PROGRESS IN UNDERSTANDING THE MECHANICAL

BEHAVIOR OF PRESSURES-VESSEL MATERIALS

AT ELEVATED TEMERATURES*

R. W. Swindeman and C. R. Brinkman

Metals and Ceramics Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830

*Research sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy

under contract W-7A05-eng-26
with the Union Carbide Corporation.
 3.2 PROGRESS IN UNDERSTANDING
THE MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF
PRESSURE-VESSEL MATERIALS
AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
R. W. SWINDEMAN AND C. R. BRINKMAN
Metals and Ceramics Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
ABSTRACT
Progress during the 1970s on the production of high-
temperature mechanical properties data for pressure vessel
materials was reviewed. The direction of the research was
toward satisfying new data requirements t o implement
advances in high-temperature inelastic design methods. To
meet these needs, servo-controlled testing machines and
high-resolution extensometry were developed to gain more
information on the essential behavioral features of high-
temperature affoys. The similarities and differences in the
mechanical response of various pressure vessel materials were
identified. To assist constitutive equation development, em-
phasis was placed on understanding cyclic hardening, pri-
mary creep, and complex creep-plasticity interactions. To
assisfin establishing failure criteria, emphasis was placed on
very long time creep-rupture, strain limits, tertiary creep,
high and low cycle fatigue, creep-fatigue, and crack growth.
High-temperature pressure vessel materials that have received
the most attention included type 304 stainless steel, type 316
stainless steel, 2'/i Cr-1 Mo steel, alloy 800H, and Hastelloy X.
BACKGROUND
In the 1960s, moderate advancements were made in the
development of new structural alloys for use in gas turbine
and aerospace applications. Advancements were also made in
some commercial iron and nickel-base alloys, used in high-
temperature pressure vessels and piping, by means of im-
proved melting practices and fabrication techniques. Efforts
to characterize the mechanical behavior of pressure vessel
materials were generally directed toward satisfying the re-
quirements for inclusion in Section V I I I of the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code. Mechanical properties of interest.
for example, included elastic constants, yield strength, ulti-
mate strength, work-hardening characteristics, creep stiength
based on secondary creep rate, and 105 h rupture strength.
In contrast, materials tor gas turbine applications were being
evaluated on the basis of the "static" properties as well as
fatigue and creep-fatigue. Further, strain limits were of con-
siderable importance to gas turbine design, and it was often
necessary to procure strain-time data for use in analysis.
In the late 1960s, the development of finite element analy-
sis methods anil computer-based computational tools made
it passible to apply raf.'ier complex material behavior repre-
sentations to engineering problems. A t the same time, the
development of high-temperature, servo-controlled mechanical
testing methods simplified the task of performing complex
loading histories on simple test specimens and structures.
These maturing technologies were quickly incorporated into
programs aimed at developing high-temperature design meth-
odology for nuclear components where design-by-analysis con-
cepts were being pursued.
In the United States, there was renewed interest in the de-
tailed study of the high-temperature deformation behavior of
several Section VIII materials and the characterization of
these materials in terms of siress-slrain-lime responds. Thus,
in the 1970s, we have seen cons'derable work done on both
new and old pressure vessel materials. In the following sec-
tions, we focus on the progress made in this general area of
high-tempe r ?ture deformation. Having established "reliable"
methods of piedicting materials response, it is logical to ex-
tend the use of this information to improve our understanding
of damage accumulation and associated failure criteria. This
subject is discussed briefly. Finally, the progress in applying
fracture mechanics concepts to high-temperature fatigue and
creep crack growth is recognized and discussed to a limited
extent.
 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
Elastic constants such as Young's modulus, shear modulus,
and Poisson's ratio are fundamental material parameters which
must be accurately known for reliable analyses. The source of
the "static" elastic modulus data currently used in design is
not widely known for many materials. Data for several austeni-
tic steels, however, can be traced to studies reported by Garo-
falo, Malenock, and Smith in 1952 [ 1 ] . These data were ob-
tained from tests that used mechanical extensometers attached
to long gauge-length specimens that were loaded to stresses
thought to lie in the elastic range. Recently, with the commer-
cial development of high-temperature capacitance gauges, it
has become possible to employ new higher-precision techniques
to produce modulus data. A typical experimental set-up is
shown in Fig. 1. Pressure vessel materials, such as 2% Cr-1 Mo
steel. Alloy 800H, Alloy 718, and Hastelloy X, are being reex-
amined and the effect of cold work, chemistry, and heat treat-
ment variations are being studied. In the coming decade, we
will probably see work done on the elastic properties of weld
materials and castings. The determination of dynamic elastic
FIG. 1 RECTANGULAR TEST SPECIMEN FITTED WITH
FOUR MODEL HTC-DC-100 CAPACITIVE STRAIN GAGES
FOR THE DETERMINATION OF STATIC ELASTIC
CONSTANTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURE
constants for weldments 12] has already shown that anisotropy
exists, and with current finite element methods, it is possible
to factor anisotropic models and data into some types of
analyses.
PLASTIC FLOW
Here, plastic flow means nonrecoverable deformation that
analysts treat as if it were a time-independent deformation
process. The onset of plastic flow, or the yield stress, is an in-
dispensable material property used in design. It has been long
recognized that the yield stress is a property which must be
precisely defined. For example, the yield stress is often de-
fined as the stress corresponding to a certain offset strain from
the elastic loading line [3]. In connection with the study of
yield surfaces in multiaxial stress space (needed to develop and
verify constitutive equations), very small offset strains are
sometimes utilized. The works of Liu, Greenstreet, and co-
workers [4, 5] are examples where yielding is defined by a
0.001 percent offset strain in room-temperature studies. At
high temperatures, offset strains around 0.005 percent are
sometimes used. In contrast to these offset strains, engineer-
ing materials testing programs usually report the stress at the
0.2 percent offset strain as the yield stress. The extent of the
influence of temperature, strain rate, prior thermomechanical
history, and crystalline microstructure on the yield stress de-
pends on the definition of the yield stress. Figure 2 shows
stress-versus-strain cu. ves for several alloys in a "fully heat-
treated" condition. The yield stresses for 0.02 and 0.2 percent
are located on the curves as open and closed symbols, re-
spectively. We see that the relative strength of the alloys varies
0.2 0.3
STRAIN (V. I
FIG. 2 TYPICAL HIGH-TEMPERATURE STRESS-STRAIN
CURVES FOR PRESSURE VESSEL MATERIALS
 somewhat with the choice of the yield stress definition. Also,
we see in Fig. 2 that the rate of hardening varies substantially
in the early stages of deformation from one alloy to another.
Unfortunately, neither the yield strength nor the work har-
dening rate provides information as to how the material will
work-harden or work-soften during strain cycling. The strain-
cycling test data based on a small strain offset definition for
yield show that the yield surface for many pressure vessel
materials moves in mostly a kinematic hardening manner [ 5 ] ,
as shown in Fig. 3. Substantial progress has been made in both
the understanding and modeling of this yield surface motion.
T./VT
I—*,
^co»t*on.ia v « » - ^
FIG. 3(a) SCHEMATIC OF YIELD INVESTIGATION
FOR TYPE 316 STAINLESS STEEL UNDER STRAIN-
CONTROLLED CYCLIC LOADING CONDITIONS AT
ROOM TEMPERATURE
\,
CTCLE HOI »S ©
. . . A / 3 (MPol
316 STAINLESS 5IEEL
(HE»T 60922971
OOOM TEMPERATURE
SPECIMEN NO 6 I M
STR1IN R»TE • 516 u « / m , n
FIG. 3(b) YIELD SURFACES DETERMINED DURING
1ST, 5TH, AND 10TH CYCLES OF EQUIVALENT-STRAIN-
RANGE CYCLING AT 2%, ANNEALED 316
STAINLESS STEEL
Thermomechanical treatment, of course, has an important
impact on the yield curve. The relatively sharp yielding shown
in Fig. 2 that occurs in Alloy 800H and type 304 stainless steel
is a result of ho cold work, uniform grain size, uniform disloca-
tion configurations, and possible pinning effects of interstitial
or substitution alloying elements. The almost linear hardening
rate is a result of the planar slip deformation mode which
these alloys exhibit at low strains. The ferritic alloys exhibit
very high initial work hardening rates, possibly due to
dislocation-percipitate interactions. However, cross slip occurs
very easily in these alloys; hence, dynamic recovery processes
are active and produce a significant decrease in the rate of har-
dening at low strain levels. The ferritic alloys exhibit low uni-
form strains for this reason.
Smith [6] has recently studied the effect of prior strain
on the shape of the flow curve for A'loy 800H. Typical data
for 593 C are plotted in Fig. 4, which includes curves for
solution-annealed material, tensile and compressive prestrained
material at 10 percent strain, and tensile and compressive pre-
strained material at 20 percent strain. Again, the effect of pre-
strain depends on the choice of the yield stress definition. For
example, the differences in the tensile and compressive curves
are large at low strains due to the Bauschinger effect. This ef-
fect "washes out" at large strain, and the flow stress becomes
independent of prior working direction.
In the past decade, there have been significant advances in
understanding the extent, and reason for the variability in the
0.2 percent offset yield strength of pressure vessel materials
[7-12]. It seems likely that in the coming decade, greater ef-
forts will be mad'? to examine the effect of temperature and
strain rate on the yield surfaces and rate of hardening as well.
These efforts are needed to develop "unified" constitutive
0 02 04 06 O.t t.0 1.2 14 16 10 20
FIG. 4 EFFECT OF PRIOR COLD STRAIN ON THE
TENSILE CURVES OF SOLUTION HEAT TREATED
{NCOLOY 800H TESTED AT WOO F <593 C)
 equations (13-17]. and will stimulate more detailed and sys-
tematic studies of the plastic flow process.
Although high-temperature cyclic deformation studies go
back many years, it was not until the late 1960s that experi-
mental techniques were developed to a level where reliable,
consistent data could be produced. The techniques developed
by Slot, Stentz, and Berlins 118, 19] have been utilized in the
1970s to produce a vast body of cyclic data on pressure vessel
materials in the temperature range of 25-1000 C. An experi-
mental setup is shown in Fig. 5. The diametral strains are meas-
ured on an hourglass-shaped section, then converted to axial
counterparts by means of an analog computer. The electrical
signal corresponding to the axial strain acts as a feedback sig-
nal to the servocontroller of the electro-hydraulic testing sys-
tem. The apparatus shown in Fig. 5 has the capability of oper-
ating in either strain or stress control modes and can be pro-
grammed to change control mode, thus producing a variety of
rather complex stress-strain histories.
The bulk of the strain-cyjling data produced in the last
decade was obtained from tests in which the strain range, cyclic
time (or ramp strain rate), and temperature were held constant.
Emphasis was placed on relating strain range to cycles to fail-
FIG. 5 LOW-CYCLE STRAIN-CONTROLLED PUSH-PUL L
FATIGUE TESTING FACILITY
ure, and very little attention was paid to a cycle-by-cycle anal-
ysis of stress-strain hysteresis loops. Indeed, one finds that a
single set of hysteresis loops for type 304 stainless steel at
593 C has been used several times over by investigators seek-
ing to model high-temperature cyclic behavior [20-22]. Pro-
gress has been made in the development of cyclic hardening
curves following the techniques of Morrow [23], however, and
comparisons of monotonic and cyclic hardening curves are
available for many high-temperature pressure vessel materials
[24, 25]. Typical comparisons are shown in Fig. 6.
Since the cyclic hardening curves represent the peak stress
amplitude vs peak strain amplitude for the "steady state"
cyclic conditions, comparison with the monotonic hardening
curves in Fig. 6 provides information as to whether cyclic har-
dening or softening occurs. One of the problems in using the
cyclic hardening curves directly for high-temperature design
analyses is that the curves are generally based on the steady-
state hysteresis loops which many occur early in life (say the
first 5 percent) or maybe after half life. In structures, the de-
sign life is generally limited to very small fractions of the ac-
tual life, and the steady-state hardened condition may never
develop. Other problems in using cyclic hardening curves are
that they are influenced by the ramp strain rate, hold times at
constant strain, and long-time aging phenomena [27, 28].
000
1 i 1 _J
-—CYCLIC 800
-
600
*CYCUC ~
f MONOTO'ilC : 400 - / -
r, -/ ALLOY 718 _
504 ZOO
MB •c
/ 1 1
FIG. 6 COMPARISON OF MONOTONIC AND CYCLIC
HARDENING CURVES FOR SEVERAL MATERIALS
AT HIGH TEMPERATURE
In the coming decade, we are likely to see a greater em-
phasis on understanding the metallurgical aspects of cyclic
hardening. Detailed analysis of the hysteresis loops can be ex-
pected as further efforts arc made to understand the kine-
matic and isotropic aspects of cyclic hardening. It also seems
likely that more effort will be spent in understanding cyclic
material behavior under multiaxial conditions and in the
vicinity of geometric and metallurgical discontinuities.
 CREEP FLOW
Creep flow is taken here to mean nonrecoverable deforma-
tions that are associated with dislocation climb, dislocation
glide by viscous drag, recovery-controlled dislocation glide,
some types of grain boundary sliding, and diffusional creep
processes. Although primary creep has been recognized as an
important deformation component since the days of Andrade
129], the major emphasis by materials science people has been
on the understanding of "steady-state" creep. Current interest
in developing deformation maps by Ashby and others [30,33]
are examples of this emphasis. During the 1970s, however,
there has been a growing engineering and scientific interest in
primary creep behavior. Part of this interest stems from the
need to develop time-dependent stress-strain diagrams for use
with design Code [34]. However, of more importance is the
need to factor primary creep into the constitutive equations
used *o determine redistribution of stresses in structures such
as those that experience thermal transients. For applications
of this type, knowledge of the short-time creep rates plays an
important role. Similar to the problem of defining the yield
stress, discussed earlier, the short-term creep rates are difficult
to ascertain uniquely and quantatively. This is in part because
creep tests are often performed at stresses that exceed the
0.001 percent offset yield stress. When this situation exists, it
is difficult to determine when "plastic flow" ends and defor-
mation begins. Often, the loading strain rate can be considered
as the upper limit to the initial creep rate. Some alloys exhibit
discontinuous plastic flow and when this occurs the initial
creep rate may vary by several orders of magnitude from one
test to another. There is still a need to develop extensometry
with high-resolution and high-accuracy for studying the early
stages of primary creep. A few new concepts are being devel-
oped, based on capacitance, microwave, and laser techniques
[35]; hence, in the next decade extensometers may be per-
fected that will deliver resolution and precision in the 1 0 6 to
10~5 range.
The significance of primary creep varies from one pressure
vessel material to another, and alloys have often been classi-
fied on the basis of their primary creep behavior or response
to incremental stress changes. For example, "normal" mate-
rials are those that exhibit decelerating creep rates with time.
"Abnormal" materials are those that exhibit no primary creep
or perhaps accelerating creep rates. Some examples of primary
creep curves are plotted in Fig. 7. Here we see that austenitic
alloys, such as types 304 stainless steel, can exhibit very sig-
nificant primary creep stages while, at the other extreme,
nickel-base alloys sometimes exhibit creep curves with almost
pure tertiary character. Annealed 2% Cr-1 Mo steel at some
temperatures exhibits "S" shape sigmoidal creep curves.
Attempts to model uniaxial constant-load creep behavior
by means of analytical expressions are too numerous to review
here. The exponential forms of the type developed by Garofalo
FIG. 7 TYPICAL PRIMARY CREEP CURVES FOR
PRESSURE VESSEL MATERIALS
etal. 136] and Blackburn 137] have been popular in the past
decade because they are derivable from dislocation creep
models [38, 30]. The rational polynomial form has been sug-
gested by several investigators [40, 41] because it is easy to
manipulate mathematically. Following Garofalo etal. [36],
many investigators have attempted to relate the parameters
describing primary creep to the secondary creep character-
istics. For example, the ratio of the initial creep rate, ey to the
secondary creep rate, es, could be a constant for some stresses
and temperatures. Clearly the ratio e;/es must be greater than
unity for materials that exhibit "normal creep and unity or
less for "abnormal" alloys.
Due to efforts initiated during the last decade, some ex-
cellent long-term creep data are beginning to accumulate on
pressure vessel materials. Of particular interest to the liquid
metal fast breeder reactor community are data for type 304
stainless steel, type 316 stainless steel, and 2% Cr-1 Mo. steel.
Studies of heat-to-heat variations are included, and some
typical data for type 304 stainless steel are plotted in Fig. 8.
Work of similar nature is underway in Japan [42] and the
United Kingdom [43]. Most of this long-time creep testing
has involved constant loads, and there have been very few
parallel studies of long-time creep under cyclic and reversal
stresses. It is a simple question to ask what happens to the
creep strength when stresses are cycled, but the answer is that
creep rate may accelerate, remain unchanged, or decelerate
according to the alloy, temperature, stress range, and cyclic
frequency [44]. Data for type 304 stainless steel at 593°C
are shown in Fig. 9 to illustrate a frequency effect for this
alloy. Here we see that a cycling a low frequency has virtually
no effect on the creep curve, while cycling at higher frequency
suppresses creep. Fairly detailed studies of this phenomenon
are available [44, 45]. Such cyclic creep tests play a major
role in the development and verification of constitutive equa-
tions since, by adjusting the test conditions, it is possible to
study the hardening or recovery response of a material with-
 • SHOWS RUPTURE i ! I i
. ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTHS FOR HEAT S4« '
EACH HEAT ARE IN MPo <l»i)

10

HEAT 330-100 ppm Nb

'UTS 361 152.8)

,-HEAT 380-tOO ppm Nb

UTS 361 (S2.B!
>-KEAT 1(1-100 ppm Nb
UTS 36S 152.5)
16 20 24 32 36 (H0 J )
TEST TIME IhO

FIG. 8 COMPARISON OF LONG-TERM CREEP BEHAVIOR

AT 593 C (1100 F) AND 117 MPa (17 ksi) FOR SEVEN
HEATS OF TYPE 304 STAIN LESS STEEL

1 1 1 i i i Studies of multiaxial creep have progressed in both experi-

mental and analytical directions. Generally, experiments have
_ 0.5 c p h ^ ^ j^r _ focused on the tubular specimens subjected to various com-
binations of axial, torsion, and pressurization stresses [49-52].
I
a 3
CONSTANT O A D ^ ^ ^ ^ '
Cruciform plates have also been tested under biaxial stresses
[53]. Again, the high-temperature capacitance strain gage has
UJ
greatly improved measuring accuracies in these multiaxial
s ^ • 0 . 0 0 3 cph
— tests. Further, the sophisticated servocontrolled electro-
s haydraulic testing machine has enabled experimentalists to
— lOOOcph _ examine creep under closely controlled radial and nonradial
I' 5 cph
loading paths. Since multiaxial testing is highly important to
constitutive equation development studies, we do not elabor-
r i i i 1 1 ! 1
<00 150 200 250 300 350 400 ate here on material behavior under multiaxial stresses but
50
TIME UNDER MAXIMUM STRESS (hr) refer the reader to the next section of this chapter.

FIG. 9 INFLUENCE OF TEST FREQUENCY ON THE

ACCUMULATED CREEP STRAIN CURVE FOR CYCLIC
TESTS ON TYPE 304 STAINLESS STEEL FOR R = 0.1
AT 172 MPa AND 593 C
out the need for utilizing many test machines and long test-
ing times.
Although some work on creep behavior under load reversal
has been undertaken during this decade, the difficulty in per-
forming such tests and interpreting the data has minimized
progress in understanding material response under general re-
versed stress conditions. This situation contrasts sharply with
the great emphasis which has been placed on strain-cycling
studies in plasticity. We know from work on type 316 stain-
less steel and type 304 stainless steel (46, 47] that very sig-
nificant effects can be produced by reversal stresses. Further,
prior cold v»oriref4iS: opposite sign can also produce exag-
gerated primary creep [48].
CREEP-PLASTICITY INTERACTION
The classical engineering approach has been to separate
creep and plasticity strains into additive quantities. However,
when this has been done, certain ad hoc rules have been need-
ed to accommodate creep-plasticity interactions [40]. Inter-
actions. Interactions are often observed by interspersing high
and low strain rates (or stresses) and comparing the subsequent
flow stress (or strain rate) with behavior for uninterrupted
conditions. Relaxation after monotonic or cyclic straining is
probably the most common type of creep-plasticity test. Hart,
Li, and coworkers [54-56] have performed very thorough and
detailed studies of relaxation response after monotonic strains
in various materials. Generally, they have found that plastic
strain tends to increase the "hardness state" and that the state
changes very little during the relaxation period. Since the main
thrust of the work by Hart and Li has been develop constitu-
ttve equations, their works are also discussed by Pugh and 1 i 1 1 1 1
Robinson in this chapter. However, it is clear from their work
that a close correlation exists between creep and stress-relaxa- .AFTER
20 ' -
tion phenomena, and that by examining the relaxation test f MONOTONIC STRAIN
data, it is possible to draw inferences with regard to creep
hardening and softening. Figure 10 is a schematic illustration 15 -
of how strain-hardening and strain-softening materials behave * •

when under relaxation conditions. Austenitic stainless steels \

fall into the strain-hardening category (Fig. 10a) while some 10 — ^AFTER —
CYCLIC STRAIN
nickel-base alloys behave as if they strain soften (Fig. 10c).
5 - -

n 1 1 1 1 1
20 30 40 50 60 70
TIME (hr)
FIG. 11 COMPARISON OF RELAXATION CURVES FROM
MONOTONIC AND CYCLIC RELAXATION TESTS ON
TYPE 304 STAINLESS STEEL AT 593 C

LOG TIME

FIG. 10 THE EFFECT OF CREEP CURVE SHAPE ON

THE RELAXATION CURVES FOR MULTIPLE LOADING.
THE NUMBERS IN THE FIGURES CORRESPOND TO THE
ORDER OF LOADING

A most important type of creep-plasticity experiment is the

relaxation hold fatigue test. The work of Conway, etal. [57]
made this experiment extremely popular, and the bulk of the
creep-plasticity testing in the last decade has focused on this
type of cycle, (t has been shown for most alloys that the
relaxation curve stabilizes after a few cycles and is repetitive
thereafter. Further, the cyclic relaxation behavior of some
materials, such as type 304 stainless steel, can be predicted
from monotonic data (See Fig. 11). Similar data are being pro-
duced on other pressure vessel materials [27, 58-61]. Several
investigators have made efforts to analytically represent the
relaxation curves, with some degree of success. Some efforts
have also been made to develop isochronous relaxation curves
that relate the stress amplitude to the strain amplitude for
various times [62]. It is not obvious, however, how one uses
such isochronous relaxation curves in design.
The development of strain-range partitioning by (SRP)
Manson, Halford, and Hirschberg [63] as a predictive tech-
nique for time-dependent fatigue has stimulated several new
types of creep-plasticity tests. A test of particular significance
is one in which the specimen experiences creep in one direc-
tion, say tensile, and plasticity in the reversal direction, say
compression. Typical hysteresis loops for 2!4 Cr-1 Mo steel at
538°C are shown in Fig. 12. Useful creep data are produced by
FIG. 12 INFLUENCE OF TENSILE CREEP ON THE
COMPRESSIVE YIELD STRESS OF 2% Cr-1 Mo STEEL
AT 538 C
such experiments, and examination of the cycly-by-cycle creep
segments reveals information about creep hardening.
An important observation which must be made regarding
creep-plasticity interactions in cyclic operation is that high
primary creep rates are produced after reversing the stress,
regardless of whether the prior strain was produced by "creep"
or "plasticity." These high primary rates require an ad hoc rule
to reasonably account for the kinematic and isotropic harden-
ing that occurs during the creep and plastic straining. A con-
siderable effort has been and continues to be expended to
develop testing methods suitable for evaluating kinematic and
isotropic aspects of inelastic deformations as well as for estab-
lishing appropriate state variables for use in developing unified
constitutive equations. One of the attractive features of unified
constitutive equations is that plastic flow and creep flow are
special cases of a single general description of the yield, flow,
and hardening phenomena [13,15).
 CREEP RUPTURE will undoubtedly aid the development of test matrices for new
alloys. Progress has also been made in using the hot tensile
Tfw past decade has been very productive with respect to strength as a predictor of creep-rupture strength [75, 76]. It is
the compilation and analysis of iong-time creep-rupture data possible, on the basis of such studies, that the hot tensile test
for pressure-vessel materials. The progress has been followed could be included in procurement specifications for pressure
in a series of symposia sponsored by the Metal Properties vessel materials.
Council [64-70]. Long-time rupture$ in type 304 stainless A considerable body of data has been collected regarding
steels have been produced in the AR-2 project, 70 and similar tertiary creep in high-temperature alloys and has been entered
testing on types 304 stainless steel, type 316 stainless steel, and into elevated temperature design limits. Often, correlations
254 Cr-1 Mo steel is underway at the Oak Ridge National Lab- between tertiary creep and rupture life have been established
oratory. Long-time testing is also in progress in Japan [42] as, for example, in the study of Leyda and Rowe [77]. It has
and the United Kingdom [43]. been fairly well established, however, that there are several
Rupture data, compiled by Smith and others [71-74] have causes of tertiary creep such ax geometric instability, develop-
been used to examine the heat-to-heat variability on a statisti- ment of microcracks, and the alteration of creep response due
cal basis. One such comparison is shown in Fig. 13. to aging phenomena. The use of tertiary creep information in
Techniques for using time-temperature parameters to pre- design criteria for alloys that exhibit metallurgical instability
dict long-time rupture have also progressed. The ASTM-ASME- is an important area for additional work.
MPCTask Force on Parametric Analysis has developed Studies of the metallurgical aspects of creep-rupture have
methods of treating single or multiple heat data. Their findings received impetus from the work of Ashby and Fields [78] on
log <r (MPo)
1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
T 1 1 1 T 1 1 I 1 T 1 T T 1 T t 1
1
H Sk '\ 1

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j 3SCC rvi >E 30<i
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(120 2 •F|
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( 200 " F)
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i
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BSCC TYPE 316 NRIM TYPE 3SI6 j i I US TYPE 316
I
U?.02'F) (1202 *F)
...1 1 l...| . 1 1 1.
1 1.6 i 1.8 | | (1200 °F)
...I... I....I I... I
C.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 2.0 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
log a (ksi)

FIG. 13 PLOTS OF TIMES TO RUPTURE AS A FUNCTION OF STRESS FOR BSCC AND NRIM DATA AT
650 C (1,202 F) AND U.S. DATA AT 649 C (1,200 F) - THE UPPER- AND LOWER-LIMIT LINFS ARE LOG tr ±2 SEE
 fracture maps. A typical map for type 304 stainless is shown
in Fig. 14. Here we see that the map consists of fields in a
stress vs temperature grid. Each field represents conditions
where a specific fracture mechanism and its associated analy-
tical model are most pertinent. Failure mechanisms typical of
pressure vessel materials at high temperature include ductile
rupture produced by geometric instability, intergranular creep-
rupture produced by grain boundary sliding, and intergranular
creep-rupture produced by microvoid coelescence and growth.
The fracture map is particularly helpful in evaluating the limits
of extrapolation for specific creep-rupture models based on
mechanisms. It also aids in the development of accelerated
tests to evaluate the performance of high temperature com-
ponents. Finally, it could be of value in assessing how different
damage mechanisms interact.
TEMPERATURE I T )
ooo 1000 1100 1200 tlOO
O SHEAR
6 SMEAR B E T W E E N WEDOE CRACKS
• WEDGE CRACKS
B WEOGE CRACKS PLUS MlCROCAVITIES
138 593 6«9
TEMPERATURE CO
FIG. 14 FAILURE MODE MAP FOR TYPE 304 STAINLESS
STEEL HEAT 9T2796
It seems likely that in the coming decade many of the new
tools developed to aid in materials science will be utilized to
improve the understanding of the creep-rupture phenomena in
commercial alloys. The role of the grain boundary deforma-
tion and fracture will be examined and the influence of com-
positional inhomogeneity will probably be explored. Environ-
mental effects will be explored in much greater detail. Finally,
links between constitutive equations and damage accumulation
will be further developed.
STRAIN LIMITS
In the United States there has been considerable activity to
embrace strain limits in a design criteria for high-temperature
applications with ASME Code Case N-47 including such a con-
cept. For high strain rate plastic flow, the uniform strain, the
elongation, and the reduction of area at fracture are important
material ductility properties. For low-strain-rate creep, the
strain to tertiary creep, the creep elongation, and creep reduc-
tion of area are measures often of ductility. There are, of
course, several other measures which could be used to set
strain limits, and some of these "ductility indices" have been
discussed by Manjoine [79]. In design situations, analysts
must be concerned with how the ductility index changes with
material, temperature, strain rate, and service history. A map,
showing how temperature and strain rate influence one such
index, the elongation of type 304 stainless steel, is shown in
Fig. 15. Here it can be seen that a combination of low strain
rates and high temperature produces the lowest elongation.
Lower ductility is associated with intergranular fracture in the
absence of appreciable matrix deformation. There is growing
recognition that prior aging greatly influences both the ductil-
ity and failure mode, especially for austenitic stainless steels.
For example, an improvement in creep ductility by 800C aging
of austenitic steels was established by Garofalo [80] many
years ago. Recently, this work has been repeated and found to
improve both creep and creep-fatigue performance [81, 82]
E-3-INTERGHANULAR FRACTURE
FIG. 15 CREEP-RUPTURE DUCTILITY, MEASURED AS
REDUCTION OF AREA, AS A FUNCTION OF
TEMPERATURE AND STRAIN RATE FOR TYPE 304
STAINLESS STEEL
The relative ductility of pressure vessel materials is very
sensitive to the selection of the ductility index. This is illustrat-
ed in Fig. 16, where several pressure vessel materials are com-
pared on the basis of the ratio of tertiary creep strain to rup-
ture strain. Here the strain at tertiary creep is defined as the
total strain when the creep strain departs from the minimum
creep rate line by 0.2 percent. It is apparent that some alloys,
such as alloy 800H, Hastelloy X, and alloy 718, exhibit low
ratios. One of the questions which must be addressed in the
 nVcade is how to make use of the strain after the on- TIME-DEPENDENT FATIGUE
itiary creep" in setting a strain limit for such alloys.
Remarkable progress has been made in the last decade in
the development of data and models relative to time-depend-
ent fatigue. This very important subject is reviewed separately
in this chapter by Manson. Here we briefly touch on a few of
the more salient features.
Earlier in this section, it was mentioned that during the
latter part of the 1960s, reliable equipment and technology
were developed for performing strain-controlled fatigue tests
employing various strain-time wave forms on materials subject-
ed to temperatures below and within the creep range. This cap-
ability has resulted in numerous conferences, publications
6«9 760 S38 6«9 760 539 6«9 760 [83-86], test standards 187], and, finally, utilization of the
resultant data in evolving design codes and standards.
-. 16 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE Fig. 17 compares best-fit curves of continuous cycle fatigue
DICTED RATIO OF TERTIARY STRAIN TO data for several structural materials of interest in elevated tem-
TURE STRAIN AT 100,000 h FOR SEVERAL perature design. Typically, these data were generated in strain
control over the range of 50 to 105 -10 6 cycles to failure.
ALLOYS

to 10 10 10 ,o6
Nf. CYCLES TO FAILURE
17 COMPARISON OF THE FATIGUE BEHAVIOR OF SEVERAL MATERIALS AT 649 PC (1,200 F). LINES
:
F.PRESENT BEST-FIT VALUES OF ACTUAL DATA. NOTE THE WIDE DIFFERENCES IN BEHAVIOR,
PARTICULARLY AT THE HIGH CYCLE END OF THE CURVES

« : •
 /V,'s CYCLES TO FAILURE

FIG. 18 TOTAL STRAIN RANGE vs CYCLES TO FAILURE FOR ANNEALED Tk Cr-1 Mo STEEL. ALL TESTS WERE
CONDUCTED AT 315 C (600 F) IN EITHER STRAIN OR LOAD CONTROL AS INDICATED. VARIABLE STRAIN
RANGE BEFORE FAILURE IN SOME OF THE LOAD-CONTROLLED TESTS IS ALSO SHOWN

However, the need by the design community for high-cycle
fatigue data out to 108 cycles, and beyond, resulted in the
development of load-controlled test technology [88], data,
and extrapolation techniques [89]. Fig. 18 compares strain-
and load-controlled data obtained for 2% Cr-1 Mo steel tested
in the high cycle fatigue range, and is indicative of the methods
used for experimentally extending the low cycle strain-control-
led fatigue curves. Typically, specimens were initially cycled
in strain control until hardening or softening lead to stabiliza-
tion with respect to inelastic strain response and material
structure. A given test could then be switched from strain
control to load control and the test frequency increased so as
to produce specimen failure in the high cycle region in reason-
able test times. Differences in strain- and load-controlled fati-
gue data, in terms of cycle life, occur due to differences in the
inelastic strain history as shown in Fig. 18. The result of work
of the type referred to above is that continuous cycle design
fatigue curves found in the ASME Codes are being extended
beyond the 106 cycle range as originally established for the
Code [90]. Whereas most of the effort aimed at extending the
low cycle fatigue curves out to 108 cycle, and beyond, has
occurred for temperatures below the creep range, interest in
extending these curves for temperatures within the creep range
was strong as the design community faced high cycle elevated
temperature fatigue problems, such as flow-induced vibrations
and thermal striping.
The need to account for time-dependent fatigue (creep plus
environmental interaction) in such structures as turbine disks
in jet engine aircraft and stationary power generation equip-
ment operating at temperatures within the creep range has
resulted in the generation of considerable amounts of data on
various materials. Figs.19 and 20 are representative of the data
generated during the last decade and compare continuous
cycling fatigue curves generated at a fairly high strain rate,
i.e., 4x 10~3s"' with data generated with a hold period intro-
duced in each cycle for type 304 stainless and 2Vi Cr-1 Mo
steel. In the case of the austenitic stainless steels such as that
shown in Fig. 19 for type 304 stainless steel, the degradation
in lifetime is more pronounced due to tensile rather than com-
presbive hold times [91]. Further, at temperatures within the
creep range, degradation of lifetime is due to oxidation,
environmental interaction, and voidage which under strain-
controlled conditions leads to intergranular cavitation [92-96]
and crack propagation. In the case of 2'/4 Cr-1 Mo steel, com-
pressivo holds were found to be more damaging than tensile
hold periods, particularly at low strain ranges where prolonged
exposure to elevated temperatures in air leads to surface oxida-
tion and material flow interaction facilitating early crack
 10 II ! I i I j . . : ' i i ! I | ' 1 i • • i:
o ANNEALED OR AS FABRICATED AND TESTED IN A!R. CONTINUOUS CYCLE
-AGED. TESTED WITH CONTINUOUS • PRE-TEST AGED>IOO0hr AND TESTED IN AIR. CONTINUOUS CYCLE
CYCLING IN AIR o ANNEALED AND TESTED IN AIR WITH HOLD TIME
• PRE-TEST AGED2I0O0 hr AND TESTED If J AIR WITH HOLD TIME
oaas DATA FROM 8 HEATS J
t ) INDICATES DURATION OF TENSILE HOLD TIME, hr
110) (3) H> 3
-Q •
II) HO)
3 (3)
o
(3)(101 [tl ID (I)
(10)
P. ANNEALED OR AS-FABRICATED.TESTED WITH
CONTINUOUS CYCLING IN AIR S ;
o -I
fi -H r—HOLD TIME
oo
i
- STRAIN A A ! — • —
•a— 1 '
IV V \ CASE N-4?
ELASTIC ANALYSIS
WAVE FORM OF CYCLIC DESIGN LINE
TESTS WITH HOLD TIME TIME— '
CONTINUOUS CYCLE
• WAVE FORM , i I I I I

10 10= 10*

,.CYCLES TO FAILURE

FIG. 19 COMPARISON OF STRAIN-CONTROLLED FATIGUE DATA FROM TESTS CONDUCTED AT 538 TO 593 C
IN AIR ON TYPE 304 STAINLESS STEEL

JO4 STAINLESS STEEL ( 4 3 O - 8 I G *CI

DISTRIBUTION OF FMIGUE U S T S
TO FAILURE
BfST FIT C l ^ v f fflCM J us M M «e: TESTS

. U L C O PO«NTS-CCV?P£S5;*T: HOLD ^_
* MOLO TW£«OOt fx i I I I T"
* HOLD T«rf£«Oi*r (
* HXO T H E ' 0 5 hi ' ^_
C C U S HfiT 3?«01
IS3lC«TCS B t i l J ,
- M ' C M t S 5W.C»£»
SMOvEO SIGNS or DESIGN LIFETIVES
- NOT r£!L T-t-- f -* "-KX.0 Tit*; -t— CCSTft^OliS CrCi.«<, f- UOO.OCO-300.000 *r) tm-
i M U H MCXD ?i*C J. L. I I I :
50 «O SO 60 TO «XJ
erects TO rAK.uRe.Nt LENGTH OF TEST ( 1 0 0 0 l » )

r
I G . 20 INFLUENCE OF TENSION AND COMPRESSION FIG. 21 COMPARISON OF THE AMOUNT OF AVAILABLE
MOLD TIMES ON THE STRAIN-CONTROLLED FATIGUE TEST CREEP-FATIGUE DATA FOR TYPE 304 STAINLESS
RCHAVIOR OF 2'/» Cr-1 Mo STEEL AT 539 C (1,000 F) STEEL FOR A PARTICULAR TEST DURATION
IN AIR

""."feation when compressive holds are applied.
Considering some of the contributing variables discussed
Vive, which are inherent in time-dependent fatigue, one can
•".Iprstand why a universally-acceptable method has not
• -iMvod for correlating available data. Further, only short-time
• 'fa exist even for the exhaustively studied materials such as
~>-.^c 304 stainless steel (see Fig. 21). In comparison, design
'.'times for power generating plants are up to 300.000 h. The
' emulators of the ASME Code Case N-47, which deals with
the design criteria for nuclear power plant components operat-
ing within the creep range, considered sever?! methods available
for extrapolating data trends and chose a modification of the
linear damage rule [97]. Thus, ;ne time ratios (f/r r ) based on
the well-established rupture life, tr. were used for creep
damage, and cycle ratios [N/Nf\, based on relatively short-time
fatigue life, /ty, were used for fatigue damage. The ratios sum-
med to a value " D " that includes appropriate design factors
added to cover the many uncertainties inherent in the analysis.
 Fig. 22 compares experimental data in which the creep and
fatigue damage values are compared both with and without
the Code design lifetime factors. While the scatter in data is
large, the rssultant design factor on life varies from a minimum
of approximately four to more than forty- This method of «0
dttnage summation is generally felt by most experimentalists
and those who model elevated temperature material behavior
to be overly conservative and thus inadequate, and accordingly
10
considerable effort is being expended to develop othei
304 STAINLESS
methods. Alternate methods will be discussed in greater detail
subsequently in this chapter by Manson. u 5 2 £
J<6 STAIN ESS
• STEEL r s
'"1
°i
I t !

Ml If«, at. CONOlTlON 5 2 INCONCL Tit

MIEUEO • GCO
• • M COOt DC SIGN

• o • to 4
y
<
IE

304 5TAIWLESS
O STEEL
B. <0
O

INCC OT BOO 5
o
5.6s 5
MATERIAL FREQUENCY H RATIO
(H2)
304 STAINLESS STEEL 0667 0.05
3(6 STAINLESS STEEL 0.667 0.05
INCONEL 7<B 0.667 0.05
INCOLOY 8 0 0 0 667 o.os
HASTELLOY X I 005
2 V 4 C t - I Mo STEEL 0.667
o.cs

_J ' ' • ' • • ' '

-6] - 5
O.Ot 0 ( (.0 40.0 fOC J _J 1_
FATIGUE D A W A G C . n / N , OR n/N« 10 20 50 100
STRE;SS INTENSITY FACTOR, A * IMPO
FIG. 22 COMPARISON OF CODE CREEP-FATIGUE J i i i
to 20 50 (00
ALLOWABLES TO EXPERIMENTAL DATA STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR &K Ihv

FIG. 23 COMPARISON OF FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH

Whereas the typical "S-N curve" fatigue life approach dis-
cussed above is the most common and best known approach
in engineering for the determination of life prior to the initia-
tion of fatigue cracks, it does not reasonably account Vor pre-
existing flaws or flaws induced accidentally in fabrication or
service. However, the development of the concepts of linear
elastic fracture mechanics has permitted prediction of defect
behavior for many conditiant. These concepts state that the
-ate of growth of fatigue cracks in a given material and environ-
ment depends on the local time-history of the stress-intensity
factor K. The stress intensity factor is a function of the ap-
plied load, the flaw length, and geometry. Thus, lifetime
extension is possible in structures containing defects, such -
as weldments, using nondestructive testing techniques to evalu-
ate flaw sizes and fracture mechanics concepts to predict be-
havior. Accordingly, during The last decade, considerable
amounts of crack propagation data have been generated under
essentially linear elastic conditions on materials with various
BEHAVIOR OF SEVERAL STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
TESTED AT 538 C (1,000 F)
i environments, frequencies, temperatures, and loading condi-
tions. These concepts have been extended to elevated tem-
peratures, and Fig. 23 shows a comparison plot of crack growth
rate data for several materials tested at 538 C [ 8 8 ] . Fig. 24
presents a plot of crack growth rate data as a function of
temperzture and change in stress intensity factor, AAf, for a
single material [ 9 0 ] . This plot shows typical behavior; that is,
increasing the temperature results in ar increase in crack pro-
pagation rates in an air environment, presumably due to both
creep and environmental interaction. Certainly, the brief dis-
cussion of the advancement of the application of fracture
mechanics into the fields of both elevated temperature fatigue
crack initiation and propagation is inadequate, and the reader
is directed to the literature for more extensive coverage of this
important subject [86, 98-103].

F«G. 24 THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE UPON THE
FATIGUE-CRACK GROWTH BEHAVIOR OF TYPE 304
IN AN AIR ENVIRONMENT (REF. [118])
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