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EVOLUTIONOFBIOCLIMATICARCHITECTURE:DARWIN’SPERSPECTIVE
SIDDHARTHAK
ISHORE,D
IGVIJAYS INGHS HEORAN,P
OONAMK
HAN
ABSTRACT
Since time immemorial, architecture has been acting like a tool for the sole purpose of survival of living
beings. With the invention and discoveries of various tools and phenomena, the lifestyle of human
beings changed drastically and so
did architecture. For example, there is a stark difference between the
dwellings found in stone age and of present date. Hence, we can say that the architecture went through
a
process of evolution on a macro level from the first dwelling built by humans to the last building built
today. This process of evolution happened only because there was a change in lifestyle, and so a change
in the needs of
humans. The criterion for the evolution is only to produce better and ‘fitter’ designs. Or
it
can also be stated as
the design which is
most likely to succeed and be followed in the years to come
is the ‘fitter’ one amongst a large pool of designs. The design can be said to go through ‘survival of
fittest’ as stated by Charles Darwin in two levels. First the
design made ‘sense’ in
the
architect’s
mind
amongst a pool of other ideas and second it
made ‘sense’ to
the
users or
the
public amongst already
existingd esigns.
This paper
talks about
the
interconnectivity of
Darwin’s
theory of survival of fittest with architecture in
the context of bioclimatic architecture, through different eras and how the process of ‘survival of fittest’
in architecture created ‘mutations’ in the design which has only the required traits, eliminating the
unrequiredo nes.
1.INTRODUCTION
The famous theory of Darwin’s evolution process introduced natural selection as
the most important
process of
evolution at
every level, from biological systems, species,
organisms to a micro level such as
molecules, cells,
DNA and proteins. Similar kinds of evolutions, through the process of natural selection
and survival of the fittest can be found in architecture as well. The different concepts and movements in
architecture have evolved from the fundamentals of primitive vernacular structures. As humans made
advancement in
science, technology and
living
standards, architecture kept evolving to fulfil the needs
oft hatti me.
Bioclimatic architecture has
been of
prime
need
since time immemorial. Humans of different eras have
been making their dwellings, to get maximum comfort with whatever the resources available. The
strategies involved have evolved from the simple stone structures of palaeolithic age to
the
complex
strategies used in modern contemporary structures. Keeping the desired traits the strategies kept
on
evolving, going through the process of natural selection as stated by Darwin. Studying about the
evolution trend of these strategies and ideas will help us understand the considerably basic idea of
architecture, which is
survival
of
the dwellers.
Hence the aim of
my
research will be to understand the
evolution of bio-climatic processes involved in architecture through Darwin’s theory of evolution.
(Ogawae ta l.,2 012)
2.METHODOLOGY
Noticeable structures from the
four eras-
palaeolithic, stone, bronze and
iron
age
have been taken for
case study
and
have been analysed based on bioclimatic strategies used in them in order to understand
the
culture, needs and technological level of the time. Architecture from palaeolithic and stone age has
been kept concise as there is no accurate and precise information available at this date. Different
archaeologists and architects have different conclusions to the architecture. For the literature review
we followed ‘PRISMA Flow Diagram’ for efficiency and to
have a systematic review. The flow
diagram
hasb eens hownb elow.
F ig.0
:P
RISMAF lowD
iagram
[Source:a
uthor]
3.B
IOCLIMATICARCHITECTURE
Bioclimatic Architecture can
be
defined as
a method of designing buildings regarding local climate such
that thermal comfort is achieved using environmental resources. The buildings thus designed by
Bioclimatic Architecture must blend in their surroundings. Most vernacular buildings are bioclimatic,
andt hism
ethodisn
ota n eww ayo fd
esigning.
Bioclimatic architecture has been in need since time immemorial. Humans since time immemorial have
been striving for comfortable living in the given atmosphere, environment and resources available.
Bio-climatism went through thorough, careful and intricate evolutions, as humans evolved. These
evolutions were able to
establish in the society only because it made ‘sense’ to the people and mindset
of the time. This brings us to the popular theory of
Charles
Darwin ‘survival of
the
fittest’,
where
the
fittest idea/ design of the
spaces
survived
and
went
through
several
evolutions
and
mutations
for
the
timet oc ome.
Most Modern Architects are looking
for
methods to
reduce the
impact of
heating
and cooling
process
on the environment, HVAC systems in a building take up most energy. Thus, Bioclimatic Buildings
provide solutions to these problems as
they
incorporate construction techniques and design methods
that are
influenced by
local climate.
Bioclimatic buildings achieve comfort and aesthetics by respecting
naturea ndu singe nvironmentalr esourcest oa chievet hermalc omfort.
Wen
oticet hatm
osto
ft heb
uildingsd esignedb
eforet hea dvento
ft he2
0-21stc enturyc anb
e
considereda sb
ioclimaticb uildings.
4.SIMILARITYBETWEENDARWIN’STHEORYANDARCHITECTURE
Darwin theorised that all the living organisms on Earth may have been, nonetheless, evolutions of a
single same source (maybe unicellular) which existed around 3.5 to 3.8 years back. Through the process
of
natural selection, the
desirable traits of
an
organism living under any given condition multiplied and
evolved whereas the negative traits kept getting eliminated through evolutions. Amusingly, it
is
highly
likely that architecture has also gone through the same process of
evolution processes
over the years
which has led to
various architectural movements and
concepts, deriving predominantly from a single
living structure. Hence, we can assume that we can explain the evolution of architecture through
Darwin’st heoryo fn
aturals election,w hichism ainlyu sedf orlivingc reatures.
F ig.1
:H
istoriclifeo
nE arth
[S ource:L angrish,J .Z .( 2004).D
arwinianD
esign:T heM
emeticE volutiono
fD
esignIdeas.D
esignIssues,
20(4)[6]]
The
world
of
architecture is
created in
an
architect’s
mind regarding various biological processes in her
brain. With a competition between various ideas, an idea arises which suits the aesthetical and
functional aspirations of the architect. The idea arises because it ‘makes sense’ in some way to the
architect. Similarly, the same principle of competition and selection happens in the minds of the
general public regarding the ‘acceptance of architecture’. The architecture which endures (not only
structurally but socially too) is the one which ‘makes sense’ in the minds of the general public. This
competition of ideas ultimately results in reinforcing or
suppressing certain ideas which are not fittest
for survival, leading to architectural trends and movements. In other words, we can say that survival
and creativity work
together, compatible with our cognitive brains which stick to a result. An architect’s
mind has the power to create designs which suit human needs and
emotions or
impose an arbitrary
image which would be stuck in our environment. In architecture, we usually make a mutant of such
ideas by combining two or more primary ideas to make a complex
one. The most advantaged idea is
propagated more and passes its ‘wanted’ genes to form future ideas. Thus ‘wanted’ traits are gained
more and more while ‘unwanted’ traits
are getting lesser throughout the evolution. As a result of this
eliminationp rocesst hee volvingideag etst hea daptabilitye lement.( Nguyen& R eiter,2 017)
5.PALAEOLITHICAGE
PalaeolithicA
geo
rS toneA
ge:
In the earliest period of the Stone Age, Survival was of utmost importance
for
the
people of
this
era
because they had very little technology. These people were nomadic and moved from one place to
anothera ndt heyu sedt oh avet emporarys ettlementsa ndw ed
on’th
avem
uche videnceo ft hem.
From the cave paintings, we come to know that these people made their homes in caves. They also
used to build huts which had stone bases, walls made up of straws or
woods and
straw roofs, these
huts were for temporary use. Palaeolithic people also used to build
stone fireplace or
hearth in
their
cavesa ndh utsw hicht heyu sedf orc ookingo
rs implyt ok eept heirh ousew arm.
5.1DolniVestonice
The dwellings were 6 to 10m in diameter and had many hundreds of tusks and bones placed in the form
of a circle. Stone tools were
often
scattered
all
around and
inside
the
structure
while
in
the
centre
of
the dwelling was a hearth. These dwellings made of
mammoth bone were
covered
with animal
skins
andp rovideds helterf rome xtremec oldw inds.
Fig.2:D
olniV
estonice
[Source:h ttps://jrcasals.artstation.com/projects/obbEw[2]]
6.MESOLITHICAGE
Settlementsb egana roundw aterb odiesa ndfi
shing;c ultivationo fv egetablesa ndc erealsb
egan.M ore
regularp
lanh
ousesw erem
adea ndt hesew erem ored urablea sc omparedt op alaeolithica ge
7.N
EOLITHICAGE
Developmento
fa gricultureleadt os ettlingd
owna ndd
wellingsw
erem
adem
ores ustainable
7.1A
ncientE gypt
They used
to
build
marvellous structures without tampering with the ecosystem. The standard material
used throughout the Dynastic period
was
mud
and stones.
Stone
was
used
for
architectural
elements
occasionally,s ucha sd
oorjambs,c olumnsb ases,a ndw indows.
All the structures constructed were according to the orientation of the sun and wind directions. A
modest workman’s house
used
to have three
or
four
rooms
within
a rectangular plan. The kitchen was
usually situated away from the living area and
bedroom. There
were small
windows to
keep
the
heat
outsidea ndt olowert heinsidet emperature.
F ig.3
:A
nE gyptianH
ome
[S ource:M
odamS hahid.W
hath
istoryc ant eachu
sa
bouts ustainablea
rchitecture.
https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/history-of-architecture/a2906-what-history-can-teach-us-a
bout-sustainable-architecture/[8]]
8.BRONZEAGE
8.1T heR
owH
ousesO
fT roy
Troy was one of the earliest
excavations of
Bronze age Anatolia and
is still
one
of
the most important
Anatolian Early
Bronze Age
settlements. Due to the beating taken by time, the artefacts and equipment
found in the excavation were not in good conditions or
could not be recognised, hence there are
still
various inferences by
different archaeologists in
play.
The main purpose of
this
study is
to know about
the reason behind development of such designs and how it
survived the process of
natural selection,
culturallya nda lsoint hes copeo fb
io-climatism.
8.1.1B
ackground
Since
there are
various interpretations on the
excavation
of
the
row houses,
it
cannot
be
said which is
wrong and which one would be right. However, two concepts, the ‘megaron’ by Blegen and the
‘Anatolian settlement plan’ by
Karmann, have been
considered in
previous
research on
architecture in
westernA natolia.
8.1.2M egaron
Dörpfeld was the first
one to
coin
the
term
‘megaron’. The
sense of
the
word was
to
describe
a large
hall in a castle or a palace. Blegen’s sense of ‘megaron’ described the freestanding long-house
structures. ‘Essentially
a megaron in
plan,
comprising one long rectangular room, through the western
endo
fw
hicha d
oorwayledo utt oa p
ortico-likea reab
eyond.”-Blegen( 1987).
8.1.3.A
natolianS ettlementP lan
Definedb yM
.K
armann( 1983:2 22–23)f ort hes pecificlayouto ft heE arlyB
ronzeA
ges ettlementa t
Demircihüyükn earE skisehir.Inh
isd escription,a s iteb
uilta ccordingt ot heA natolianp
lanisa H
ofhaus
(‘courtyardh ouse’)o fimmensed imensions,c omprisinga c ircleo fr oomsc onstructeda rounda large
opens pace.[3]
Fort hiss tudyw ew
illt horoughlyinvestigatet hes ociala specto
ft heti
me,w
hichledt ot hes urvivalo
f
thed esignb ya cceptanceo ft heu
sers.
8.2R owH
ouseC ompoundsO fT royI
Them ainf eatureso fa rchitectureo fT royIa ret helacko ff ormalinternald ivisionslikew allsa nd
multi-rooms paces.A t ypicalh ouset ypeo fT royIc onsistedo fjusto nelarge,e longatedr oomw ith
proportions‘1:3'f orb readtha ndlengtha ndt hee ntranceo nt hes horterw all.A p ivotala specto ft his
architecturalt raditionw ast hea rrangemento ft hed wellings.T heh ousesinT royIw eren otc omposed
ofs parseindependents tructures.R ather,r owso flongr ooms,s haringc ommons idew alls,f acing
towardsa c ommonn arrows treet,w eret het rend.T hec onstructiono fr owso flongs eamlessr ooms
arrangedinr owsw erec onsideredt ob ea t ypicalw esternA natolianc onceptint hee arlyt hird
millenniumB C.
F ig.4
:R
owh
ouseso
fT roy
[S ource:Ivanova,M
.( 2013).D
omestica rchitectureint heE arlyB
ronzeA
geo
fw
esternA
natolia:T he
row-houseso fT royi.A
natolianS tudies,6
3(February),1 7–33[4]]
8.3W
hyR
owH
ouses
Judging from the
artefacts and equipment found in
the row houses of Troy I, the buildings served most
probably as houses. These dwellings may also
have had domestic purposes and met
requirements for
the storage and preparation of food as well. Spaces for inventory, where the tools can be made,
repaired and kept were also found in the excavation. Long rooms with common walls provide the most
efficient way to reduce wastage of space. Long linear rooms mean there
will
be
more wall
to
surface
area and less
area to
waste on
outdoor spaces like streets and passages. Some believe that longhouses
were preferred to provide the people of Anatolia with security, thus reducing the cost of boundary walls
and fortifications in the war ridden period. Long rooms with common walls are also an economical
solution regarding building material and labour. Row-housing also
limits
maintenance costs
since most
of
the walls made out of mudbrick were protected. Finally, this building strategy is superior in terms of
energye fficiency.[ 4]
However, efficiency is not the only reason for the success of row-houses in western Anatolia. The
row-house model must have also resonated with the traditional sense of the people of the time in
western Anatolia. Both megaron plan and Row-housing arrangement renders a crowded space where
privacy is compromised. Open spaces, sufficient sunlight and ventilation is scarce for a user in such
arrangement of spaces. The linear megaron plan also offers little to no visual privacy. The streets of Troy
1
were narrow and scarce, squares generally absent, the flat roofs of the dwelling most probably served
asa c ommunityc reatinga ‘roofscape’s cenario.
F ig5
:R
owh
ousesc ompound
[S ource:Ivanova,M
.( 2013).D
omestica rchitectureint heE arlyB
ronzeA
geo
fw
esternA
natolia:T he
row-houseso fT royi.A
natolianS tudies,6 3(February),1 7–33[4]]
Row houses of Troy 1 were able to withstand the process of natural selection majorly because it
resonated with the cultural and social values of the people. The bio-climatic aspect of such spaces is not
so
dominant when compared to
dwellings
of
later
ages
mainly due to the lack of required construction
techniques and frequent wars between tribes and factions. However, these structures were able to
withstand natural forces and
harsh climates. Construction of the row houses at the time required social
cohesion at
the
time. Simultaneously, the lack of hierarchy indicates the sense of equality the people of
TroyIs hared.
8.4E valuation
The row house settlements of Troy I were
not only
easy
to
build,
required less
sources and
minimized
the need of public spaces, but also
iterated with the
very
culture of
the
people. The
design/mutation
was accepted by the users and created a sense of equality amongst the denizens of Anatolia. The future
use of this type of design has been seen as including the desirable parts of the design like ease of
workability, equality and
less requirement for
resources, whereas the undesirable part like the linearity
and lack of
open spaces and natural sunlight and ventilation has been discarded. This was the first time
we
see
such row houses
coming up in history along with the use of courtyards for natural ventilation to
counter the Mediterranean climate. Long linear houses also provided for the cross ventilation much
required in high humidity. The roof of the houses was used as public areas and circulation much
becauseo ft hev erticalityg ained,f orn iceb reezes.
9.IRONAGE
9.1M
ountainD
welling( byB
jarkeIngels)
Ingels, inspired by Charles Darwin, aims to design new mutant spaces by combining two
prototypes.
This study aims to compare open and public spaces alternatives with the pixel
buildings designed by
Bjarke Ingels which offers public spaces to the users allowing for an urban dialogue. Ingels believes that
the tree of
evolution given by Darwin is the way of working for his firm. “In every architectural process,
a lot of
ideas initially
arise,
but
only a few
of
them continue. In
the architectural selection process,
we
combinet hem,t hatis,w ec reatea m
utant”-( BjarkeIngels2 019).
9.2D
esignA
pproach
Bjarke Ingels’ design philosophy includes a conceptual approach to
study,
prepared by
using
different
architect’s discourse, interviews, videos, digital audio etc. Focussing on the topic of this
study,
Ingels
went
on dividing
an
object
on a micro
level
into
pixels
and
then recreating it in a macro level. Trying to
achieve a human scale with the divisions his proposal came out to be an experiential space in the urban
context.
Fig6
:M
utationsb
yB
jarkIngles
[ Langrish,J .Z .( 2004).D
arwinianD
esign:T heM
emeticE volutiono
fD
esignIdeas.D
esignIssues,2
0(4),
4–19.[6]]
Fort hiss tudy,a mongstt hev ariousp
ixelb
uildingsd
esignedb
yIngels,w
ew
illb
et alkinga bout
MountainD wellingsinC
openhagen,c ompletedint hey ear2
007.
9.3M ountainD welling
The project is
built
next
to
the
VM house in Orestad (also built by BIG Architects) provides a solution to
parking and housing demand. The building was designed in flat grounds, to
get the
beautiful
view of
South Copenhagen, Ingels designed artificial mountains himself. “If
you
want a beautiful
view
looking
south in Copenhagen, you simply
do
this
yourself” (Ingels,
2009) defined his
artificial mountain. Ingels
inspired by Rem Koolhaas also disregarded the natural context and created his own context through the
built experiences. However, it also emphasizes proposing a positive, humorous, even hedonic, and
utilitariana rchitecturalf orm.
Keeping the city and suburban life together was the basic concept of this project. This structure was
described by Ingels as ““What was interesting in Mountain Dwellings was the merging of a large
residential building with the parking garage. The fact that the parking lot was placed under the housing
units made the apartments a flat with a garden. If you look at the project, it seems as if you cut a piece
from a very huge suburban area and placed it
in the parking garage. If you enlarge the parking area we
take as the ground, you get more suburbs. With this approach, the suburban lifestyle combines with the
urban lifestyle represented by the parking lot”. While each pixel represents a residential unit, terraces
serve as a garden. These pixelated terraces facing south have risen from the ground level and when
viewed from this point, the building has been brought closer to the human scale. The parking garage,
gymnasium, and commercial units are designed by evaluating the space under the graded residential
units. Reference was made to the mountain metaphor on the stepless surfaces with these functions,
and the image of Mount Everest was pixelated on the perforated metal coating and displayed on the
facade. In the project, which presents the ‘imitation’ experience of
living in a mountain, the architects
have prepared a project that includes not only the wrapped image of a mountain applied to the facade
of the building but also other ‘mountain’ experiences such as climbing. In Mountain Houses, the
experience idea of
the architect was tried to be kept alive
with the metaphor of
the ‘mountain’, but a
common open area where the users could be together was not described. While the gym, car park, and
commercial spaces located on the ground level are open to everyone, the pixels containing the
residences do not have any concerns about creating an urban common area. Each of the levels is
private terraces belonging to the users. At this point, it is noteworthy that the terraces on the same
floor are connected by the door. Here, the architect touched on neighbourhood relationships and
defined semi-private open spaces for the dialogue between neighbours by a transitive terrace pattern.
At
this point, the concepts of the architect have been mutated, but the passion to rise by pixelation and
thed esiret oc reatee xperienceh asn otc hanged.
F ig7
:M
ountainD
wellingP
lan
[Gürcan,H
.E .,&
amp;D ağG
ürcan,A .( 2020).D
arwinianA pproacha
ndM utations:B
jarke
Ingels( BIG)a
ndA
nalysiso fH
isS teppedP ixelsB
uildings.IconarpInternationalJ .o
fA
rchitecturea
nd
Planning,8 (SpecialIssue),1 8–37.[1]]
F ig8
:M
ountainD
wellingE levation
[ Gürcan,H
.E .,&
amp;D ağG ürcan,A .( 2020).D
arwinianA
pproacha ndM utations:
BjarkeIngels( BIG)a
ndA nalysiso fH isS teppedP ixelsB
uildings.IconarpInternationalJ .o
fA
rchitecture
andP lanning,8 (SpecialIssue),1 8–37.[1]]
F ig9
:D
esignC
oncepto
fM
ountainD
welling
[ModamS hahid.W
hath
istoryc ant eachu
sa
bouts ustainablea
rchitecture.[8]]
9.4E valuation
The pixels in the project have been brought together with the idea of a vertical suburb. The terrace
garden integrated with the pixels serves as a private lawn to the users. The language of form and
concept has been the mountains. However, there are no public spaces like courtyards, or such provided
for public interactions or to cultivate the suburban idea. Through Darwin’s perspective, this project
survived the natural order and
was mutated further in
another project by BIG
architects namely ‘King
Street West’ which is
still
under construction. The main reason for the survival of this mutation was the
acceptance by the public, creating a normal housing on a flat
ground into a mountain, which provided
views to South Copenhagen, while also providing a private lawn to the apartments which can be
arguably stated as a major need in the 21st century. Climate plays an important role in not only
providing comfort and natural ventilation to
the denizens, but also
in the whole façade of the building.
The perforated aluminium plates installed in the north and west façade form a huge
reproduction of
Mount Everest. At day the holes in
the aluminium plates will appear black and
the gigantic picture will
resemble that of a rasterized picture. At night the façade will be lit from the inside and appear as photo
negativeind ifferentc oloursa se achfl oorint hep arkinga reah asa b rightc olour.[1]
10.CONCLUSION
Through case study of various time periods, it
can be
concluded that
the main purpose of architecture
has always been survival for
human beings. The designs which provided more comfort and met various
needs of the user were promoted. As the human, who used to hunt and move from place to place living
a nomadic life, invented wheels and other tools, the lifestyle completely changed. The human now
would live in
one place mostly and store food, changing the architectural needs of the dwellings. These
changes were met by various ideas, out
of
which only the
fitter
one
would survive.
The survival of the
idea is based not just because of the architect but also because of the users and the people of the
community. The idea or design should not only meet the
needs of the people but also should resonate
with the cultural beliefs of the people. Each design has some flaws in it. These flaws would be
disregarded and only the positive traits would be carried over to the next generation of design through
thep rocesso f‘survivalo ft hefi
ttest’.T hisa pproachind esigng eneratesm utations.
The bio-climatic aspect of the design is like what a reflex action is to humans. Designs which do
not
provide comfort to
humans from the
harsh climate cannot survive. For it is one of the main reasons for
the
advent of
architecture. The fitter
design going through various mutations would ultimately become
the best design, the design without any
flaws for
a certain
context. Hence the
Darwinian approach to
bio-climaticd esignsiso fv italimportance.
Humans are predicted to grow fins and gills through evolution. Similarly, the evolution of
design can
also be predicted, varying through different contexts. As for the context of bioclimatic architecture, it is
observed that throughout the ages, the spaces have started to disregard the natural context and
construct their own context through experience. The rendering shared by History channel in their
competition “city of the future” shows us that if architecture flows in the right direction in future
buildings, may it
be high-rise or low-rise, squares, the
city
can become a living organism. This happens
when plants become the
power producers themselves. The reliance on nature would be increased and
so it will have to be reckoned with. As
plants grow,
they take over
the whole city,
transforming into
a
hybridp lace.T hist ypeo fc ityc anb eb etterc alled‘partc ity,p artf orest’.
F ig1
0:R
endero
ff uturec ity
[MarcK
ushner,T heF utureo
fA
rchitecturein1
00B
uildings( 2015)[7]]
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost we would like to thank the Almighty to help
us
persevere
in
these
tough
times
of
pandemic,b yb
lessingu
sw
ithg oodh ealtha ndo pportunityf orr esearch.
Sincere gratitude to Poonam Khan, Doctor of Philosophy- Ongoing Master of Architecture –
Architecture Education, RTMNU, Nagpur University Bachelor of Architecture – RTMNU, Nagpur
University,
assistant professor
@School
of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal, for guiding us throughout
thejourneyo ft hisr esearcha nde ncouragingu st og ett hisr esearchp
ublished.
We would also like to thank the Dept. of Architecture @ School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal for
conducting the seminar and
providing us with enough opportunities and education even in these tough
times.
Last
but
not
the least, we would like to thank our college mates for showing keen interest in the subject
ands haringt heirideas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gürcan,H .E .,&
D
ağG ürcan,A .( 2020).D arwinianA pproacha ndM
utations:B jarkeIngels( BIG)
andA nalysiso fH
isS teppedP ixelsB uildings.IconarpInternationalJ .o
fA
rchitecturea nd
Planning,8 (SpecialIssue),1 8–37.h ttps://doi.org/10.15320/iconarp.2020.141
2. https://jrcasals.artstation.com/projects/obbEw
3. https://www.archdaily.com/15022/mountain-dwellings-big
4. Ivanova,M
.( 2013).D
omestica rchitectureint heE arlyB
ronzeA
geo
fw
esternA
natolia:T he
row-houseso fT royi.AnatolianS tudies,63(February),1 7–33.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0066154613000021
5. JeremyN orman.P erhapst heO ldestS urvivingA rchitecture.
https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=3449
6. Langrish, J.
Z.
(2004). Darwinian Design: The Memetic Evolution of
Design
Ideas.
Design Issues,
20(4),4
–19.h ttps://doi.org/10.1162/0747936042311968
7. MarcK ushner.( 2015).T hef utureo fa rchitecturein1 00b uildings.w ww.ted.com/books
8. ModamS hahid.W hath istoryc ant eachu sa bouts ustainablea rchitecture.
https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/history-of-architecture/a2906-what-history-can-teach-us
-about-sustainable-architecture/
9. Nguyen,A .T .,&
R eiter,S .( 2017).B ioclimatismina rchitecture:A ne volutionaryp erspective.
InternationalJ ournalo fD esigna ndN aturea ndE codynamics,12(1),1 6–29.
https://doi.org/10.2495/DNE-V12-N1-16-29
10. Ogawa,S .,Indurkhya,B .,&
B yrski,A .( 2012).A m eme-baseda rchitecturef orm odelingc reativity.
Proceedingso ft he3 rdInternationalC onferenceo nC
omputationalC reativity,ICCC2 012,
170–174.
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