mobile node is moving to a new foreign agent. So
that there may be packet loss. Thus packet loss may also be induced by mobility from
one node to another.
Q.56 What is the significance of snooping TCP ?
Ans. : Snooping TCP :
Main drawback in I-TCP is the segmentation of single TCP connection into two
connections. Because of this original end-to-end TCP semantic will be lost. But here the
function of enhancement is buffering data closer to mobile host so as to perform local
retransmission when there is a packet loss. A correct place for TCP enhancement is the
foreign agent (in mobile IP terms) as shown below.
TM

As it is seen the foreign agent buffers packets with that of the destination mobile
host. In addition to this, it also snoops the packet flow in two directions (as shown) and
recognizes acknowledgements. By buffering packets to a foreign node there is a chance
of local retransmission in case of packet losses in wireless link. Till receiveing
acknowledgements from mobile host the foreign agent continues buffering process. If it
does not receive acknowledgement then either packet or acknowledgement could be lost.
As an alternate it could receive a duplicate ACK but it also reflects that a packet has
been lost. Now a faster retransmission is made by foreign agent and time outs will also
be shorter. The foreign agent can filter any duplicate ACK's so that unwanted
retransmissions are avoided.
Unnecessary traffic on wireless link can be avoided since the foreign agent is
capable of discards duplicates of packets that was already transmitted and
acknowledged.
With snooping TCP there are many advantages. Some of them are summarized
below :
i) The end-to-end semantic of TCP is not changed.
ii) As soon as a mobile host reaches a new foreign agent a handover of state is not
required.
iii) The correspondent host involved need not be changed.
iv) It does not account wheather the next foreign agent had applied enhancement or
not.
Q.57 Write a note transaction - oriented TCP ?
Ans. : Transaction-Oriented TCP :
Consider an application is running on mobile host (MH). The MH sends short
requests from time to the server. If the application that is running reliable packet
transfer it would use TCP. Due to this several packets are required over the wireless
links. The sequence of steps are given below.
· At first TCP use a three-way handshake for establishing connection.
· For transmission of request and closing connections through three-way handshake
atleast 4 (1 + 3) additional packets are neeeded.
· If there is a heavy traffic for a long time this requirement is minimum or
otherwise it will be of waste to have more packets to handle less packet
transmission.
In this example an overhead scenario is shown. The web services depend on HTTP
and it need reliable transport system. TCP is used for this purpose in Internet.
TM

Client Server
TCP SYN
TCP SYN/ACK
Connection
TCP A setup
HTTP R CK
equest
Data
nse
transmission HTTP Respo
Syn : Synchronization
ACK : Acknowledgment
> 15 sec Connection

No data release
GPRS: 550 msec
Fig. 3.6.3 TCP connection setup overhead
The TCP connection has to established before a HTTP request is sent. Assume GPRS
is used as wire area transport system.
There is an one-way delay equal to 550 msec. To set up a TCP connection it may take
more than one second.
The Transaction-oriented TCP (T-TCP) emerged in this regard to provide more
efficiency T-TCP can combine the packets for both connection establishment and release
with that of the user data packets. By this approach the additional number of packets
can be reduced. If there is seven additional packets required this T-TCP can reduce it
upto two packets.
Merit
· Reduction in overhead.
Demerits
· Needs changes in mobile host and correspondent hosts.
· Has security problems.
Summary of the classical enhancements to the TCP are tabulated below regarding
mobility scenario.
Sr. TCP approach Mechanism involved Merits Demerits

No
1. Indirect TCP It segments TCP connection · Simple. · Loss of the

(I-TCP) into two. · Isolation of TCP
wireless link is semantics.
possible.
· Security
problem.
TM

2. Snooping TCP Snooping of data and · Transparancy. · Inadequate

(S-TCP) ACK's
· MAC isolation of the
integration. wireless links.
· Security
problem .
3. Mobile TCP Segments TCP connection, · End-to-end · Poor isolation
(M-TCP) can choke sender through
window sizes semantics is of wireless
maintained . link.
· Handles · Security
frequent problem.
disconnections.
4. Fast retransmit It avoids slow-start after · Simple. · Not
fast recovery any roaming.
· More efficient. transparent.
· Mixed layers.
5. Transmission It freezes TCP states at · Work for long · Changes in
time-out disconnections, later it
freezing resumes after reconnection. interruptions. TCP.
· MAC
dependent.
6. Selective Lost data only · Highly · Complex.
retransmission retransmitted.
efficient. · Need more
buffer spaces.
7. Transaction-ori Combine connection · Efficient for Not transparent.
ented TCP setup/release.
(T-TCP) few · Security
applications. problems.
Q.58 What is known as fast transmit / fast recovery ?

Ans. : Fast Retransmit / Fast Recovery
Two important features will lead to reduce congestion threshold. They are ;
1) Fast retransmit
2) Fast recovery.
If the sender receives acknowledgements continuously for same packet then sender
assumes that the receiver has received packets upto acknowledged packet in the
sequence. The gap in packet stream may be due to an error in transmission path or due
to a severe congestion.
Once packet loss is noticed by sender it retransmits the missing packets before the
allotted time expires. Such a behaviour is called as 'fast retransmit'.
TM

If acknowledgements are received continuously it shows that there is no congestion

and the sender would continue the same current congestion window. The sender always
performs a 'fast recovery' from packet loss strategy. By this mechanism efficiency of TCP
is improved.
Q.59 Write a note on concept of TCP over 2.5/3G wireless networks.
Ans. : TCP Over 2.5G/3G Wireless Networks
The 2.5G / 3G wireless networks are focused for transportation of Internet data.
When deploying application over these wireless networks, the important characteristics
to be considered are tabulated below.
Data rate · 2.5G systems - 10 to 20 kbps (uplink)

- 20 to 50 kbps (downlink)
· 3G system - 64 kbps (uplink)
- 115 to 384 kbps (downlink)
· Periodic allocation of high - speed channels may be allotted.
Jitter · Wireless system generally suffer from delay spikes due to
temporal loss of radio coverage blocking etc.
· In GSM it is 10 ms (approx.) and more.
Latency · GPRS provides average delay of < 2 sec with highest quality of
service.
· Algorithms for error correction and protection (like FEC) are
applied in wireless networks.
Packet loss · During handovers packets may be lost. The link level
retransmission has reduced the loss rates in 2.5G/3G wireless
systems.
The configuration parameters with respect to the above characteristics for adapting
TCP to the wireless environment are;
i) Limited transmit (Useful when smaller amount of data are sent)
ii) Large windows (Large window should be supported).
iii) Large MTU (Maximum Transfer Unit). If the MTU is larger it will increase
congestion window.
iv) Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN).
v) Selective Acknowledgment (SACK).
vi) Time stamp.
vii) No header compression.
TM

The above recommended configuration parameters for 2.5G/3G networks are already
used by the i-mode system. To have better efficiency in the above wireless networks all
the parameters have to be considered.
Q.60 What is known as transmission/time out freezing and selective retransmission

in TCP ?
Ans. : Transmission / Time-out Freezing
If connection problems exists MAC layer has noticed even before the connection was
actually interrupted with respect to TCP. MAC layer does not decide that the
disconnection is due to congestion. But the MAC layer informs TCP layer regarding
upcoming loss of connections.
Thus as a result TCP stop transmission and it freezes the present state of the
congestion window. Once the MAC layer knows about interruption at earlier stage it
informs it to correspondent and mobile host.
On the other hand if connectivity is detected by MAC layer it informs TCP to resume
its operation again which was stopped earlier.
Selective Retransmission
One of the important advantage of extension of TCP is the usage of 'selective
retransmission'. The TCP-ACK's are cumulative, and they acknowledge the receipt of
packets upto a particular packet. Now the sender retransmits all packets from the last
packet onwards. This is 'go-back-n retransmission' method. The bandwidth is wasted
due to sending many packets once again.
An alternate to this is selective retransmission. The TCP requests indirectly for
selective retransmission. The receiver is capable of acknowledging single packets and the
sender can determine in particular about which packet is to be retransmitted.
qqq
TM

B Solved Problems
Q.1 Find the transfer time of 20 kB file with mobile data network with a rate of
10 kbps.
Ans. : In mobile networks like mobitex the length of file is limited to 20 kb.
For transferring a file of 20 Kb the time of transfer (t) is
= 20 (kB) ´ 8 (B/b) ´ 10 (kB/s)
t = 16 sec.
Q.2 Calculate P n and P n + 1 in case of collision between bluetooth and IEEE 802.11
(Assume n = 6).
L Ie éL ù L
Ans. : Given : n = 6 ; P n = - ê Ie ú, where n = Ie
L BS L
ë BS û L BS
L Ie éL ù
and Pn + 1 = 1 - + ê Ie ú,
L BS ë L BS û
Hence Pn = 0.4 and

Pn + 1 = 0.6
Q.3 In an open area find the difference between received signal strength of the two
terminals which are located in 10 m and 1 km from the base station ?
Ans. : In open areas the received signal strength would fall by 40 dB (approx) in a
decade. The received signal power between two terminals that are at 10 m and 1m from
1 m base station will be around 80 dB.
Q.4 Assume an out-of-band radiation is 40 dB below the main lobe. If two channel
are operating in two adjacent channels find the impact in this situation.
Ans. : Assuming the out-of-band radiation is 40 dB below the transmitted signal
power then it might exceed the signal strength of the information signal by 60 dB
(approx).
Q.5 Consider the IS-95 digital cellular systems. Find the channel capacity of the
channel which has bandwidth of channel 1.25 MHz and transmission rate of
9600 bps with signal to interference ratio of 3dB to 9 dB.
(B - 1)
TM

Wireless Networks B-2 Appendix - B
S
Ans. : The second generation cellular system requires at receiving end as,
I
S
3 dB < < 9 dB.
I
Channel bandwidth is 1.25 MHz.
Transmission rate is 9600 bps.
\ Channel capacity will be,
æ 1.25 MHz 1ö
C = ç ´ ÷
è 9600 bps 8ø
= 16 to
æ 1.25 MHz 1ö
C = ç ´ ÷
è 9600 bps 2ø
= 65 users.
Q.6 What will be the channel capacity of an AMPS analog system with a carrier
bandwidth of 30 kHz, frequency reuse factor is 7 each with 1.25 MHz of
bandwidth.
Ans. : Given : K = 7
Carrier bandwidth = 30 kHz
æ 1.25 MHz 1ö
Capacity (c) = ç ´ ÷
è 30 kHz 7ø
\ C = 6 users in one channel.
Q.7 Find the capacity of a GSM network for K = 3, carrier bandwidth as 200 kHz
number of users in a carrier signal as 8; K = 3, each with 1.25 MHz of
bandwidth in the system.
Ans. :
æ 1.25 MHzö æ 8 ö
Capacity = ç ÷ ×ç ÷
è 200 kHz ø è 3 ø
\ C = 16.7 uesrs in one cell (approx).
Q.8 Where the conversion from analog signal and coding will take place in speech
conversion procedure in GSM ?
Ans. : The conversion process from analog signal will take place at mobile station MS
and from this signal further coding will take place at the base station subsystem.
TM

Q.9 If the data rate is 9600 bps how many bits will be carried by a 10 ms
half-frame in IS-95 CDMA standard ?
Ans. : The number of bits generally depend upon the data rate of signal. A 10 ms
half-frame will carry around 96 bits if the data rate is 9600 bps.
Q.10 In HIPERLAN-2 wireless LAN what transmission rate is required for

supporting around 125 kbps user data with a convolutional encoder ?
1
Ans. : For a rate convolutional encoder it needs 250 kbps rate of transmission for
2
supporting 125 kbps of user data.
Q.11 Consider 250 ksps user information is modulated over BPSK modem and it
transmits one symbol for each coded bit, then what will be the rate of that
system ?
Ans. : Considering 250 ksps user data is modulated over a given BPSK modem which
sends one symbol per each and every coded bit. Here the pulse or symbol transmission
rate of the given system will be 250 ksps.
Q.12 With QAM and rate 3/4 convolutional coding technique if 64-QAM is used
what will be the data rate for 250 kbps per carrier signal ? Consider a
48 carrier signal in this case.
3
Ans. : A 64-QAM modulation technique is used with a rate convolutional coder unit, 6
4
bits per symbols is modulated with the data given the effective data rate will be equal to
4
250 kbps/carrier signal ´ ´ 6 b/symbols ´ 48 carrier signal.
3
4
Data rate = 250 kbps/carrier ´ ´ 6 b/symbols ´ 48 carrier signals = 54 Mbp/sec.
3
Q.13 What is the ISM band of frequency of operation for a bluetooth device ?
Ans. : The bluetooth devices operate in ISM bands at 2.4 GHz frequencies.
Q.14 Why there is interference issues between a bluetooth devices and IEEE 802.11
standard ?
Ans. : The IEEE 802.11 devices and bluetooth devices operated in same frequency
band of 2.4 GHz. Hence the probability of occurrence of interference between these
devices were more.
Q.15 What is the data rate of high quality voice packets if packets are sent at rate
of 1600 slots per second ?
Ans. : Consider a high quality voice packets (HV), the HV packets are 240 bits long in
size and hence they are transmitted every six slots. The 1-slots packets transmitted at
the rate of 1,600 slots per sec.
TM

é 1600 ù
Data rate = ê slots per secú ´ 240 bits
ë 6 slots û
= 64 kb/sec.
Q.16 Assume a symmetric 1-slot DH 1 link between a master and slave terminals
carrying 216 bps at 800 slots per second in each and every direction. Find its
associated data rate for transmission.
Ans. : Assume a 1-slot DTH link between a master (M) and slave (S).
Carrying bits = 216 b/slot, at 800 slots/sec.
Associated data rate = 216 (b/slots) ´ 800 (slots/sec.)
= 172.8 kb/sec.
Q.17 In bluetooth considering a DM 5 link with 5-slots packets sending 1792 bits in
a packet by master and 1-slot packet carries 136 bits in a packet by the slave.
The number packets in one second is 1600/6 packet in a second each direction.
Find the i) Data rate from master and ii) Data rate from slave.
Ans. :
· In medium data rate in bluetooth, consider an asymmetric DM 5 link using 5-slot
packets that carry 1792 b/packet by master 'M'.
· In same case 136 b/packet by the slave 'S'
é 1600 ù
i) Data rate by M = ê1796 (bits / packet) ´ (packets /sec. )ú
ë 6 û
= 477.8 kbp/sec.
é 1600 ù
ii) Data rate by S = ê136 (bits / packet) ´ (packets /sec. ) ú
ë 6 û
= 36.3 kbp/sec.
Q.18 If the length ratio of IEEE 802.11 and bluetooth device packets is 4-3,
probability of overlap of the IEEE 802.11 packet having n = 4, and for n + 1
what will be dwell periods of bluetooth ?
Ans. :
Length of IEEE 802.11 L Ie
= = 4.3
Length of Bluetooth L BS
Considering n = 4 and n + 1 = 5, the dwell periods are ;

i) For n = 4, bluetooth dwell period = 30 %
ii) For n + 1 = 5 bluetooth dwell period = 70 %
TM

Q.19 The probability of bluetooth hop occurrence at operating 'f' of FHSS system is
0.013. Assume a 1000 byte 802.11 packet at a rate of 2 Mbps, what will be the
probability of survice and collision in the system ?
Ans. :
Phit is = 0.013
Considering 1000 byte 802.11 packet at a rate of 2 Mb/sec, then

Length of 802.11 packet, L Ie is
1000 (bytes) ´ 8 (bits / byte)
L Ie =
8 (Mbits /sec. )
= 4 msec.
Let bluetooth send 1-slot packets then, its packet length L BS is,
L BS = 625 ms and n = L Ie /L BS
n = 6
The Pn = 0.4, Pn + 1 = 0.6 then,
Probability of packet survival (PS ) is

PS = (1 - Phit )n × Pn + (1 - Phit )n + 1 × Pn + 1
= (1 - 0.013)6 × (0.4) + (1 - 0.013)7 × (0.6)
PS = 0.92
Probability of collision (Pcol ) will be,

Pcol = 1 - PS
= 1 – 0.92
= 0.08
Pcol = 8 %
Q.20 Calculate the value of n, for the below case. The 802.11 b uses same frequency
band as the 802.11 DSSS for sending at a rate of 11 Mbps. (Assume a 1000
byte IEEE 802.11 packet at a rate of 11 Mbps)
Ans. : The length of 802.11 packet (L Ie ) is,
1000 bytes ´ 8 bits per byte
L Ie = = 727 msec.
11 Mbits per sec.
Length of bluetooth 1-slot packet L BS = 625 msec.
TM

L Ie 727 msec.
\ n = ~
- (approx.)
L BS 625 msec.
n ~
- 1
Q.21 Assume in a GSM control channel a block of 184 bits is being encoded into 224
bits of the code word before sending it to next convolutional encoder. If
number of parity checking bits are 40 find the code rate.
Ans. : Given : A block of 184 bits encoded into 224 bits. Parity check bits = 40. Hence
code rate (r) is = 184/224 = 0.82
Q.22 In IS-95 if the sync channel data operate at 1200 bps what will be the data
1
rate after a rate encoding ?
2
Ans. : In IS-95 2G standard it is given that the sync. Channel data operates at
1
1200 bps. After the process of rate convolutional encoding the data rate will be
2
increaded twice. New data rate = 2400 b/sec.
Q.23 Calculate the new data rate in IS-95 if the data rate over the access channel is
4800 b/sec. and it is passed through a rate 1/3 convolutional encoder.
Ans. : The given data rate over the access channel is 4800 b/sec.
1
If it is passed via a rate
convolutional encoder it will increase.
3
\ New data rate = 14.4 kb/sec.
Q.24 Consider a 64-ary orthogonal modulator. A long PN sequence is spreaded at
its output by a factor of 4. What is its chip rate ?
Ans. :
· A long PN sequence is spreaded at the output of a 64-ary orthogonal modulator.
· Factor used = 4
· 64-ary modulator performes a mapping process in which following a symbol
repetition every six bit is mapped into 64 bits.
· In IS-95 after modulation procedures the chip rate is = 1.288 Mchip/sec.
Q.25 In IS-95 closed loop reverse link power control on downlink traffic channel
assume a power control bit is sent for every 1-25 msec. What are the
indications given to the MS by a 0 and 1 in the signal ?
Ans. : Assuming a power control bit is transmitter for every 1.25 msec. In above case
then 0 and 1 bit indicates MS as below :
i) A zero bit indicates that the given mobile station should increase its power of
transmission.
ii) A one bit indicates that the given mobile station should decrease power of
transmission.
TM

Q.26 Consider a medium data rate in bluetooth standard. An asymmetric DM5 link
using five slot packets which carries 1792 bits per packet by the master
terminal whereas 1-slot packet that carries 136 bits per packet by the slave
terminal. Find the data rate of the slave terminal.
Ans. :
· Assume an asymmetric DM5 data link.
· 1792 bits/packet carried by master.
· 136 bits/packet carried by slave.
1600
Data rate of the slave terminal = 136 bits per packet ´ packets per second
6
Data rate = 36.3 Kb/sec.
Q.27 Consider an interference between DSSS 802.11 device with bluetooth device.
Assuming an open area having a as 2, minimum of S as 10 (10 dB),
PAP = 100 mW (20 dBm) and PBT = 1 mW (0 dBm) for d equal to 20 m and
processing gain 11 what will be the interference measured ?
Ans. : Given : a = 2
S min = 10 (10 dB)
PAP = 100 mW (20 dB m)
PBT = 1 mW (0 dB m)
d = 20 metres.
Processing gain = N = 11 then
æ PBT ö
Interference I is = d a S min ç ÷× N
è PAP ø
Substituting the given values then

I = 1.9 m
Q.28 Find the length of the file in WLAN operating at 2 Mb/sec that can carry in
time that a mobile data service operating with a transmission rate of kb/sec.
carrying ints 20 kB data file ?
Ans. : Considering a data rate around 10 kb/sec. For transferring a file of length
20 kB. The time taken is,
æ Bö
t = 20 (kB) ´ 8 ç ÷ ´ 10 Mb/sec.
è bø
t = 16 sec. (for transferring a file of 20 kB)

TM

In case of same WLAN file transfer in 16 seconds of time interval it transfers a file of
length 4 MB.
Length of file = 4 MB
Q.29 Find the maximum throughput of a pure ALOHA network assuming a larger
number of users with a transmission rate of 1 Mbps ?
Ans. :
· Transmission rate = 1 Mb/sec.
· Assume a pure ALOHA network.
· Data rate with which message transfers through base station = D = 180 kb/sec.
Q.30 What will be the difference between the signal strength received of the two
terminals located in 10 meters and 1 km from base station in given open area?
Ans. :
· Two terminals located in distances from base stations = 10 m and 1 km
· Received signal strengths will fall in the level (in open areas) = 40 dB/decade
· Hence received signal strengths from two terminals at 10 m and 1 m from base
station is = 80 dB apart.
Q.31 For the GSM frequency band diagram given below,
i) Calculate the possible number of carriers in a direction.
ii) If the transmission rate of the system is 270.8 kB/sec, find its modulation
efficiency.
MHz 890 905 915 935 950 960
Services Services
already Initial already Initial
existing GSM existing GSM
Mobile station's Base station

transmission transmission
Fig. B.1
Ans. : Given :
· From the diagram the carrier frequency spacing is = 200 kHz = 200 ´ 10 3
· Two 25 MHz frequency bands are available.
· The two bands are separated by 45 MHz frequency.
The number of carriers possible ü Frequency of allocation of a band
i) ý = Frequency spacing / carrier signal
in the system (NC) þ
25 MHz
=
200 kHz/ Carrier signal
TM

25 ´ 10 6
=
200 ´ 10 3
\ N c = 125 Carriers.
Rate of transmisstion
ii) Modulation efficency = h =
Frequency spacing / Carrier signal
270.8 ´ 10 3
h =
200 ´ 10 3
\ h = 1.354 bits/Hz
Q.32 Consider in a wireless TDMA system the coding delay is 20 msec and an
encoded speech into blocks of 20 msec time duration is accepted by the system.
In second generation digital system, if the speech block length is 488 bits,
calculate the minimum bit rate required for a 12 channels system.
Ans. : Given : Coding delay = 20 msec = 20 ´ 10 - 3 sec
Number of channels = 12
Speech block length = 488 bits

(Number of channels)(Speech of block length)
The minimum bit rate R b (min) =
Coding delay
(12) (488)
Substituting the given values, R b(min) =
20 ´ 10 - 3
R b (min) = 292.8 kB/sec.
Q.33 Calculate the number of radio channels available in the FDMA system with
following data. A US analog mobile phone system is allocated 12.8 MHz for
every simplex band. The total specturm allocated is 12.8 MHz, the guard
bandwidth is 10 kHz and the channel bandwidth is 30 kHz.
Ans. : We have total available spectrum
B t = 12.8 MHz
= 12.8 ´ 10 6
Channel bandwidth B c = 30 kHz
= 30 ´ 10 3
Guard bandwidth B G = 10 kHz
= 10 ´ 10 3
TM

Wireless Networks B - 10 Appendix - B
Number of radio channels available in the FDMA system is devoted as 'n',

Bt - 2 BG
n =
Bc
( 12.8 ´ 10 6 ) - 2( 10 ´ 10 3 )
n =
30 ´ 10 3
\ n = 426 channels
Q.34 Consider the direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) system which has a data
sequence bit duration as 4.085 msec, PN chip duration is 1 msec and E b N o is
10 for the case of average probability lesser than 10 - 5 calculate processing
gain of the system.
Ans. : In PN sequence (pseudo noise) the one bit period is called as one chip duration.
T c = 1 msec = 1 ´ 10 - 6
One bit duration = T b = 4.085 msec
T b = 4.085 ´ 10 - 3
Tb 4.085 ´ 10 - 3
\ Processing gain PG = =
Tc 1 ´ 10 - 6
\ PG = 4085
Q.35 For the above question, find the jamming margin value in dB for DSSS system.
Ans. : We have processing gain
PG = 4085
E b N 0 = 10
Jamming margin in dB,

J M = (Jamming margin)dB
J M = (PG )dB - 10 log 10 (E b N 0 )
= (4085)dB - 10 log 10 (10)
= 10 log 10 4085 - 10 log 10 10
= 10 (3.611) - 10 (1)
= 26.112 dB
TM

Q.36 Consider a cellular system with four cell reuse pattern. Let the bandwidth
allocated is 60 MHz to a FDD cellular telephone system using two 30 kHz
simplex channels for providing full duplex control of one channel. Calculate
the total number of channels available in one cell.
Ans. : If cellular system uses 4 cell reuse pattern, then each cluster has four cells.
N = 4
Total bandwidthü
ý = 60 MHz
(BW) þ
Channel bandwidthü
\ ý = Twice the number of simplex channels
(B c ) þ
= 30 kHz ´ 2
= 60 kHz per duplex channel

Total available channels ü BW 60 ´ 10 3 kHz
\ ý = B =
(A c ) þ c 60 kHz
A c = 1000 channels
Q.37 A CDMA mobile unit measures signal strength from the base station and it is
- 10 5 dBm. Find what should be the mobile unit's transmitter power, as a first
approximation.
Ans. : The transmitted power of mobile is = Pt = – 76 dB – Pr
where Pr is received power in dBm Converting p t in dBm to W,
x
Pt = – 76 dB – Pr 10 log = 29
1 ´ 10 - 3
= – 76 dB – (– 105 dBm) log (x × 10 3 ) = 2.9
= – 76 dB + 105 dBm (x × 10 3 ) = antilog (2.9)
antilog (2.9)
= 29 dBm x=
10 3
Converting 29 dBm to watts, x = 0.7943
Pt = 794 mW x = 794 mW
Q.38 Find the maximum distance present between base station and mobile unit
which can be accommodated with a guard time period of 125 msec. The guard
time has to include the round-trip propagation time.
TM

Ans. : The radio waves travel at speed of light energy and hence the total round-trip
time distance (D) will be
D = C.t ; where C ® speed of radio propagation

t ® guard time period
= (300 ´ 10 6 m s) (125 ´ 10 - 6 s)
= 300 ´ 125
= 37500
\ Distance = D = 375 km
Q.39 What will be maximum data rate that can be transmitted if the signal to noise
ratio is 20 dB and channel bandwidth is 40 kHz ?
Ans. : Channel bandwidth = B = 40 kHz
Signal to noise ratio = 20 dB = 100
æ Sö
Channel capacity = C = B log 2 ç 1 + ÷
è Nø
= 40 kHz log 2 (1 + 100)
æ ln 101ö
= 40 kHz ç ÷
è ln 2 ø
Maximum data rate = C = 266.33 kbps
Q.40 In a cellular mobile communication for a forward channel performance

considering signal to noise ratio (SNR) of 14 dB is required as minimum
requirement. Find frequency reuse factor that must be used for maximum
capacity if the path loss exponent is n = 3 and n = 4. (Assuming six co-channel
cells are available in first tier and key are at same distance from the mobile
phone).
Ans. : Let n = 3
Consider a seven-cell reuse pattern in cellular cluster and N = 7.
S (D /R ) n
The signal to interference ratio is = =
( 3N )n
I i0 i0
Co-channel reuse factor = Q = D/R = 4.583
S ( 4.583 ) 3
For n = 3 case =
I 6
= 16.04
TM

S
\ = 12.05 dB
I
But for minimum performance the S/I should be atleast 14 dB as per the requirement
of cellular system.
Hence n = 3 is not suitable since 12.05 dB is less than standard value 14 dB.
Let n = 4
Consider a seven cell reuse pattern and N = 7.
D
Co-channel reuse factor = Q = = 4.583
R
S
Signal to interference ratio =
I
1
= ´ ( 4.583 ) 4
6
= 73.52
S
\ = 18.66 dB
I
The signal to interference is greater than the minimum requirement standard value
14 dB and n = 4 is a better value that can be applied, for real time performance.
qqq
TM

Notes
TM

C Mathematical Functions
Mathematical functions, tables and transforms list.

I. Some Mathematical Functions :
Unit Step ì1 for t > 0,

u (t) = í
î 0 for t < 0.
Sinc sin x
Sb (x) =
x
Rectangular ætö ì1 for | t| £ T 2

Rect ç ÷ = í
èT ø î 0 for | t| > T 2
Triangular ì |t|
ætö ï1 -
T
for| t| £ T
^ç ÷ = í
èT ø
ïî 0 for | t | > T
Signum ì1 for t > 0

sigm (t) = í
î- 1 for t < 0
Impulse ì1 for t = 0
d (t) = í
î0 for t ¹ 0
Bessel function p
1
In (b ) = ò e j (b sin q - nq) dq
2p
-p
Variance of X ¥
s2 = ò (x - m )2 PX (x) dx ;
-¥
in which m = E [X] , E ® Expectation.
II. Some Probability Functions :

a) Discrete distribution :
Binomial :
Pr(m) = ( nm ) p m ×q n - m ; m = 0, 1, 2 .... n.
= 0 otherwise
0 < p < 1, q = 1–p
(C - 1)
TM

Wireless Networks C-2 Appendix - C
n
p(x) = å p m q n - m d (x - m)
m= 0
x = np and
s 2x = npq
Poisson :
lm × e - l
Pr(m) = ; m = 0, 1, 2, 3 .....
m!
n
lm × e - l
p(x) = å m!
d (x - m)
m= 0
x = l and
s 2x = l
b) Continuous distribution :
Gaussian (Normal)
1 é (x - x)2 ù
p(x) = × exp ê - ú ; -¥ £ x £ ¥
sx 2p êë 2 s 2x úû
{
E (x - x)2 } = s 2x and E {x} = x
Exponential
p(x) = be - bx x>0
= 0 otherwise
and s 2x = a - 2 and x = a - 1
c) Rayleigh distribution :
The probability density function of the envelope of the Gaussian random noise signal
with variance s 2n and zero mean.
a æ - a2 ö
P(a) = exp ç ÷ ; a ³ 0
s 2n è 2 s 2n ø
E{a} = a = s n p2
æ pö
{
E (a - a)2 } = s 2a = ç 2 - ÷ s 2n
è 2ø
TM

d) Uniform distribution
ì 1
ï x < a < y
P(a) = í y - x
ïî 0 elsewhere
(y - x)2
s 2x = and
12
x+ y
x =
2
III. Trigonometry
cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B m sin A sin B
sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
1
cos A cos B = [cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)]
2
1
sin A sin B = [cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)]
2
æ A + Bö æ A - Bö
sin A + sin B = 2 sin ç ÷ cos ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
æ A - Bö æ A + Bö
sin A – sin B = 2 sin ç ÷ cos ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
cos A – cos B = - 2 sin ç ÷ sin ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
cos A + cos B = 2 cos ç ÷ cos ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A.

cos 2A = 2 cos 2 A - 1 = 1 - 2 sin 2 A
= cos 2 A - sin 2 A
sin A/2 = (1 - cos A) 2
cos A/2 = (1 + cos A) 2
cos 2 A = (1 + cos 2A) 2
sin 2 A = (1 - cos 2A) 2
TM

e jx + e - jx
cos x = ; e jx = cos x + j sin x
2
e jx - e - jx
sin x = ; e jx = cos x + j sin x
2j
sin ( w t + f ) = cos ( w t + f - 90° )

cos ( w t + f ) = sin ( w t + f + 90° )
x cos ( w t + f 1 ) + y cos ( wt + f 2 ) = z cos ( w t + f 3 )
Where z = x 2 + y 2 + 2xy cos ( f 2 - f 1 ) ;
é x sin f 1 + y sin f 2 ù
f 3 = tan - 1 ê ú
ë x cos f 1 + y cos f 2 û
Differentiation
d
(e x ) = e x
dx
d
dx
(log e x) = 1x
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(tan x) = sec 2 x
dx
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
d 1
(sin - 1 x) =
dx (1 - x 2 )
d 1
(tan - 1 x) =
dx 1 + x2
d
(sinh x) = cosh x
dx
d 1
(sec - 1 x) =
dx x (x 2 - 1)
du dv
d æ uö v -u
dx dx
ç ÷ =
dx è v ø v 2
TM

d
(ax + b)n = n (ax + b)n - 1 × a
dx
d
(a x ) = a x log e a
dx
d
(cos x) = - sin x
dx
d
(cot x) = - cosec 2 x
dx
d 1
(log a x) =
dx x log a
d 1
(cos - 1 x) = -
dx (1 - x 2 )
d
(cosh x) = sinh x
dx
d -1
(cot - 1 x) =
dx 1 + x2
d du dy
= ´ (It is known as chain rule)
dx dy dx
d dv du
(uv) = u +v
dx dx dx
D n log (ax + b) = ( - 1)n - 1 ×(n - 1) ! a n (ax + b)n
D n (e mx ) = m n × e mx
D n (ax + b)n = m (m - 1) (m - 2) (m - 3) ... (m - n + 1) (ax + b)m - n
é sin (ax + b)ù é sin (ax + b + np 2)ù

Dn ê ú = an ê ú
ë cos (ax + b)û ë cos (ax + b + np 2)û
Integration
1
ò x
dx = log e x
ò sinx dx = – cos x
ò a xdx = a x log e a
ò tan x dx = – log cos x
TM

ò secx dx = log (sec x + tan x)
ò sec 2 x dx = tan x
ò cos x dx = sin x
ò cot x dx = log sin x
1 1 x
ò dx = tan - 1
a2 + x2 a a
1 1 a+ x
ò a -x 2 2
dx =
2a
log
a- x
1 1 x- a
ò x -a 2 2
dx =
2a
log
x+ a
ò cosec x dx = log (cosec x – cot x)
ò cosec 2 dx = – cot x
x a2 - x2 a2 x
ò (a 2 - x 2 ) dx = + sin - 1
2 2 a
x x2 - a2 a2 x
ò x 2 - a 2 dx = - cosh - 1
2 2 a
x a2 + x2 a2 x
ò a 2 + x 2 dx = + sinh - 1
2 2 a
e ax
ò e ax cos bx dx = (a cos bx + b sin bx)
a2 + b2
e ax
ò e ax sin bx dx = (a sin bx - b cos bx)
a2 + b2
ò sinh x dx = cosh x
ò cosh x dx = sinh x
1 x
ò dx = sin - 1
a2 - x2 a
1 x
ò dx = sinh - 1
a2 + x2 a
TM

1 x
ò dx = cosh - 1
x -a2 2 a
p 2
(m - 1) (m - 3) (m - 5) ... x (n - 1) (n - 3) (n - 5) .... p
ò sin m x cos n x dx = ´
(m + n) (m + n - 2) (m + n - 4) ..... 2
0
(if and only if m, n are even)

p 2 p 2
(n - 1) (n - 3) ... æp ö
ò sin n x dx = ò cos n dx = ´ ç , if and only if n is even÷
n (n - 2) (n - 4) ... è 2 ø
0 0
e ax
ò e ax dx = ; ò e x dx = e x
a
e ax xn + 1
ò xe ax dx = (ax - 1) ; ò x n dx = , n¹ - 1
a2 n+ 1
e ax
ò x 2 e ax dx = (a 2 x 2 - 2ax + 2)
a3
e ax
ò e ax sin (bx) dx = (a sin (bx) - b cos (bx))
a2 + b2
e ax
ò e ax cos (bx) dx = (a cos (bx) + b sin (bx))
a2 + b2
x sin 2 ax
ò cos 2 ax dx = +
2 4a
æ 1ö
ò x cos (ax) dx = ç 2 ÷ (cos (ax) + ax sin (ax))
èa ø
æ 1ö
ò x 2 cos (ax) dx = ç 3 ÷ (2ax cos ax - 2 sin ax + a 2 x 2 sin ax)
èa ø
æ 1ö
ò sin (ax) dx = - ç ÷ cos ax
è aø
æ 1ö
ò cos (ax) dx = ç ÷ sin ax
è aø
æ x ö sin 2ax
ò sin 2 (ax) dx = ç ÷ -
è 2ø 4a
æ 1ö
ò x sin (ax) dx = ç 2 ÷ (sin ax - ax cos ax)
èa ø
TM

æ 1ö
ò x 2 sin (ax) dx = ç 3 ÷ (2ax cos ax + 2 cos ax - a 2 x 2 cos ax)
èa ø
sin (a - b) x sin (a + b)x

ò cos (ax) cos (bx) dx = + ; (a 2 ¹ b 2 )
2 (a - b) 2 (a + b)
sin (a - b) x sin (a + b) x
ò sin (ax) sin (bx) dx = - ; (a 2 ¹ b 2 )
2 (a - b) 2 (a + b)
é cos (a - b) x cos (a + b) x ù 2 2
ò sin (ax) cos (bx) dx = - ê
ë 2 (a - b)
+
2 (a + b) ú ; (a ¹ b )
û
¥
sin ax p -p
ò x
dx =
2
, 0,
2
for a > 0, a < 0, a = 0.
0
¥
sin 2 x
ò x
dx = p 2
0
¥
sin 2 x
ò x2
dx = p 2
0
¥
sin 2 ax
ò x2
dx = |a| p 2
0
¥
n!
ò x n e - ax dx = n+ 1
0
a
¥
2 x2 p
ò e- r dx =
2r
0
¥
2 x2 1
ò x e- r dx =
0
2r 2
¥
2 x2 p
ò x2 e - r dx =
0
4r 3
¥
2 x2 G [(n + 1) 2]
ò xn e - r dx =
0
2 rn+ 1
G(k) = (k – 1) !; for integers k ³ 1.
TM

IV. Some Fourier Transform Theorems :
Operation Performed Function Fourier Transform
Differentiation d n w(t) (j 2p f)n W (f)

dt n
t 1
Integration (i 2p f)- 1 H(f) + H(0) df
ò h( l ) d l 2
-¥
Convolution ¥ A1 (f) × A2 (f)

a1(t) * a2 (t) = ò a1( l ) × a2 (t - l )dl
-¥
Multiplication a1 (t) a2 (t) ¥

A1(f) * A2 (f) = ò A1( l ) × A2 (f - l ) dl
-¥
Linearity b1 w1(t) + b 2 w 2 (k) b1 W1(f) + b2 W2 (f)
Time delay w (t - Td ) W (f) × e- j w Td
Scale change w (at) 1 æfö

Wç ÷
|a| èaø
Conjugation w *(t) W *(– f)
Duality W(t) w (+ f)
Translation for real w (t) cos (wc t + q ) 1 jq

[e W (f - fc ) + e- jq W (f + fc )]
signal frequency 2
Translation for complex w(t) ejwct W(f - fc )

signal frequency
Bandpass signal {
R e P(t) ejwct } 1
2
[P (f - fc ) + P * ( - f - fc )]
Some Fourier Transform Pairs
Function Time waveform w (t) Spectrum W (f)
Triangular ætö T [Sa ( p f T)]2

Ùç ÷
è Tø
Rectangular ætö T [Sa ( p f T)]

Rectan ç ÷
è Tø
Unit step D ì
+ 1, for t > 0 1 1
u(T) = í d (t) +
2 j 2p f
î - 1, for t < 0
TM

Wireless Networks C - 10 Appendix - C
Signum D ì+ 1, for t > 0 1

Sig (t) = í jp f
î - 1, for t < 0
Scalar constant 1 d(f)
sinc Sa (2 p W t) 1 æ f ö
rectan ç ÷
2W è2W ø
Impulse at time t = t 0 d (t - t 0 ) e- j 2 p f t 0
Sinusoid cos (wc t + f ) 1 jf 1

e d (f - fc ) + e- jf d (f + fc )
2 2
Gaussian e- p ( t t 0 )2 t 0 e - p (f t 0 )2
One sided exponential ìe- t T , for t ³ 0 T

í 1+ j 2p f T
î0, for t < 0
Two sided exponential e- |t| T 2T

1 + (2p f T)2
Impulse train ¥ m= ¥
1
å d (t - kT) f0 å ( d - mf0 ), for f0 =
T
k= - ¥ m= - ¥
V. Some z-Transform Pairs
Sequence z-Transform Region of Convergence

(ROC)
m(n) 1 |z| > 1

1 - z- 1
d(n) 1 For all values of z.
a n m [n] 1 |z| > | a|

1 - a z- 1
n a n m [n] a z- 1 |z| > | a|

(1 - a z - 1 )2
(n + 1) a n m (n) 1 |z| > | a|

(1 - a z- 1 )2
(a n cos w 0n) m (n) 1 - (a cosw 0 ) z- 1 |z| > |a|

1 - (2a cos w 0 ) z- 1 + r2 z- 2
(a n sin w 0n) m (n) (a sin w 0 ) z- 1 |z| > |a|

1 - (2a cos w 0 ) z- 1 + r 2 z- 2
TM

VI. Some Important Z-Transform Properties
Property Sequence z-Transform
Time reversal m (– n) æ 1ö
Mç ÷
è Zø
Conjugation m *(n) M* (Z*)
Linearity (m(n) and h(n) a m [n] + b h [n] a M (z) + b H (z)

are 2 sequences)
Time shifting m (n - n0 ) Z - n 0 × M (z)
Convolution * m [n] * h [n] M(z) H(z)
Modulation m [n] h [n] 0

1 æ zö
ò M (v) H ç ÷ v- 1 dv
2p j è vø
C
Multiplication by an g(n) æ zö
Mç ÷
exponention sequence è aø
Differentiation of M (z) n m(n) d M (z)

-z
dz
Note : m(n) M (z)

h(n) H (z)
VII. Some Standard Results

1) Permutations and combinations :
n
nP n! n n! Pr
r = ; Cr = =
(n - r) ! r! (n - r) ! r!
n Cn - r = n Cr ; n C0 = 1 = n Cn
2) Progressions :
i) The numbers b, br, br 2 , br 3 .... is said to be in a Geometric progression (G.P.); It
b (1 - r n ) b
has n th term T n = br n - 1 and sum s n = , s¥ = (r < 1)
1- r 1- r
ii) The numbers b, b + c, b + 2c .... is said to be in Arithmatic progression (A.P.).
n
It has n th term T n = b + (n –1) C and sum S n = [2b + (n - 1) c]
2
iii) The numbers b 1 , b 2 , b 3 ..... are said to be in harmonic progression (H.P.) if the,
1 1 1 1
, , , ..... are in Arithmetic progression.
b1 b2 b3 b4
TM

iv) For two numbers a and b, their

1
· Arithmetic mean = (a + b)
2
· Geometric mean = ab
· Harmonic mean = 2ab/(a + b).
v) The Stirling's approximations :
When the 'n' is large then n ! ~ 2 p n × n n × e - n
vi) The first 'n' natural numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, .... n.
n(n+ 1)
Then · å n=
2
n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
· å n2 =
6
2
ì n (n + 1)ü
· å n3 = í
î 2
ý
þ
3) Important series :
i) Exponential series :
x x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + + + + + .... ¥
1! 2! 3! 4!
ii) Log series :

x2 x3 x4
log (1 + x) = x - + - + .... ¥
2 3 4
é x2 x3 x4 ù
log (1 – x) = - ê x + + + + .... ¥ ú
ë 2 3 4 û
iii) sin x, cos x series :

x3 x5
a) sin x = x - + - .... ¥
3! 5!
x3 x5
b) sinh x = x + + + .... ¥
3! 5!
x2 x4
c) cos x = 1 - + - .... ¥
2 ! 4!
x2 x4
d) cosh x = 1 + + + .... ¥
2! 4!
TM

· cos 2 A + sin 2 A = 1
· sin 2a = 2 sin A cos B
2 tan A
=
1 + tan 2 A
· cos 2a = cos 2 A - sin 2 A
= 1 - 2 sin 2 A
= 2 cos 2 A - 1
1 - tan 2 A
=
1 + tan 2 A
tan A ± tan B
· tan (A ± B) =
1 m tan A tan B
2 tan A
· tan 2A =
1 - tan 2 A
· c sin x + d cos x = r sin (x + q )
c cos x + d sin x= r sin (x - q )
where c = r cosq
d = r sinq, such that,
r = c2 + d 2
æ dö
q = tan - 1 ç ÷
è cø
· In any triangle D ABC,

a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
a2 + b 2 - c2
and cos C =
2ab
4) Binomial series :
n (n - 1) 2 n (n - 1) (n - 2) x 3
a) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x +
1× 2 1× 2 × 3
n (n - 1) (n - 2) (n - 3) x 4
+ + ... ¥
1× 2 × 3 × 4
TM

n (n + 1) 2 n (n + 1) (n + 2) 3
b) (1 + x)- n = 1 - nx + x - x
1× 2 1× 2 × 3
n (n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3)× x 4
+ + ..... ¥
1× 2 × 3 × 4
5) tan x series :
x 3 x 5 x7
a) tan - 1 x = x - + - + ..... ¥
3 5 7
1 1+ x
b) tanh - 1 x = log
2 1- x
x 3 x 5 x7
= x+ + + + .... ¥
3 5 7
Vectors
i) A ×B = a 1b 1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3b 3
I J K
where A = a 1I + a 2 J + a 3K
ii) A ´ B = a1 a2 a3 ;
and B = b 1I + b 2 J + b 3K
b1 b2 b3
¶f ¶f ¶f
iii) grad f = Ñf = I+ J+ K
¶x ¶y ¶z
iv) div F = Ñ ×F
¶f1 ¶f2 ¶f3
= + +
¶x ¶y ¶z
v) curl F = Ñ ´ F
I J K
¶ ¶ ¶
= ; where F = f1I + f2 J + f3K
¶x ¶y ¶z
f1 f2 f3
Co-ordinate systems
Method Cylindrical Spherical co-ordinates (r, q, f) Polar co-ordinates

co-ordinates (r, f, z) (r, q)
Co-ordinate x = r cos f x = r sin q cos f x = r cos q

transformations y = r sin f y = r sin q sin f y = r sin q
z = z z = r cos q
TM

Jacobian ¶ (x, y, z) ¶ (x, y, z) ¶ (x, y)

= r = r2 sin q = r
¶ (r, f, z) ¶ (r, q, f) ¶ (r, q)
Volume-element dV = r dr × df dz dV = r2 sin q dr dq df
Area elements dSr = r df dz dSr = r2 sin q dq df dx dy = r dq dr

dSf = dz dr dSq = r sin q df dr ds q
dSz = r dr × df dSf = r dr × dq
Arc-element (dS)2 = (dS)2 = (ds)2 =

(dr )2 + r 2 (df) + (dz)2 (dr)2 + r2 (dq)2 + (r sin q)2 (df)2 (dr)2 + r2 (dq)2
VIII. Some Basic Information For Engineering

1. Different systems of units
Quantity F. P. S. System M. K. S. System C. G. S. System
Mass Pound (lb) Kilogram (kg) gram (gm)
Length Foot (ft) Metre (m) Centimeter (cm)
Time Second (sec) Second (sec) Second (sec)
Force Lb. w t Newton (nt) Dyne
The MKS system mentioned above is also called as International system of Units (SI
system).
2. Some important data
p = 3.1416 1/p = 0.3183 p = 1.7724
e = 2.7183 1/e = 0.3679 e = 1.6487
2 = 1.4142 3 = 1.732 10 = 3.1623
log 2e = 0.6931 log 3 = 1.0986 log pe = 1.1447

e
e = 0.4343
log 10
e = 2.3046 log 10
1 Rad = 57° 17'45" 1° = 0.0174 Rad.
3. Conversion factors
1. 1 Nautical mile = 6080.2 ft = 1.853 km.
2. 1 ft = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m
3. 1 m = 100 cm = 3.2804 ft
4. 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
TM

5. 1 ft3 = 0.0283 m3
6. 1 acre = 4840 yd2 = 4046.77 m2
7. 1 m3 = 35.32 ft3
8. 1m/sec = 3.2804 ft/sec
9. 1 mile/h = 1.609 km/h = 0.869 knots (Nautical miles/hr)
10. 1 Calorie (Cal) = 4.1840 joules

1 joule = 107 ergs
11. 1 horse power (hp) = 178.2 Cal/sec = 0.7457 kW
12. 1 kW = 1000 watts (W) = 238.9 cal/sec
13. 1gravity = 32 ft/sec2 = 980 cm/sec2
14. ° F = ° (C ´ 1.8) + 32
4. Important prefixes used
Some multiples and submultiples Symbols used Prefixes

12
10 T tera
10 9 G giga
10 6 M Mega
10 3 K Kilo
10 2 h hecto
10 da deca
10 - 1 d deci
10 - 2 c Centi
10 - 3 m milli
10 - 6 m micro
10 - 9 n nano
10 - 12 p pico
Note The prefix terms deci and centi are used with metre (Centimetre is a standardized unit
of length).
TM

5. Greek letters
a alpha
b beta
g gamma
d delta
e epsilon
i lota
q theta
f phi
y psi
h eta
x xi
z zeta
l lambda
m mu
p pi
r rho
s sigma
t tau
w omega
c chi
G Capital gamma
D Capital delta
S Capital sigma
6. Useful constants
i) Physical constants :
1) Plank's constant h = 6.626 ´ 10 - 34 joule-sec.
2) Boltzmann's constant k = 1.38 ´ 10 - 23 joule/deg.kelvin.
TM

3) Electron charge q = 1.602 ´ 10 - 19 coulomb.
4) Speed of light in vacuum c = 2.998 ´ 10 8 m/sec.
5) Standard (absolute) temp T 0 = 273 deg kelvin.

6) Thermal voltage v T = 0.026 volt at room temp.
7) One hertz (hz) = 1 cycle/sec
where 1 cycle = 2p radians.
8) One watt (W) = 1 joule/sec.
ii) Mathematical constants :
1) Base of natural logarithm e = 2.718281
2) Logarithm of 2 to base e log e 2 = 0.69314
3) Logarithm of e to base 2 log 2 e = 1.4426
4) Logarithm of 2 to base 10 log 10 2 = 0.30103
5) Pi or p = 3.141592
qqq
TM

May-2017 AU
Wireless Networks Solved Paper
Semester - VIII (ECE)
Regulation - 2013
[71748]
Time : 3 Hours]
[Maximum Marks : 100
Answer ALL Questions
PART A - (10 ´ 2 = 20 Marks)
Q.1 State the significance of radio transmission over infrared. (Refer section 1.2.1)
Q.2 OFDM uses a set of orthogonal sub-carriers for transmission of data. OFDM is
used in WLANs. Consider an OFDM system that uses 52 sub-carriers out of
which 48 are pilot sub-carriers. System bandwidth is 20 MHz and OFDM symbol
duration including cyclic prefix is 4 ms if code rate is 3 4 and 64 QAM is used.
Find the data rate. (Refer Appendix B)
Q.3 What is care of address in mobile IP ? (Refer section 2.2.1)
Q.4 What is encapsulation in mobile IP ? (Refer section 2.4)
Q.5 List out the disadvantages of indirect TCP. (Refer Q.51 of Appendix A)
Q.6 Mention the advantages of Mobile TCP. (Refer Q.52 of Appendix A)
Q.7 What is the purpose of firewall used in UMTS network ?
(Refer Q.53 of Appendix A)
Q.8 Name the 3G radio access scheme identified to support different spectrum scenario.
(Refer sections 3.2 and 3.2.1)
Q.9 Mention the features and challenges of 4G. (Refer section 5.4.2)
Q.10 Define multi carrier modulation. (Refer section 5.6.1)
PART B - (5 ´ 16 = 80 Marks)
Q.11 a) Explain and compare the medium access mechanism of DCF methods adopted in
IEEE 802.11 WLAN. (Refer section 1.3.2) [16]
OR
b) Describe the user scenario architecture and protocol stack of bluetooth technology.
(Refer section 1.9.6) [16]
(S - 1)
TM

Wireless Networks S-2 Solved Paper May-2017
Q.12 a) State the entities and terminologies used in Mobile IP along with tunneling and
also explain the three types of encapsulation mechanisms used in mobile IP.
(Refer sections 2.2.1 and 2.4) [16]
OR
b) Explain and compare the working mechanism of both destination sequence distance
vector and dynamic source routing protocol when applied on a mobile ad-hoc
network scenario. (Refer section 2.10.3 and Q.54 of Appendix A) [16]
Q.13 a) Describe the working mechanism of traditional TCP.
(Refer Q.55 of Appendix A) [16]
OR
b) Write your understanding on indirect TCP, snooping TCP, Mobile TCP and
transaction-oriented TCP. (Refer Q.51, 52, 56 and 57 of Appendix A) [16]
Q.14 a) Explain the UMTS network architecture with GSM, 3G and also explain the
reference architecture. (Refer sections 3.3 and 3.5) [16]
OR
b) Explain UMTS core network architecture. (Refer section 3.4) [16]
Q.15 a) Write your understanding on behavior of smart techniques.
OR
b) Explain adaptive modulation and coding with time-slot scheduler along with
cognitive radio concept. (Not in new syllabus) [16]
qqq
TM

December-2017 AU
Regulation - 2013
[50457]
Time : 3 Hours] [Maximum Marks : 100

PART A - (10 ´ 2 = 20 Marks)
Q.1 State the MAC management functions. ( Not in new syllabus )
Q.2 What is the functionality L2CAP ? List the different types of logical channels.
( Not in new syllabus )
Q.3 When the agent solicitation message has to be sent by mobile node ?
(Refer section 2.7.1)
Q.4 Why is routing in multi-hop ad-hoc networks complicated ? (Refer section 2.10)
Q.5 What is the need for I-TCP ? (Refer Q.51 of Appendix A)
Q.6 Define fast recovery. (Refer Q.58 of Appendix A)
Q.7 How is isolation between users in the downlink accomplished in a WCDMA
system ? (Refer section 3.3)
Q.8 What is meant by firewall ? (Refer Q.53 ofAppendix A)
Q.9 List some of the applications of 4G system. (Refer section 5.5)
Q.10 What is cognitive radio ? ( Not in new syllabus )
PART B - (5 ´ 16 = 80 Marks)
Q.11 a) Explain in detail about the IEEE 802.11 protocol architecture and bridging with
other networks. (Refer section 1.3.2)
OR
b) Define HiperLan-2. Discuss about the various operation modes and protocol stack
in HiperLan-2. (Refer sections 1.9, 1.9.5 and 1.9.6)
Q.12 a) Explain how tunneling works in general especially for mobile IP using IP in IP,
minimal and generic routing encapsulation respectively. Discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of these three methods. (Refer sections 2.3 and 2.4)
OR
b) How does dynamic source routing handle routing ? What is the motivation behind
dynamic source routing compared to other routing algorithms for fixed networks ?
(Not in new syllabus)
(S - 3)
TM

Wireless Networks S-4 Solved Paper Dec.-2017
Q.13 a) Describe the basic concepts of congestion control. What are the implications on
mobility in traditional TCP ? (Refer Q.55 of Appendix A)
OR
b) What is meant by snooping TCP ? Explain in detail about the basic concepts of
TCP over 2.5/3.G wireless networks. (Refer Q.56 and Q.59 of Appendix A)
OR
Q.14 a) Discuss the role of the access link control application part (ALCAP) in the UMTS.
(Refer section 3.3)
OR
b) Discuss two evolution paths for the GSM to offer 3G services.
Q.15 a) What is a multi-input-multi-output (MIMO) system ? Explain in detail.
OR
b) Describe the basic concepts of adaptive modulation and coding time-slot scheduler.
qqq
TM

May-2018 AU
Regulation - 2013
[40975]

PART A - (10 ´ 2 = 20 Marks)
Q.1 Give any three differences between HIPERLAN 1 and HIPERLAN 2.
(Refer sections 1.3 and 1.9)
Q.2 What is IEEE 802.11 ? What are the functions of MAC layer in 1EEE 802.11 ?
(Refer sections 1.3 and 1.3.2)
Q.3 What is a Mobile IP ? What are the entities of Mobile IP ?
(Refer sections 2.1 and 2.2)
Q.4 Differentiate an ad hoc network with respect to (Refer section 2.11)
a) Bandwidth usage b) Cost effectiveness.
Q.5 Define the term slow start mechanism and fast retransmit algorithm in TCP.
(Refer Q.58 of Appendix A)
Q.6 How the destination correspondent host works ?
Q.7 What is UMTS ? What are the layers of UMTS ? (Refer section 3.1)
Q.8 Give the significance about link adaption scheme. (Refer section 3.4.2)
Q.9 List the characteristics of 4G Network. (Refer section 5.2)
Q.10 Give the advantages of multi carrier modulation over single carrier schemes.
PART B - (5 ´ 16 = 80 Marks)
Q.11 a) With neat sketch describe the architecture of I1EEE 802.11 and explain the MAC
management techniques. (Refer section 1.3.2) [16]
OR
b) i) Elucidate the advantages of WLAN techniques.
(Refer sections 1.1 and 1.1.1) [5]
ii) Explain the architecture of Hyperlan II protocol.
(Refer sections 1.9 and 1.9.6) [11]
Q.12 a) Explain the mobile IP session intiation protocol for IP pocket delivery in mobile IP
networks. (Refer sections 2.1 and 2.8) [16]
(S - 5)
TM

Wireless Networks S-6 Solved Paper May-2018
OR
b) Explain with neat diagram and example the destination sequence distance vector
routing algorithm of adhoc networks. (Refer section 2.10.3) [16]
Q.13 a) i) Draw the overview of classical enhancements to TCP for mobility.
(Not in new syllabus) [6]
ii) Explain in detail about traditional TCP and its significance.
OR
b) How the mobile TCP is playing the important role in mobile transport layer ?
Explain with overview of the classical enhancements to TCP for mobility and
compare with 2.5/3G wireless networks.
(Refer Q.52 and Q.59 of Appendix A ) [5 + 5 + 6]
Q.14 a) Explain in detail about LTE wireless systems.
(Refer sections 5.7.1 and 5.7.2) [16]
OR
Q.14 b) i) Explain the techniques about UMTS network reference architecture.
(Refer section 3.4) [8]
ii) Describe channel structure in UMTS terrestrial radio.
Q.15 a) i) Define 4G and compare the key parameters of 4G with 3G.
ii) Write a note on cognitive radio. (Not in new syllabus) [5]
OR
b) What is a multi-input multi-output (MIMO) system ? Explain and compare.
qqq
TM

December-2018 AU
Regulation - 2013
[20431]

PART A - (10 ´ 2 = 20 Marks)
Q.1 What is the principle behind infrared technology ? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of infrared technology ? (Refer sections 1.2.1 and 1.1.1)
Q.2 What is WIMAX ? Mention its features. (Not in new syllabus)
Q.3 Define SIP. Write the funtions of SIP. (Refer section 2.8)
Q.4 Differentiate proactive and reactive routing protocols. Write examples for each.
Q.5 What is I-TCP ? List its merits and demerits. (Refer Q.51 of Appendix A)
Q.6 What is congestion avoidance algorithm ? (Refer Q.55 of Appendix A)
Q.7 Name the functions of Radio Network Control (RNC). (Refer section 3.2)
Q.8 List the funtions provided by 3G-GGSN. (Refer section 3.4.3)
Q.9 What is meant by Multi Carrier Modulation (MCM) ? Mention its merits and
demerits. (Not in new syllabus)
Q.10 What are the techniques to improve network survivability in differernt layers ?
Name the challanges faced by 4G. (Refer section 5.4.2)
PART B - (5 ´ 16 = 80 Marks)
Q.11 a) i) Compare Infra Red vs Radio Transmissiion tehniques.
(Refer sections 1.2, 1.2.1, 1.2.2 and 1.2.3) [8]
ii) Elucidate the advantages of WLAN techniques.
(Refer sections 1.1.1 and 1.2) [8]
OR
b) Draw the protocol architecture of WLAN (802.11). Explain the physical layer and
MAC management layer of 802.11. (Refer section 1.3.2) [16]
Q.12 a) i) Imagine the following scenario. A Japanese and a German meet at a conference
on Hawaii. Both wnat to use their laptops for exchanging data, both run mobile
IP for mobility support. Explain the optimizations speed in this mobile IP
networks. (Refer sections 2.3 and 2.5) [8]
(S - 7)
TM

Wireless Networks S-8 Solved Paper Dec.-2018
ii) Discuss on the entities and terminolgy of mobile IP networks.

OR
b) Explain the destination sequence distance vector routing protocol. Mention its
features. (Refer section 2.10.3) [16]
Q.13 a) i) How does mobile TCP play an important role in mobile transport layer ?
Discuss in detail. (Refer Q.52 of Appendix A) [8]
ii) Explain any two classical TCP improvements for mobility.
OR
b) Explain in detail about the TCP over 3G wireless networks.
Q.14 a) With neat diagram, explain the reference architecture of UMTS.
OR
b) Describe channel structure in UMTS terrrestrial radio.
(Refer sections 3.3 and 3.5) [16]
Q.15 a) i) What is 4G ? Compare the key parameters of 4G with 3G.
ii) Write a note on cognitive radio. (Not in new syllabus) [6]
OR
b) i) What is Multi-Input Multi Output (MIMO) system ? Explain.
ii) With neat block diagram explain the OFDEM transmitter and receiver.
qqq
TM

May-2019 AU
Regulation - 2013
[52930]

PART A - (10 ´ 2 = 20 Marks)
Q.1 Identify the need of WATM systems. (Refer section 1.7.1)
Q.2 What are piconet and scatternet ? (Refer section 9.4)
Q.3 Define the term care of address in mobile IP. (Refer section 2.2.1)
Q.4 Outline the characteristics of MANET. (Refer section 2.9.1)
Q.5 Give any four schemes to improve the TCPs performance in wireless networks.
Q.6 Identify the characteristics to be considered while deploying applications over 3G
wireless links. (Refer section 3.5)
Q.7 What is UMTS ? (Refer section 3.1)
Q.8 Define the Long Term Evolution (LTE). (Refer section 5.7.1)
Q.9 List the features of 4G. (Refer section 5.4.1)
Q.10 Identify the focuses of cognitive radio. (Not in new syllabus)
PART B - (5 ´ 13 = 65 Marks)
Q.11 a) Describe the IEEE 802.11 MAC data frame format with relevant diagram.
OR
b) Give the strategy of logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP).
Q.12 a) How the tunneling and IP in IP encapsulation occur in the mobile IP ?
OR
b) Describe the dynamic source routing with example. (Not in new syllabus) [13]
Q.13 a) Explain the congestion control, slow start and fast retransmit/fast recovery in
traditional TCP. (Refer Q.55 and Q.58 of Appendix A) [13]
(S - 9)
TM

Wireless Networks S - 10 Solved Paper May-2019
OR
b) Describe the snooping TCP and points out the advantages and disadvantages.
Q.14 a) Outline the overview of UMTS terrestrial radio access network.
OR
b) Illustrate the theory of High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA).
Q.15 a) Categorize the four types of smart antenna technique and explain in detail.
OR
b) Summarize the 4G key challenges and mention the proposed solutions.
PART B - (1 ´ 15 = 15 Marks)
Q.16 a) Analyse all possible solutions to be adopted for giving mobility support in the
network layer such that both delay constraints along with throughput levels are
achieved. (Refer sections 2.7, 2.7.1 and 2.8) [15]
OR
b) How doest the 3G GGSN/MSC differ from the GPRS architecture elements (2G
GGSN/MSC) ? What sort of enhancement are carried out in UMTS to meet out
its specifications. (Refer sections 4.4 and 4.4.2) [15]
qqq
TM

Solved Model Question Paper - 1
(As per New Syllabus)
Wireless Networks
Time : Three Hours] [Maximum Marks : 100

PART A - (10 ´ 2 = 20 MARKS)

Q.1 What is the principle behind infrared technology ? List the disadvantages of this
technology ? (Refer section 1.2.1)
Q.2 What its known as BRAN ? (Refer section 1.8)
Q.3 Write a note on agent discovery ? (Refer section 2.3)
Q.4 What is SIP ? Mention the functions of SIP ? (Refer section 2.8)
Q.5 What are the functions provided by the 3G-GGSN ? (Refer section 3.4.3)
Q.6 List the physical channels in cdma 2000 ? (Refer section 3.5.1.1)
Q.7 What are the objectives of internet working principle ? (Refer section 4.1.1)
Q.8 What is local multipoint distribution service ? (Refer section 4.5)
Q.9 List the challenges of 4G technology ? (Refer section 5.4.2)
Q.10 Define multicarrier modulation technique ? List few advantages of it.

PART B - (5 ´ 13 = 65 MARKS)
Q.11 a) i) Compare Infrared with radio transmission techniques. (Refer section 1.2.1) [6]
ii) Explain Zigbee in detail. (Refer section 1.13) [7]
OR
b) i) Explain the architecture of IEEE 802.11 standard with neat sketch.
ii) Explain 802.11 b standard. (Refer section 1.4.2) [5]
Q.12 a) Explain IP packet delivery, agent discovery tunneling and encapsulation in mobile
IP in detail. (Refer sections 2.3 and 2.4) [13]
(S - 11)
Wireless Networks S - 12 Solved Model Question Papers
OR
b) Explain the following : i) Destination sequence distance vector routing.

ii) Features and message types in CoAP protocol. (Refer section 2.10.4) [5]
Q.13 a) Explain the core network architecture of UMTS cellular standard.
OR
b) Explain Cdma 2000 standard in detail. (Refer section 3.5.1) [13]
Q.14 a) Write short notes on;
i) Internet working requirements (Refer section 4.1.2) [4]
ii) Schemes to connect WLAN and 3G networks (Refer section 4.2) [5]
iii) Session mobility (Refer section 4.3) [4]
OR
b) i) Explain local multipoint distribution service. (Refer section 4.5) [7]
ii) Multichannel multipoint distribution system. (Refer section 4.6) [6]
Q.15 a) i) Explain 4G vision and 4G applications. (Refer section 5.5) [5]
ii) Explain the smart antenna techniques. (Refer section 5.6.2) [8]
OR
b) i) Explain the IMS architecture in detail. (Refer section 5.6.3) [8]
ii) Write a note on Advanced broadband wireless access and services.
PART C - (1 ´ 15 = 15 MARKS)
Q.16 a) Explain the WATM and Hiper LAN 2 in detail. (Refer sections 1.7 and 1.9) [15]
OR
b) Explain LTE in detail with a neat block diagram.
qqq
Solved Model Question Paper - 2
(As per New Syllabus)
Wireless Networks
Time : Three Hours] [Maximum Marks : 100

PART A - (10 ´ 2 = 20 MARKS)

Q.1 What are the applications of WLAN ? (Refer section 1.1)
Q.2 What is known an wireless HART ? (Refer section 1.15)
Q.3 Write a note on IPv6 protocol ? (Refer section 2.6)
Q.4 What is CoAP in IoT ? (Refer section 2.10.4)
Q.5 What is UTRA - TDD technique ? (Refer section 3.6)
Q.6 Define TD- SCDMA technique ? (Refer section 3.7)
Q.7 What is knwon as Session mobility ? (Refer section 4.3)
Q.8 What is MMDS ? List its advantages. (Refer section 4.6)
Q.9 List any two challenges of 4G technology ? (Refer section 5.4.2)
Q.10 What is called as MVNO ? What is its use in wireless networks ?

(Refer section 5.9)
PART B - (5 ´ 13 = 65 MARKS)
Q.11 a) Explain the IEEE 802.11a and IEEE.11 b standards in detail ?
OR
b) i) Explain Zigbee technology. (Refer section 1.13) [7]
ii) What is BRAN in wireless networks ? Explain. (Refer section 1.8) [6]
Q.12 a) Explain packet delivery, agent discovery tunneling and encapsulation in mobile IP
in detail. (Refer section 2.7.1) [13]
(S - 13)
Wireless Networks S - 14 Solved Model Question Papers
OR
b) Explain the following : i) Destination sequence distance vector routing [9]

ii) SIP in mobile IP. (Refer sections 2.10.3 and 2.8) [4]
Q.13 a) Explain the UMTS core network architecture in detail ? (Refer section 3.4) [13]
OR
b) Explain the radio and network components, network structure of cdma 2000
standard ? Also write a note on TD - SCDMA.
(Refer sections 3.5.1 and 3.7) [9 + 4]
Q.14 a) i) Explain the schemes to connect WLAN and 3G networks ?
ii) List the Internet working objectives. (Refer section 4.1.1) [5]
OR
b) i) Define MMDS. (Refer section 4.6) [3]
ii) Explain local multipoint distribution service in detail. (Refer section 4.5) [10]
Q.15 a) i) Write a short notes on : i) 4G vision ii) Multicarrier modulation
iii) 4G features (Refer sections 5.2, 5.6.1 and 5.4.1) [4 + 6 + 3]
OR
b) i) Explain the Smart antenna techniques. (Refer section 5.6.2) [9]
ii) Write a note on LTE. (Refer section 5.7.1) [4]
PART C - (1 ´ 15 = 15 MARKS)
Q.16 b) i) Draw and explain the following
IEEE 802.11 MAC control. (Refer section 1.3.2) [10]
ii) Explain the security issues in 802.11 standard.
(Refer sections 1.3.4, 1.3.4.1 and 1.3.4.2) [5]
OR
b) i) Explain the IMS architecture in detail. (Refer section 5.6.3) [10]
ii) Describe the Advanced braodband wireless access and services ?
qqq

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SUBJECT CODE : EC8004

Strictly as per Revised Syllabus of

Semester - VI (Electronics & Communication Engineering) Elective - II

First Edition : January 2020

 Copyright with Author

9789389420661 [1] (ii)

Dedicated at the Lord Jesus Christ

PSALM : 116 : 12, 13.

Dedicated to the Lord Jesus Christ.

UNIT II MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

UNIT III 3G OVERVIEW

UNIT IV INTERNETWORKING BETWEEN WLANS AND WWANS

UNIT V 4G & BEYOND

Chapter - 1 Wireless LAN (1 - 1) to (1 - 46)

1.2 Wireless LAN (WLAN) Technologies ..................................................................1 - 3

1.3 Introduction to 802.11 Standard .......................................................................1 - 5

1.3.4.2 Procedure of Shared Key Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 12

1.5 IEEE 802.11 Standard for WLAN ......................................................................1 - 15

1.9.1.2 Dipole Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 29

1.9.2.4 Return Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 30

1.9.2.6 Bluetooth Device Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 30

1.10 WPAN ............................................................................................................1 - 38

Unit - II Mobile Network Layer

Chapter - 2 Mobile Network Layer (2 - 1) to (2 - 32)

2.3 Agent Discovery in Mobile IP.............................................................................2 - 4

2.7 Entities and Terminologies ..............................................................................2 - 13

2.8 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP).......................................................................2 - 17

2.10 Routing ..........................................................................................................2 - 23

Chapter - 3 3G Overview (3 - 1) to (3 - 28)

3.4.1.2 Call Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14

3.5 Third Generation (3G) Standards and Networks .............................................3 - 16

3.5.1.2 Data Link Control Layer (DLC) Issues - cdma 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 24

3.7 TD-SCDMA .......................................................................................................3 - 25

Unit - IV Internetworking between WLANS and WWANS

Chapter - 4 Internetworking between WLANS and WWANS

4.2 Schemes to Connect WLANs and 3G Networks.................................................4 - 2

4.3 Session Mobility.................................................................................................4 - 3

4.4.2 A Simple Architecture for Internetworking of UMTS/GPRS Networks

4.6 Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service [MMDS]....................................4- 10

Unit - V 4G & Beyond

Chapter - 5 4G and Beyond (5 - 1) to (5 - 22)

5.7 LTE ...................................................................................................................5 - 18

Appendix - B Solved Problems (B - 1) to (B - 14)

Appendix - C Mathematical Functions (C - 1) to (C - 18)

Solved Question Papers of AU (S - 1) to (S - 14)

1.1 Introduction to Wireless Local Area Networks [WLAN]

1.1.1 Applications of WLAN

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

· Scalability is simple under wireless LAN's. Since it can be configured in a variety

1.2 Wireless LAN (WLAN) Technologies AU : May-17, Dec.-18

(1) (2) (3)

Infrared W-LAN Spread spectrum Narrowband

(a) Practical implementation block diagram of 802.11 standard

(b) Protocol stack entities for IEEE 802.11 standard

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

1.2.1 Infrared LAN

This method is restricted to range, as it is Line of Sight (LoS) dependent technique.

1.2.2 Spread Spectrum LANS (SS-LAN's)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

1.2.3 Narrow Band LAN's

1.3 Introduction to 802.11 Standard AU : May-17, 18, 19, Dec.-17, 18

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Priority status User Priority in 802.11 D Access category Informative