Biochip Technology
Y.Tejaswini
III ECE
Shri Vishnu Engineering College For Women
Bhimavaram
Abstract— The development of biochips is a major
drive of the rapidly growing biotechnology industry,
which encompasses a very assorted range of
research efforts including genomics, proteomics, and
pharmaceuticals, among other activities. Advances in
these areas are giving scientists new methods for
unraveling the complex biochemical processes
occurring inside cells, with the larger goal of
understanding and treating human diseases. At the
same time, the semiconductor industry has been
steadily perfecting the science of micro-
miniaturization. The merging of these two fields in
recent years has enabled biotechnologists to begin
packing their traditionally bulky sensing tools into
smaller and slighter spaces i.e. so called biochips.
These chips are essentially miniaturized laboratories
that can perform hundreds or thousands of
simultaneous biochemical reactions. These paper
insights on how biochips enable researchers to
quickly screen large numbers of biological analytes
for a variety of purposes, from disease diagnosis to
detection of bioterrorism agents.
INTRODUCTION:
A biochip is a collection of
miniaturized test sites (microarrays)
arranged on a solid substrate that
allows many tests to be performed at
the same time in order to achieve
T.S.D.S.Kiranmai
III ECE
higher throughput and pace.
Typically, a biochip's surface area is
no larger than a fingernail. Like a
computer chip that can perform
millions of mathematical operations
in one second, a biochip can perform
thousands of biological reactions,
such as decoding genes in few
seconds. A genetic biochip is
designed to freeze into place the
structures of many short strands of
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the
basic chemical instruction that
establishes the characteristics of an
organism. Effectively, it is used as a
test tube for real chemical samples. A
specially designed microscope can
determine where the sample
hybridized with DNA strands in the
biochip. Biochips would help
dramatically in accelerating the
identification of the estimated 80,000
genes in human DNA, an ongoing
world-wide research collaboration
known as the Human Genome
Project.
MAKING OF BIOCHIPS:
The microarray the dense, two-
dimensional grid of biosensors is the
critical component of a biochip
platform. Typically, the sensors are
deposited on a flat substrate, which
may either be passive (e.g. silicon or
glass) or active, the latter consisting
of integrated electronics or
micromechanical devices that perform
or assist signal transduction. Surface
chemistry is used to covalently bind
the sensor molecules to the substrate
medium. The fabrication of
microarrays is non-trivial and is a
major economic and technological
hurdle that may ultimately decide the
success of future biochip platforms.
The primary manufacturing challenge
is the process of placing each sensor
at a specific position (typically on a
Cartesian grid) on the substrate.
Various means exist to attain the
placement, but typically robotic
micro-pipetting or microprinting
systems are used to place tiny spots of
sensor material on the chip surface.
As each sensor is unique, only a few
spots can be placed at a time. The
lowthroughput nature of this process
results in high manufacturing costs.
Fodor and colleagues developed a
unique fabrication process (later used
by Affymetrix) in which a series of
microlithography steps are used to
combinatorially synthesize hundreds
of thousands of unique, singlestranded
DNA sensors on a substrate one
nucleotide at a time. One lithography
step is needed per base type; thus, a
total of four steps are required per
nucleotide level. Although this
technique is very powerful in that
many sensors can be created
simultaneously, it is currently only
feasible for creating short DNA
strands (15–25 nucleotides). A
reliability and cost factor restricts the
number of photolithography steps that
can be done.
Furthermore, light-directed
combinatorial synthesis techniques
are not currently possible for proteins
or other sensing molecules. As
mentioned above most microarrays
consist of a cartesian grid of sensors.
This approach is used mainly to map
or encode the coordinate of each
sensor to its function. Sensors in these
arrays typically use a universal
signaling technique (e.g.
fluorescence), thus making
coordinates their only identifying
feature. These arrays must be made
using a serial process (i.e. requiring
multiple, sequential steps) to ensure
that each sensor is placed at the
correct position. Random fabrication,
in which the sensors are placed at
arbitrary positions on the chip, is an
alternative to the serial method. The
tedious and expensive positioning
process is not required, enabling the
use of parallelized self-assembly
techniques. In this approach, large
batches of identical sensors can be
produced; sensors from each batch are
then combined and assembled into an
array. A non-coordinate based
encoding scheme must be used to
identify each sensor. As the figure
shows, such a design was first
demonstrated (and later
commercialized by Illumina) using
functionalized beads placed randomly
in the wells of an etched fiber optic
cable. Each bead was uniquely
encoded with a fluorescent signature.
However, this encoding scheme is
restricted in the number of unique dye
combinations that can be used and
successfully differentiated
BIOCHIP TECHNOLOGY AND
ITS COMPONENTS:
The current biochip implant system is
actually a fairly simple device.
Today’s, biochip implant is basically
a small (micro) computer chip,
inserted under the skin, for
identification purposes. The biochip
implant system consists of two
components; a transponder and a
reader or scanner. The transponder is
the actual biochip implant. The
biochip system is a radio frequency
identification (RFID) system, using
low-frequency radio signals to
communicate between the biochip and
reader. The reading range or
activation range, between reader and
biochip is small, normally between 2
and 12 inches. The transponder: The
transponder is the actual biochip
implant. It is a passive transponder it
contains no battery or energy of it's
own. In comparison, an active
transponder would provide it’s own
energy source, normally a small
battery. Because the passive biochip
contains no battery, or nothing to
wear out, it has a very long life, up to
99 years, and no maintenance
overheads. Being passive, it's inactive
until the reader activates it by sending
it a low-power electrical charge. The
reader "reads" or "scans" the
implanted biochip and receives back
data (in this case an identification
number) from the biochip. The
communication between biochip and
reader is via low-frequency radio
waves.
A. Components of Biochip: The
biochip-transponder consists of four
parts; computer microchip, antenna
coil, capacitor and the glass capsule.
B. Computer Microchip:
The microchip stores a unique
identification number from 10 to 15
digits long. The storage capacity of
the current microchips is limited,
capable of storing only a single ID
number. AVID (American Veterinary
Identification Devices), claims their
chips, using annn-nnn-nnn format, has
the capability of over 70 trillion
unique numbers. The unique ID
number is etched or encoded via a
laser onto the surface of the microchip
before assembly. Once the number is
encoded it is impossible to alter. The
microchip also contains the electronic
circuitry necessary to transmit the id
number to the reader.
C. Antenna Coil:
This is normally a simple, coil of
copper wire around a ferrite or iron
core. This tiny, primitive, radio
antenna receives and sends signals
from the reader or scanner.
D. Tuning Capacitor:
The capacitor stores the small
electrical charge (less than 1/1000 of
a watt) sent by the reader or scanner,
which triggers the transponder. This
activation allows the transponder to
send back the ID number encoded in
the computer chip. As radio waves are
utilized to communicate between the
transponder and reader, the capacitor
is tuned to the same frequency as the
reader.
E. Glass Capsule:
The glass capsule holds the
microchip, antenna coil and capacitor.
It is a small capsule, the smallest
measuring 11 mm in length and 2 mm
in diameter, about the size of an
uncooked grain of rice as shown in
figure 2 and 3. The capsule is made of
biocompatible material such as soda
lime glass. After assembly, the
capsule is hermetically (air-tight)
sealed, so no bodily fluids can touch
the electronics inside. Because the
glass is very smooth and susceptible
to movement, a material such as a
polypropylene polymer sheath is
attached to one end of the capsule.
This sheath provides a compatible
surface which the bodily tissue fibers
bond or interconnect, resulting in a
permanent placement of the biochip.
The biochip is inserted into the
subject with a hypodermic syringe as
shown in figure 4. Injection is safe
and simple, comparable to common
vaccines. Anesthesia is not required
nor recommended. In dogs and cats,
the biochip is usually injected behind
the neck between the shoulder blades.
Trovan, Ltd., markets an implant,
featuring a patented "zip quill", which
you simply press in, no syringe is
needed. According to AVID "Once
implanted, the identity tag is virtually
impossible to retrieve‖. The number
can never be altered."
F. The reader:
The reader consists of an "exciter"
coil which creates an electromagnetic
field that, via radio signals, provides
the necessary energy (less than 1/1000
of a watt) to "excite" or "activate" the
implanted biochip. The reader also
carries a receiving coil that receives
the transmitted code or ID number
sent back from the "activated"
implanted biochip. This all takes
place very fast, in milliseconds. The
reader also contains the software and
components to decode the received
code and display the result in an LCD
display. The reader can include a RS-
232 port to attach a computer. G. How
it works The reader generates a low-
power, electromagnetic field, in this
case via radio signals, which activates
the implanted biochip as depicted in
figure 5. This activation enables the
biochip to send the ID code back to
the reader via radio signals. The
reader amplifies the received code,
converts it to digital format, decodes
and displays the ID number on the
reader's LCD display. The reader
must normally be between 2 and 12
inches near the biochip to
communicate. The reader r and
biochip can communicate through
most materials.
COMMON MYTHS ABOUT
BIOCHIPS IMPLANTS:
A. With a biochip can be used to
track you or your pet’s location,
anywhere in the world- The current
biochip and reader has a maximum
range of 12 inches. Pet’s are located
by shelters, vets and find a lost pet
and reading it’s biochip. The
technology does not exist to globally
locate something as small as a
biochip.
B. A biochip can store and update
your financial, medical, demographic
data, basically everything about you-
The common scenario is, an
implanted biochip can be scanned to
pay for groceries, obtain medical
procedures, conduct financial
transactions.
 C. One major concern with a analysis of complex biological
implanted biochip is theft- According interactions in real time that to with a
to the authorities a chip implant low cost perception.
would contain your financial world,
medical history, health care it would
contain your “electonic life”.

CONCLUSION:

Biochips promises to bring genomics,

the study of all the genes in existing
organisms, out of the research
laboratory and into the everyday
practice of medicine. If genomics
delivers on its promise, health care
will shift from a focus on detection
and treatment to a process of
prediction and prevention. The
biochip space lies at the intersection
between high technology chip
manufacturing, signal processing,
software skills and more traditional
molecular biology and genomics. The
market for biosensors and biochips is
interdisciplinary and growing and has
applications in a number of core
research areas. This paper presents a
valuable context addition for those in
both academia and industry. As this
fast maturing field already boasts
sales of products, biochips are likely
to have a significant business future.
We can expect that advances in
microfluidic biochip technology will
enable the miniaturization of devices
that will allow highly sensitive