What is History?

What is
Historiography?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtO99sCzVMY
 assignment
1. What is a primary source? A
secondary source? How are they
similar to and different from each
other?
2. What are the different kinds of
primary sources? Give an example for
each.
3. What are the different repositories of
primary sources?
 Dear God

 Thank you for this new school year.

Thank you for our school. We pray it would be a safe place of learning,
fun and friendship. Please watch over all our teachers, children and
families.
Help us to learn new things, to explore the world together and to play
and be happy.
Help us to have love for each other, to have forgiveness at our heart,
and to build kindness into every day.
Amen.

Read more: https://www.living-

prayers.com/children/prayer_before_class.html#ixzz6Yd7QjacC
 Introduction
History, in its broadest sense, is the
totality of all past events, although a
more realistic definition would limit it to
the known past.
Historiography is the written record of
what is known of human lives and
societies in the past and how historians
have attempted to understand them.
Of all the fields of serious study and literary
effort, history may be the hardest to define
precisely, because the attempt to uncover
past events and formulate an intelligible
account of them necessarily involves the use
and influence of many auxiliary disciplines
and literary forms.
History is the story
of the past.
It is the story of people, places and events
History
…the discipline that studies the chronological record of
events (as affecting a nation or people), based on a
critical examination of source materials and usually
presenting an explanation of their causes
 What is the writing of history called?

The writing of history is called HISTORIOGRAPHY.

Particularly, historiography is the writing of history

based on scholarly disciplines such as the analysis
and evaluation of source materials.
Source: encarta.msn.com
1898 political cartoon
showing U.S.
PresidentMcKinley with a
child "savage".

Here, returning the

Philippines to Spain is
compared to throwing the
child off a cliff.
 As a discipline, history has already turned into a complex
and dynamic inquiry – producing various perspectives
regarding different questions like:
 What is history?
 Why study history? And history for whom?
Historiography

 answers the questions

 is the history of history
 history and historiography should not be confused with one
another.
History versus Historiography

 History
 the object: the past, the events that happened in the past,
and the causes of such events
 played various roles in the past – states use history to
unite a nation
History

 used as a tool to legitimize regimes and forge a sense of

collective identity through collective memory
 Lessons from the past CAN be used to make sense of the
present
History

 learning of past mistakes CAN help people to not repeat it

 being reminded of a great past can inspire people to keep
the good practices to move forward
History

 As a narrative, any history that has been taught and

written is always intended for a certain group of audience
History versus Historiography

 Historiography
 the object: history itself
 [How was a certain historical text written? Who wrote it?
What was the context of its publication? What particular
historical method was employed? What were the sources
used? Etc]
Historiography

lets the students

 have a better understanding of history
 get to learn historical facts
 are provided with the understanding of the facts’ and the historian’s
contexts
 analyze the methods employed by the historian and the theory and
perspective which guided him

-
Historiography

 is important for anyone who studies history because it

teaches the learner to be CRITICAL in the lesson of history
presented to her/him
 How is history written?
1. As history is a study of the past, it is the historians’ first task to look for
things that survived from the past, wherever they can be found.
2. Then, they must go on to make sure that these remnants or relics are
genuine artifacts, and not fake.
3. Finally, the historians must give meaning to these remnants of the past by
interpreting them.
They must try to show how these remnants are related to one another.
By doing so, a mental picture is made of the past.

Source: Jose S. Arcilla, S.J., An Introduction to Philippine History (Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1998)
 What is the writing of history called?

The writing of history is called HISTORIOGRAPHY.

Particularly, historiography is the writing of history

based on scholarly disciplines such as the analysis
and evaluation of source materials.
Source: encarta.msn.com
1898 political cartoon
showing U.S.
PresidentMcKinley with a
child "savage".

Here, returning the

Philippines to Spain is
compared to throwing the
child off a cliff.
As a discipline, history has already
turned into a complex and dynamic
inquiry – producing various
perspectives regarding different
questions like:
 What is history?
 Why study history? And history for
whom?
Historiography

 answers the questions

 is the history of history
 history and historiography
should not be confused with one
another.
History versus Historiography

History
the object: the past, the events that
happened in the past, and the causes
of such events
 played various roles in the past –
states use history to unite a nation
History

 used as a tool to legitimize

regimes and forge a sense of
collective identity through
collective memory
 Lessons from the past CAN be
used to make sense of the
present
History

learning of past mistakes CAN

help people to not repeat it
 being reminded of a great past
can inspire people to keep the
good practices to move forward
History

As a narrative, any history

that has been taught and
written is always intended for
a certain group of audience
History versus Historiography

Historiography
the object: history itself
[How was a certain historical text
written? Who wrote it? What was the
context of its publication? What
particular historical method was
employed? What were the sources
used? etc]
 Historiography

lets the students

have a better understanding of history
get to learn historical facts
 are provided with the understanding of the
facts’ and the historian’s contexts
 analyze the methods employed by the
historian and the theory and perspective
which guided him
Historiography

is important for anyone who

studies history because it teaches
the learner to be CRITICAL in the
lesson of history presented to
her/him
 How is history written?
1. As history is a study of the past, it is the historians’ first task to look
for things that survived from the past, wherever they can be found.
2. Then, they must go on to make sure that these remnants or relics are
genuine artifacts, and not fake.
3. Finally, the historians must give meaning to these remnants of the past
by interpreting them.
They must try to show how these remnants are related to one
another.
By doing so, a mental picture is made of the past.

Source: Jose S. Arcilla, S.J., An Introduction to Philippine History (Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1998)
How can Historians
find out about the past?
The concern of all serious historians
has been to collect and record facts
about the human past and often to
discover new facts.
They have known that the information
they have is incomplete, partly incorrect,
or biased and requires careful attention.
All have tried to discover in the facts
patterns of meaning addressed to the
enduring questions of human life.
Historians are like detectives who
gather information or evidence to
put together the story of the past.

They gather evidence from

different sources e.g.
archaeological digs, manuscripts or
search the internet
Historians will use as many sources as possible
and then compare what they have found.
Why?

This is to make sure that the story of the past

is as accurate as possible.

This is called cross-checking

Historians will use as many sources as possible
and then compare what they have found.
Why?

This is to make sure that the story of the past

is as accurate as possible.

This is called cross-checking

 The Historian's Craft

Except for the special

circumstance in which
historians record events
they themselves have
witnessed, historical facts
can only be known through
intermediary sources.
 The Historian's Craft

These include testimony from

living witnesses; narrative
records, such as previous
histories, memoirs, letters, and
imaginative literature; the legal
and financial records of courts,
legislatures, religious
institutions, or businesses; and
the unwritten information
derived from the physical
remains of past civilizations,
such as architecture, arts and
crafts, burial grounds, and
cultivated land.
 The Historian's Craft

All these, and many

more, sources of
information provide the
evidence from which the
historian deciphers
historical facts.
The relation between evidence
and fact, however, is rarely
simple and direct.
The evidence may be biased or
mistaken, fragmentary, or nearly
unintelligible after long periods of
cultural or linguistic change.
Historians, therefore, have to
assess their evidence with a
critical eye.
 What is history?

According to Edward Hallet Carr (1892-1982) ,

“It is the result of the interaction between the historian and

his facts, a perpetual dialogue between the present and
the past.”
“The historian starts with the provisional selection of
facts and a provisional interpretation in the light of
which that selection has been made - by others as
well as by himself.

As he works, both the interpretation and the selection

and ordering of facts undergo subtle and perhaps
partly unconscious changes through the reciprocal
action of one or the other.”

Vocabulary:
provisional = temporary
subtle = slight
reciprocal = dependent; mutual
 “And this reciprocal action
also involves reciprocity
between present and past,
since the historian is part of
the present and the facts
belong to the past.”

Vocabulary:
reciprocity = mutual dependence
 “ The historian and the facts of history
are necessary to one another.
The historian without his facts is rootless and
futile;
the facts without their historian
are dead and meaningless.”
 Is it possible
that the same event in history
be interpreted in different ways
by two different historians?
 If yes, then we can say that
history is highly interpretive.

Vocabulary:

Interpretive = interpretative; that provides interpretation

Why Study History?
Why Study History?
Is History Useful?

■ It doesn’t help build schools, fight

fires, perform operations, help sell
merchandise, or launch a space
shuttle.
■ So…why do we study history?
History Helps Us Understand
OUR WORLD
■ You cannot understand people if
you do not understand their past
■ You cannot understand our
community if you do not know how
it came to be
■ You cannot understand our nation
without history
■ You cannot understand our world if
you do not understand history
History Give Us Identity

■ Studying history gives people a

sense of nationalism
■ It gives groups such as ethnic,
organization, even schools a sense
of identity
■ It gives family and personal identity
as well
History Helps Us Understand
People
■ People make up society and it is
very hard to test how that kind of
group behaves when it is made up
of 4 billion people
■ History acts as a “social laboratory”,
one of the few way we can help
predict the future behavior of such
a large group
 Those That Study and
Understand History Become
Good Citizens
■ It provides national identity
■ Provides examples of success, morality and of
course the examples of the opposite
■ Helps us understand current world affairs and
conflicts by understanding the root of the
problems
■ Provides support for making decisions and
encourages, “responsible public behavior,
whether as a national or community leader, an
informed voter, a petitioner, or a simple
observer. ”
Now that I have you all
convinced history is
important…
How do you take the first steps to
become a historian?
Jobs of the Historian

■ Historians have at least

four different jobs
■ Each of these jobs is
important to understand
the past so we are able
to understand
ourselves, our society
and our world
The Detective

■ Investigates the past

■ Determines what
happened
■ Separates truth from
falsehoods or
misinterpretations
■ Separates out bias in
historical writing to find
the truth (or as close as
possible)
The Storyteller

■ Tells the story of history

to others
■ Imparts lessons,
morals, and other
learning of history
■ Entertains and
fascinates with the epic
story of our history
The Judge

■ Judges history and

makes moral decisions.
Example: was someone
evil or just
misunderstood?
■ Ever heard the saying,
“We will see how
history judges me?”
■ Sorts what should be
emulated and what
should be discarded
The Philosopher

■ Is a reflector and may

also be speculating on
what was right or wrong
■ Ponders important
questions and attempts
to pull out meaning
from history
■ Not only speculates on
the lessons of the past
but also may attempt to
predict the future
The End Is Just the Beginning

■ Are you willing to put on

the four hats of
historian and attempt to
understand the past…
■ In order to ensure a
brighter future for
yourself, for your family,
for your community, for
your nation, and for
your world?
 Historical Research
Historical research is a procedure
supplementary to observation in which
the researcher seeks to test the
authenticity of the reports or observation
made by others.
Definition of Research
...An unusually stubborn and
persisting effort to think straight
which involves the gathering and
intelligent use of data.

Hamblin, H. (1966). What is research? American Vocational

Journal, 41(6), 14-16.
Definition of Data
Information especially
information organized for
analysis or used as a basis for a
decision.

The American Heritage Dictionary. Second College Edition.

(1985). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company.
 Purposes
Place events in logical sequence.
Determine activities surrounding an event.
Preserve information that would otherwise
be lost.
Answer why.
Make public information that has not been
shared.
Have implications for the present and
future.
 Idiosyncrasies*
Re-search.
The only thing certain is the past.
All researchers who follow the scientific
method are historians (chapter ii of a
dissertation or thesis is past tense.)
The older the information, the more
precious and valuable it is.
*a distinctive or peculiar feature or characteristic of a place or thing.
Characteristics of
Historical Researchers
Persistent
Patient
Non-allergic
Keeper
Historical Research Steps
Isolate the problem.
Collect source materials.
Primary
Secondary
Evaluate source materials.
Formulate hypothesis.
Report and interpret findings.
Step No.3 Evaluation of Historical
Sources
1. External Criticism – refers to the genuineness of any and all
documents the researcher uses, looks into the nature and authenticity
of the document

a. Who wrote the document?

b. For what purpose was the document written? For whom was it
intended and why?
c. When was the document written? Is the date on the document
accurate? Could the details described have actually happened during
this time?
d. Where was the document written? Could the details described have
occurred in this location?
e. Under what condition was the document written?
f. Do different forms or versions of the document exist?
External Criticism
External Criticism

Where?

When?

Why?

Whom?
Primary Sources of Information

Original documents
Relics
Remains
Artifacts
Secondary Sources of Information
Textbooks
Encyclopedias
Newspapers
Periodicals
Reviews of research and
other references
 External Criticism
Does the language and writing style
conform to the period in question and is it
typical of other work done by the author?
Is there evidence that the author exhibits
ignorance of things or events that she/he
should have known?
Did the author report things, events or
places that could not have been known
during that period?
 External Criticism
Has the original manuscript been altered
either intentionally or unintentionally by
copying?
Is the document an original or draft copy? If
it is a copy, was it reproduced in the exact
words of the original?
If manuscript is undated or the author
unknown, are there any clues internally as its
origin?
 External criticism: authenticity and provenance
 Garraghan divides criticism into six inquiries
 When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?
 Where was it produced (localization)?
 By whom was it produced (authorship)?
 From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?
 In what original form was it produced (integrity)?
 What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?
 The first four are known as higher criticism; the fifth, lower criticism;
and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a
source is called internal criticism.
 R. J. Shafer on external criticism: "It sometimes is said that its function
is negative, merely saving us from using false evidence; whereas
internal criticism has the positive function of telling us how to use
authenticated evidence."
 Step No.3 Evaluation of Historical
Sources

2. Internal Criticism – determining the accuracy of the content of the

document and the truthfulness of the author, looks into what the
document says

a. Was the author present during the event he/she was

describing?
b. Was the author a participant or observer?
c. Was the author competent to describe the event?
d. Was the author emotionally involved in the event?
e. Did the author have any vested interest in the
outcome of the event?
Internal Criticism
 Internal Criticism
What was meant by the author by
each word and statement?
How much credibility can the
author’s be given?
What was the author trying to say?
How could the author’s words be
interpreted?
 Internal Criticism

 What is the real and literal meaning of the

document?

 Can you detect any bias or prejudice that calls

into question the author’s argument?

 Can ascertain the truth of the author’s

conclusions?
Internal Criticism

What was meant by the author?

How much credibility can be given to
the author?
What was the author trying to say?
How could the authors word be
interpreted?
Does the document contain bias of
any sort?
And this being the case, as we read history,
it is necessary that we examine the following:

• the different interpretations of the author

• the dates
• and the circumstances surrounding the historical writings
Sources of Information
Primary sources
 Eye or ear witness
 Original objects

Secondary sources
 Copies of objects
 Second hand information
 Material History, or using
Artefacts to Foster Historical
Thinking

 Material history is the use of historical artefacts as

“documents”, which can be analyzed, synthesized,
compared and contrasted with other documents to
understand the past.

 According to Schlereth (1982), the study of material

history serves as a gateway into the belief patterns of
the people who made, altered, purchased,
commissioned or used the objects under study. In
turn, we gain a glimpse into the larger society’s belief
patterns as well.
 Why Material History?
Through material history, artefacts:

 make the past both tangible and accessible

 are more accessible to learners who are poor
readers or who benefit from interaction and
manipulation strategies
 allow more effective use of community resources
in local museums
 can be collected by teachers and students
 encourage interaction between learners and
artefacts’ producers/owners (in the present & the
past!)
 demonstrate cultural differences & similarities in
terms of class, gender, ethnicity, historical period,
region and occasion
How Do I Study artifacts?

 When trying to determine an object’s ‘story’, museum

curators ask specific questions in a specific order.

 Despite the fact that some answers may remain incomplete,

the data collected still sheds light on the artefact and the
era, place and society attached to it.
Ask the Big Questions:

What is it?
What is it made of?
How was it made?
How does it work?
What else do we know?
 What Is It?
 A good place to start if you can!
 What Is It Made of?
The selection of materials is rarely left to
chance.

The material (and its qualities) an artefact is

made of can help us understand the nature
and function of an object.
 How Was It Made?
The design and way an object was made can
help us understand the person who made it
and/or who it was made for.

Take note of signs of wear/repair – these tell a

story about an artefact’s actual working life.
 How Does It Work?
What is the function of each of the parts? How
is an artifact used, or how does it operate?

Finding this out might help answer the “What

is it?” question.
 What Else Do We Know?
Provenance
 A basic definition of ‘provenance’ is source.
In the study of material history, provenance
refers to an object’s reason for creation.
 Finding out who built, owned and/or used
the artifact, what era it belongs to and
what history is behind it all form the
‘provenance’ of an artifact.
 Provenance provides a context for an
artifact – and may actually challenge
conclusions drawn about an object.
 Provenance can also help the researcher
make distinctions between two otherwise
similar objects.
Of course, an artifact probably won’t tell you
everything you want or need to know. Once
you have examined the artifact in some
detail, more research is required to fully
understand its history.

Sources such as newspapers, magazines,

catalogues, manuals, directories and
photographs can provide additional
information.
Web References used to prepare the information on material history:
www.science-tech.nmstc.ca/english/collection/collecting01.cfm
www.stfx.ca/people/lstanley/Material/MaterialCulture.htm
www.stfx.ca/people/lstanley/Material/Guidelines.htm
Historical knowledge is limited by
incompleteness of the records.

 history-as-actuality – the
whole history of the past
 history-as-record – the
surviving record of the past
 Primary versus Original Sources

 Written and oral sources: primary

and secondary
 A primary source – must have been
produced by a contemporary of the
events it narrates.
 Needs not be the original in the
legal sense of the word original
“Original”… denotes five
different conditions[document’]

Because
 it contains “fresh” and creative ideas
 it is NOT translated from the language in
which it was first written
 It is in its earliest, unpolished stage
 Its text is the approved text – unmodified and
untampered with
 It is the earliest available source of the
information it provides
P.S.

The five conditions may overlap, but

they are not synonymous!
 Original sources – for historians, are
✓ used to describe a source,
unpolished, uncopied, untranslated as
it issued from the hands of the author
✓ sources that give the earliest
available Information [origin] regarding
the question under investigation
because earlier sources have lost
 History is a subjective process of
re-creation of the past by the
historian.
Historical Method

 the process of critically

examining and analyzing the
records and survivals of the past
 uses analogies and contrast -
using the widest range of
experience, imagination,
wisdom and knowledge
 Written Visual Oral Artefacts

▪ Diaries • Paintings • Interviews • Tools

▪ Letters • Photos • Speeches • Bones
▪ Census • Architecture • Myths • Jewelry
▪ Government • Legends
Reports • Chronicles
▪ Autobiography • Memoirs
▪ Newspapers
▪ Manuscript
 Is your object a Primary oR
Secondary source?
Sources which come directly from
the past, giving first-hand
information are known as Primary
Sources.

Secondary sources are

evidence that comes from a later
date. They are written after the
event.
Primary Sources - definition
 A primary source is an ORIGINAL,” FIRST-HAND” or
“EYE-WITNESS” account offering an inside view.
 It contains NEW INFORMATION [new at the time it
was created, that is] that has been interpreted,
evaluated, paraphrased, condensed.
 Such sources are usually CREATED during or VERY
CLOSE to the time of the events they report on.
 The author of a primary source typically provides
DIRECT IMPRESSIONS of event he or she is
reporting on.
 Primary sources

Original records from the past recorded

by
❑ people who were:
 Involved in the event
 Witnessed the event, OR
 Knew the persons involved in the
event
 Primary sources
They can also be objects (artifacts) or
visual evidence.
They give you an idea about what people
alive at the time saw or thought about the
event.
Keep in mind that a primary source reflects
only one point of view and may contain a
person’s bias (prejudice) toward an event.
Examples of primary sources:

 Printed Publications: Books, magazines,

newspapers
 Personal Records: Diaries, journals, records
 Visual Materials: Paintings, drawings, sculpture
 Visual Materials: photographs, film, maps
 Oral Histories: Chronicles, memoirs, myths,
legends passed down by word of mouth
 Songs and Poems
 Artifacts: Tools, ornaments, objects
Secondary sources- definition

A secondary source provides “second –

hand” information that has been digested
analyzed, reworded or interpreted.
 Secondary sources are often written well
after the events they report on, and can
put past information into historical context.
 Secondary sources
 Secondary sources are made at a later time.
 They include written information by historians or
others AFTER an event has taken place.
 Although they can be useful and reliable they cannot
reflect what people who lived at the time thought or
felt about the event.
 But they can represent a more fair account of the
event because they can include more than one point
of view, or may include information that was
unavailable at the time of the event.
 Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are evidence that
comes from a later date. They are
written after the event.

A textbook is a secondary source as it

was written long after most of the
events that it describes
Examples of secondary
sources
Textbooks, biographies,
histories, newspaper report
by someone who was not
present
Charts, graphs, or images
created AFTER the time
period.
What is the
difference between
“the past” and
“history”?

Take 5 minutes to discuss

Prepare to explain to whole group

Six Elements of Historical Thinking
Significance

Continuity and change

Evidence

Cause and consequence

Historical perspective-taking

The moral dimension

Significance
We can’t commemorate, teach or study everything
about the past. We have to make choices.

“Historical Significance”- the principles behind the

choices we (the public, the government,
historians, teachers, textbook authors, etc.) make.

What are the key understandings of history?

What criteria do we use to decide what to

commemorate, teach, study?
 Aspects of Significance

Resulting in Change
 With deep consequences
 For many people
 Over a long period of time

Revealing

Occupies a key place in a meaningful

narrative (applies to both the other
aspects)
 Aspects of Significance

Resulting in Change
With deep consequences
For many people
Over a long period of time

Revealing
Occupies a key place in a meaningful
narrative (applies to both the other
aspects)
What “significance” might look like
in…
 Kindergarten: What are the 3 most significant events
that have happened in my life so far? (K.1.1)

 Grade 1: What are 3 most significant events in my

family’s past? (1.2.1)

 Grade 2: Who were the most significant people in our

community’s past? (2.2.6)

 Grade 3: What has been the most significant change

in someone’s life since moving to Canada? (3.1.2)

 Grade 4: Create and defend a list of the 5 most

significant places/landmarks in Alberta. (4.2.1)
Continuity & Change

Understanding change over time is central to

historical thinking.

Can things change yet also retain elements of

continuity?

As things have changed, have they gotten

better or gotten worse?

Does perspective matter?

 Aspects of Continuity &
Change
 Continuity and change are interrelated

 Turning points and tipping points

 Progress and decline are ways of evaluating change

over time.

 Chronology helps to organize our understanding of

continuity and change.

 Periodization helps to organize our understanding of

continuity and change.
 What “continuity & change” might look
like in…
 Kindergarten: Using baby photos and more recent photos, ask students
what has changed about them since they were born? What has stayed the
same?

 Grade 1: How have children’s games changed since your grandparents

played games? (Ask grandparents/parents/guardians for input!)

 Grade 2: Discover two ways that Saskatoon has changed and two ways it
has stayed the same.

 Grade 3: Compare changes in [technology, transportation, etc.] in India

to changes in [technology, transportation, etc.] in Canada since you were
born?

 Grade 4: List 5 ways the population of [your town, or province] has

changed since 1900. List 5 ways it has stayed the same. Do you think
things have gotten better or worse over time?
 India: Transportation Past & Present

India Image 37 - Bundi, Rajasthan

(http://www.onlineguide.learnalberta.ca/content-og/ssiic/html/indiaimagescollection.html)
Evidence
 How do we know about the past?
 How do we decide what to believe about the past?
 Learning to critically analyze accounts from the past is an
important skill to develop:

What are the problems with the

account?
How do I decide what/who to
believe?
Is this account reliable and how
do I know?
 Aspects of Evidence
Position of the author(s)

Purposes of the author(s)

Values and worldview of the author(s)

Contextualization
What “evidence” might look like in…
 Kindergarten: Students use a personal artefact (baby blanket,
favourite story book) to show and tell others about something they
used to do as a baby.

 Grade 1: Examine a family artefact – what is it? What was it used

for? Who used it? What can we learn about family life in the past
from this artefact?

 Grade 2: Look up, way up! What do the buildings in our town tell us
about its past?

 Grade 3: Interview someone about their life in the Ukraine and their
life since moving to Canada. What can we learn about (family,
school, traditions) from this person’s experience?

 Grade 4: Examine a Frances Anne Hopkins painting of the

voyageurs. What does it tell us about the life of voyageurs?
 Shooting the Rapids ( Quebec ) - 1879
Frances Anne Hopkins
Library and Archives Canada, Acc. No. 1989-401-2

What are they doing in the canoe?

Canoe Manned by Voyageurs Passing a Waterfall (Ontario)
1869
Frances Anne Hopkins

Library and Archives Canada, Acc. No. 1989-401-1

What do/don’t these paintings tell us about
life as a voyageur?
Cause and Consequence
 Why did things happen the way they did? Is there more
than one reason that [X] happened? (There usually is!)

 Who makes history?

 What were the relationships of power at the time?

 What constraints (social, political, economical…) had an

impact on this group’s history?

 What did this person/group do to effect change?

 Aspects of Cause &
Consequence
Causes are multiple and layered, involving
both long-term ideologies, institutions, and
conditions, and short-term actions and events

Human beings (individually and collectively)

cause historical change (Agency). . .

In contexts that impose limits on change

Sample Activity…
Cause & Consequence

 What conditions
made it possible for
Louis Riel to effect
change?

 What conditions
made it harder for
him to make a
1873, Ottawa, ON.
Notman Studio / Library and Archives
difference?
Canada / C-002048
What “cause & consequence”
might look like in…

 Grade 5: What attitudes and actions led to anti-

Asian sentiments in the early 1900s in Canada?

 Grade 8: Who and what has enabled the survival

of Francophone culture in Canada?
Historical Perspective-
Taking
 Historical perspective-taking means understanding the
different social, cultural, intellectual, and even emotional
contexts that shaped people’s lives and actions in the
past.

 Learning to use the frameworks of the day, rather than

present-day perspectives, to judge past events.

 Why did this historical actor act in that way?

 What evidence do I have that supports my conclusions?

 Aspects of Perspective-
Taking
Taking the perspective of historical actors
must use evidence for inferences about how
people felt and thought (avoiding presentism).

Any particular historical event or situation

involves actors who may have diverse
perspectives on it.

Empathy is not identification.

What “historical perspective-
taking” might look like in…
Grade 4: Using evidence, write a
newspaper article about [X] in Quebec’s
history.

Grade 8: Using evidence, develop your

position on:
The Spanish plan to explore, conquest and
convert the Aztec people to Christianity, if you
are a member of the Independent Counsel to
the Catholic Church.
You are a supporter of Hernando Cortés and
have just found out about a policy the Catholic
Church might be developing.
The Moral Dimension

We want to learn from the past in order to face

the issues of today.
Major difficulty: Imposing our own ideas of
“right” and “wrong” on a past time, on past
actors.
“The past is a foreign country-they do things
differently there.”*
What do I need to put aside before beginning to
understand events or people from the past?

*David Lowenthal (1985). The Past is a Foreign Country. New

York: CambridgeUP.
 Aspects of the Moral
Dimension
 Collective responsibility
 Examining the legacies of past actions: When do we
owe reparations to injured parties? (Residential
schools, Apology for Chinese Head Tax, etc.)

 Profound change over time

 Makes moral judgments difficult: We look back on the
past differently than those who lived it.

 Connection with conditions in the present

 Understanding how past actions/sentiments
contributed to current situations (e.g., John A.
Macdonald’s stance on the Chinese and immigration
policies that developed (and persisted) over time.)
 What “the moral dimension”
might look like in…
Grade 4: Examine a local historical event and
decide whether the decisions made at the
time resulted in positive or negative change in
your community.

Grade 7: Should the Canadian government

apologize for the Komagata Maru incident?
How you might begin…
 Students write a history of the first day of school.
 In small groups, they compare their histories – Why are there
differences? They all experienced the first day together –
shouldn’t the histories all be the same?
 Why do they think other students wrote histories different than
theirs?
 Discuss this with students – introduce terms like “significance”,
“perspective”, “agency”…
 Could the same thing happen when history books (and
textbooks) are written? Why?
 What does this tell us about historical accounts? – Interpretation
is key!
Benchmarks of Historical Thinking
Website

http://www.historybenchmarks.ca