Solar Energy

Introduction:

Photovoltaic cells or solar cells are devices that convert solar energy into DC current from
semiconductors.

 When a p-n junction is struck by photons (e.g. from sun light), electricity is generated.
 Electricity is generated as long as sun light is available and ceases in the absence of sun light.
 Solar cells are only energy conversion devices and there is nothing like charging & discharging as
seen in conventional batteries.
 Photovoltaic cells have no movable parts and hence do not suffer from wear and tear. They
operate at ambient temperature and are eco friendly.
 Solar cells do not corrode.

Semiconductor:

The essential component of a photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor diode (p-n junction).

 Silicon and germanium, which belong to IV group of the periodic table, are semiconductors.
They conduct electricity on being heated or when thermal energy is supplied. These are called
intrinsic semiconductors.
 Silicon and germanium also conduct electricity when a III Group element such as Boron or a
V Group element such as Arsenic is added to them. Accordingly, they form p- type and n- type
semiconductors respectively. They are called extrinsic semiconductors.
 In Si, each silicon atom is bonded to four other silicon atoms by covalent bonds. When a
III group element such as boron (with three electrons in the valence shell) is added as dopant,
three electrons are shared with three silicon atoms and one hole is formed. Therefore, in p-type
semiconductors, holes are the majority charge carriers.
 When a V group element such as Arsenic (five electrons in the valence shell) is added to silicon,
four electrons are shared with four silicon atoms and an electron is free. Therefore, in n-type
semiconductors, electrons are the majority charge carriers.

p-n Junction:

 p-n junction is a combination of n- type and a p-type semiconductors. It is a single

semiconductor material consisting of n-region on one side and p-region on the other.

Barrier potential:

 When a p-n junction is formed, there is a high concentration of mobile holes on one side and a
high concentration of mobile electrons on the other.
 Due to the concentration gradient, mobile electrons diffuse from the n-region to the p- region and
mobile holes diffuse in the opposite direction. They combine in the region around the p-n
junction and become immobile.
 This combination of holes and electrons leads to the formation of a region of no charge carriers in
the vicinity of the p-n junction. This is called the depletion region.
 Electrons migrate from the n-region to p-region and hence n-region acquires positive charge after
the formation of p-n junction. The positive charge prevents the further diffusion of electrons by
forces of attraction.
 Similarly, the p-region is now depleted of holes and acquires negative charge and prevents the
further diffusion of holes.
 Thus, equilibrium is attained and the diffusion of electrons and holes ceases.

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  1When a p-n junction is formed, the n-region will have a positive charge and the p-region will
have a negative charge creating a potential barrier across the junction. This is called barrier
potential.
 When a potential greater than the barrier potential is applied, electron-hole pairs are created and
the material starts conducting.

Working of Photovoltaic Cells (PV Cells):

Sun light Anti-reflective coat

Grid metal
contact
e‾
e‾

n-type
semiconductor
e‾ Appliance
e‾ e l e c t r o n - h o l e p a i r s or storage battery
p-type + +
semiconductor

layer metal contact (Ag)

 Photovoltaic cell is made of a semiconductor diode (p-n junction).

 The diode has two electrical contacts: on one of its sides, a metallic grid is used and on the other
side, a layer of noble metal (such as, silver-Ag) is used. Ag is nobler than the Si-semiconductor.
 The metal grid permits the light to fall on the diode between the grid lines.
 When electromagnetic radiation (example: sunlight) having energy sufficient to overcome the
barrier potential falls normal to the surface of the p-n junction, electron - hole pairs are created.
 The electrons move towards the n-region (as it is positively charged) and holes move towards
p-region (as it is negatively charged).
 The electrons are driven into the external circuit and an appliance can be run or the energy can
stored in a battery. The stored energy could later be used for various applications such as lighting
purposes, telecommunication, etc.

Preparation of Solar Grade Silicon for use in Photovoltaic Cells:

Preparation of silicon for use in photovoltaic cells involves several steps,

I Preparation of Metallurgical Grade Silicon from Naturally Occurring Quartz:

 A mixture of quartz (SiO2) and carbon (metallurgical coke or coal) is struck by electric arc in a
furnace (carbothermic reduction) using carbon electrodes.

SiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO
(s) (s) (l) (g)

 CO is oxidized to CO2 and escapes into the atmosphere.

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 Silicon is obtained in the molten state and is contaminated with aluminium, calcium and
magnesium.
 The impurities are removed as slag by the addition of silica. Following reactions take place.

4Al + 3SiO2 3Si + 2Al2O3

2Ca + SiO2 Si + 2 CaO

2Mg + SiO2 Si + 2 MgO

 The oxides of aluminium, calcium and magnesium combine with silica to form the corresponding
silicates and are removed as slag. The silicon left behind is called metallurgical grade silicon
(98.5 %).

II Synthesis of Silane (Silicon Hydride- SiH4) from Silicon:

 Metallurgical grade silicon is heated to 300-350oC and dry hydrogen chloride is passed.
Trichlorosilane and a small amount of tetrachlorosilane are formed as given below

Si + 3 HCl HSiCl3 + H2
Trichlorosilane
Si + 4 HCl SiCl4 + 2H2
Tetrachlorosilane
Tetrachlorosilane is converted to trichlorosilane by treating with hydrogen at 1000oC.

SiCl4 + H2 HSiCl3 + HCl

 Trichlorosilane is passed through ion exchange resin containing quaternary ammonium salts to
give dichlorosilane and tetrachlorosilane. Dichlorosilane subsequently forms trichlorosilane and
silane (silicon tetra hydride).

2HSiCl3 H2SiCl2 + SiCl4

3H2SiCl2 SiH4 + 2HSiCl3

 Tetrachlorosilane is hydrogenated again to trichlorosilane and trichlorosilane is again passed

through ion exchange resin. The process is continued to get silane (silicon tetra hydride).

III Purification of Silicon Hydride (Silane) & Deposition of Silicon:

Silicon hydride or silane obtained above is further purified by distillation. Silane is passed into a
reactor containing heated silicon seed rods. Silane gets pyrolysed to form polysilicon
(semiconductor grade silicon)

SiH4 Si + 2H2

Silicon obtained above is purified further by Zone Refining

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 Clamp

IV Zone refining: Silicon of 99.9999 Semiconductor

(6 - nine) purity can be obtained by zone refining. rod
It is based on the principle that impurities are
more soluble in molten material than in the solid Inert
material. A vertical zone refiner is used in the Atmosphere RF coil
purification of silicon. A rod of silicon to be
purified is clamped and is heated by a RF coil to Molten
the melting point of silicon. The heater is moved Si
very slowly from top to bottom. This is said to be
one zone pass. Impurities move with the molten
part of the material as the RF coil moves down.
Pure silicon solidifies at the upper portion. The
process is repeated number of times to get
ultrapure silicon. When the process is complete,
the bottom portion where the impurities are
concentrated is removed.

Preparation of p-n Junction:

 Czochralski method can be effected with a dopant added into the silicon melt to get a n-type
or p-type semiconductor.
 The above single crystal is heated at high temperatures (just below the melting point of
silicon) in presence of vapors of opposite type of dopant.
 The dopant atoms diffuse into the single crystal to form p-n junction or semiconductor diode.
 The extent of diffusion and the concentration gradient of holes and electrons in the two
regions is controlled by controlling the concentration of the dopant atoms, time and
temperature.
 Otherwise, dopant atoms are deposited from its volatile substance in a reducing atmosphere.

Ex: Si + PH3 n- type semiconductor

Phosphine

Si + B2H6 p - type semiconductor

Diborane

Doping:

Silicon can be doped by

 Epitaxial method: Refers to deposition and development of layers of silicon over a seed crystal.
SiCl4 vapours are passed along with H2 & N2 into a reactor in which a small Si-seed crystal is
maintained at high temperature. There will be slow deposition of silicon. Vapours of PH3 or
B2H6 are mixed as is the requirement to get p-type or n-type semiconductor respectively.
Quantity and time of PH3 or B2H6 mixed will decide the doping extent.

 Diffusion method: Silicon crystal is exposed to a vapour of boron atoms or phosphorous atoms
in a reactor where, silicon is maintained at a temperature nearer but less than its melting point.

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 Dopant atoms condense over the silicon surface and slowly diffuse into the silicon crystal.
Dopant atoms, temperature and time of exposure decide the type and extent of doping. However,
deep doping is not possible. Doping is achievable to a lower thickness of the silicon crystal

 Ion-implantation method: A high energy ( 10 keV) beam of dopant ions is struck onto silicon
crystal to effect the doping. The ion beam kock out some of silicon atoms and dopant atoms are
positioned. Energy of the ion beam decides the depth of doping. Interestingly, one can form
deep (dopant rich) and shallow (dopant deficient) regions. Also, the method employs silicon at
ambient temperature. Better control of doping is achievable in this method.

Importance/Advantages of photovoltaic cells

 Source (sunlight) is vast, no harmful emissions and hence they are eco friendly.
 Generation of electricity by burning fossil fuels and nuclear reactions is associated with pollution
and hence poses danger to plant and animal life. Photovoltaic cells are devoid of these threats.
 Photovoltaic cells can be used to generate electricity in remote areas and rural areas situated far
away from electric grid connections and transformers.
 Photovoltaic cells can generate electricity in areas situated in hilly regions, which have no proper
roads. This is because there is no need for the transport of generators and fuels.
 No corrosion is involved.
 High public acceptance and safe to use

Applications:

Photovoltaic cells are used as power source in

 Domestic requirements for lighting or running home appliances
 Community services, social, religious and cultural gatherings, health centers, communication
systems, satellite linking, transport sector, agricultural sector, production sector, etc.

Modules , panels and arrays :

Multiple solar cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a solar photovoltaic
panel or solar photovoltaic module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the sun-
facing side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers. Solar cells are usually
connected in series in modules, creating an additive voltage. Solar panel refers either to a photovoltaic
module, a solar hot water panel, or to a set of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically connected
and mounted on a supporting structure. A PV module is a packaged, connected assembly of solar
cells. Solar panels can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply
electricity in commercial and residential applications. A photovoltaic system typically includes a
panel or an array of solar modules, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and
interconnection wiring.
Solar cells arranged in a series form solar module. While modules are in a series form panel and
panels when arranged in parallel fashion form array.

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