Dharma and Moksa

Author(s): J. A. B. Van Buitenen

Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp. 33-40
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
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 J. A. B. VAN BUITENEN

DharmaandMoksa
THIS PAPER is meantto providesomehistorical background
on thequestionof thedistinction betweendharmavaluesand moksavalues
in Indianthought.The Indiancontext requires thatwe view"moralvalues"
-I shallhereafter avoid theterm-first in relationtodifferent eschatologies.
we
Veryroughly, maydistinguish two.
First,theconception of an "after-life" which,thoughinterrupted byinter-
vals of heavenand hell,remainson thesamelevelas thepresentlife,and,
although itsvarying degreesof"spirituality" (caitanyaandrelatedterms)en-
compasstheentirerangefromwormto Brahmi,cannotbe regarded as essen-
tiallydifferent fromhumanlife. This is samisara, "transmigration," usually
involving thedoctrine thata certain"soul"continues fromlifeto lifein an
embodiedexistence, thefactsofhisbodyandhislifebeinglargelydependent
on whatactstheindividual hasperformed in former suchlives,yetaffording
limitedscopeforgradualself-perfection-but on thesamelevel-by meri-
toriousacts.
Second,the assumption of moksa,"release,"fromthe above "bondage"
(bandha) to continued embodiedexistence.Takenbyand large,all Indian
systems acknowledge thata supreme effortofconsciousness, a totalisolation
of a person'sawareness ofhis"soul,"representing a "supreme soul,"fromall
thatis non-soul is themeansto achievethisrelease.Buddhism doesnotposi-
tivelystartfroma conceptof soul,butnegatively fromthatwhichis non-
soul, preferring to describethe self-recognition of the soul as nirvina,the
extinction of theflameof life-thirst, andtheindescribable thatremainsafter
theextinction as beingvoidof all worldlydescription.
Whenwe inquireintothehistory of theseconceptions, much,of course,
mustremainobscure;still,thereis sufficient evidenceto justify certaincon-
clusions.
Examining theoldesttexts,we find,insteadof transmigration, a hopeful
prospect of heavenly joysin an after-life. Accessto thisabodeis afforded by
theperformance of ritualacts,whichare not infrequently discouraging in
and
complexity expenditure. But it soon becomes clearthatthe obtaining of
heavenis farfromtheoverriding concernof sacerdotal circles,that,in fact,
theirprimeconcern is to control andmaintain theuniverse as itis. Suchcon-
troland maintenance are soughtand foundin theperfectknowledgeand

33

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34 J.A. B. VAN BUITENEN

impeccable application of riteswhichmaybe saidbothto constitute and to

producethedharmaof theuniverse, whichmeansapproximately themain-
tenanceof theproperequilibrium of thecosmos.In thesacrificial area the
forcesthatcontroltheworldare generated, are brought intointerplay, and
are guidedbypriestswho professto fullmastery byvirtueof theirknowl-
edge. Thereis an undeniablemagnificence in thecertainty of purposeand
theelaboration of itsachievement whichforcesus to recallthatroughly in
thesameage Aryansupremacy was carriedfromSindhto theWesternsea
and fromthefoothills of theHimdlayas to theVindhyarange.
Butin themostancientage we alreadyhaveintimations of different
out-
looksand practices.FromtheRg Veda onwardwe meetpersonalities who
wereevidently outsidebrahministic sacerdotalism. Thesefigures, long-haired,
givento self-induced statesof "ecstasy" and intoxication, apparently sought
afterotherstatesof well-being whichinvolvedprincipally themselves and
throughthemselves possiblyothersto whomtheyextendedmedicine-man
services.We recognizeremoteprecursors of theyogins,and amongthem
precursorsof a Gautama and a Mah~vira.
In laterportions of theBr.hmanas, theAranyakas, and theearlyUpani-
sads,we finda growing preoccupation on thepartof officiating who
priests,
continueto thinkin ritualistic terms, withtheultimatebasisof theritually
poisedcosmos.This ultimateis identified bothwithcertainritualistic con-
stants,mostgenerally eitherWordor Fire,or a diunity ofthem,andwitha
divinecreator.This creator(the yajoapurusa, the "sacrifice-person"') cer-
tainlywas believed in as a personaldeity in other circles,butamongofficiat-
ingpriestsevermorecloselyapproximated tothecreative principlesofritual.2
A certainhierarchic was
organization imposed on the cosmos,frequently a
triad,and thishierarchy was conceived of as stagesof creation in a creation
processoriginating fromtheultimatecause. Basicallythiscreationprocess
was a self-creation, a self-manifestation of the originalOne, an individua-
tionwhichendedwithhis or itsbecominga person(satman)?.Increasing
was beingattachedto his or its originalstate,beforethe self-
significance
creation-represented as a ritualevent-tookplace and speculations arose
aboutthereversion oftheself-creation. Probably under some influencefrom
'Cf. the Purusa Sfikta, RIg-Veda X. 90; the ritual basis is provided by the immolation of a human
victim symbolically representedin, for instance, the concluding rites of the pravargya, the recitation
of the ?unahgepa legend at the rdjassiya. See J. Heesterman, The Ancient Indian Royal Consecration
(The Hague: Morton & Co., 1957), and the late Agnicayana rituals (the rituals of the building of the
fire).
2Hence the personality of Brahms, the Creator whose four mouths (also representingthe dkifa,
"ether") pronounce the four Vedas at the beginning of creation; he is a popular personificationof
Brahman in the older function of the ritually creative sacred Word.
sI refer to my papers: "Studies in Samkhya (II): Ahamkara," Journal of the American Oriental
Society, 77, No. 1 (March 15, 1957), 15 ff., and "Studies in Simkhya (III): Sattva," ibid., No. 2
(June 15, 1957), 88 ff.

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DHARMAAND MOKSA 35

protoyogic circles,therewas a tendency to enactritually and producesuch

a reversion,whichamountsto complete transcension overman'screated, i.e.,
embodied, condition.
At one stageof thiscomplexof speculations thereenteredthe idea of
transmigration, which firstappears, not as rebirth, butas redeath.This re-
deathwas saidto be conquered bycertain ritualsaccompanied byknowledge
of thegreatcosmicconnections enactedin the sacrifice and involvingthe
creationprocess.'It is of importance to notethatbeforetransmigration was
introduced intothesespeculations the ritual practicability of ascension and
transcensionhadalreadybeenarticulated andthattheidealatercalledmoksa
didnotcomeintobeingas a corollary of bondagein sarmsira. Transmigra-
tionwas absorbedintoa system thatafforded roomforit,butwas notitself
basicallyaltered.We mayfurther stressa pointusuallyignoredin discus-
sionsof karman:transmigration couldsolvea veryrealproblemof applied
Ifperformed
ritualistics. properly bya qualified person, a ritehasan inherent
efficacyin producing its result.Thereis no God dispensing servicesas he
seesfit;resultsareautomatically forthcoming. Butwhathappens, itis asked,
ifthefruitfailsto be realized, ifthesonfailsto be bornor rainfailsto fall?
The casuistry involvedis knownonlyfroma laterdate,butfortheproblem
to be mentioned thenmustimplyitspreviousactuality.5 We finda factor
distinguished, calledapfrva, which is the latent power of theact to bring
aboutitsfruit.This potency maycontinueand be actualizedin a laterlife
if adversecircumstances---early deathof the beneficiary, etc.--prohibit its
immediate realization.It is of interest to notethispoint,sinceit is exactly
thislatentpowerof man'sactswhichis carriedforward in successivelives
of his transmigrating "soul." The doctrine of karman and phala,act and
is less a productof man'ssenseof justice,thatone shall be punished
fruit,
and rewarded forwhatone has done,thana necessary consequence of the
doctrine of theinherent efficacyof theacts. By "act" (karman)we have
alwaysfirstto understand the ritualact; by ignoringthisplain factsuch
disciplinesas thekarmayoga of theBhagavadgita becomeunintelligible.6
Dharmais theobservance ofthenecessary actsthatkeeptheworldintact.
Dharmas,as theforcesthatare activein maintaining thisworld,efficacious
SBrhadiranyaka Upanisad 1.2.
*We find it in Pfirvamimimsi discussions on the immortality of the soul (which, to the
saka, is naturally the performing agent's soul). Thus the Mimimsaka is able to account Mnimrri- for the
jiidnakidndaportions (portions containing esoteric knowledge) of the Veda (Aranyaka and Upanisad),
which, to him, are subordinated to the karmakdnda portions in so far as they provide the evidence for
the eternalityof the dtman, which the ritual requires.
SIt is particularly those ritual acts which presuppose in the performera desire for a certain fruit
(type: svargakdmo jyotistomena yajeta, "one desirous of heaven should sacrifice with the Jyotistoma")
that binds the performerto the enjoyment of the automatically forthcoming fruit, and only second-
arily other acts.

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36 J. A. B. VAN BUITENEN

potenciessetlooseforconstructive purposes, are knownin earlyBuddhism

as of
(dhammas) Daseinsmachte comparable a kind.It is necessary to keep
in mindthesefunctions of a termthatcan be rendered onlyveryfreely and
looselyby"virtue."
Dharmaretainsmuchof thistotalsenseof thecosmicstatusquo and the
specific actsofall mannerofbeingswhichenforce it. Dharma,in Hinduism,
is thecosmically or "religiously" determined activity of all existingbeings
to maintainthe normalorderin theworld. Therefore it can be rendered
"norm,"a meaningparticularly knownfromBuddhism.Yet,we shouldnot
thinkof dharmaas boththeactand itsresult,as something static,butas a
balancewhichis constantly being struck.It retains the connotation ofpower-
ful activity operating in the universe and even this
constituting universe.
Theseactivities calleddharmaare imposedas a kindof naturallaw on all
existent beingsin theuniverse; anda being'sinitiating ofsuchactivity is not
a act contingent on hisdisposition, butan innatecharacteristic,7 that
moral
which makesa beingwhatit is, assigning thepartit is to playin concert.
It is thedharmaof thesunto shine,of thepole to be fixed, of theriversto
flow,of thecowto yieldmilk,of thebrahmin to officiate, oftheksatriya to
rule,of thevailyato farm.
It is as difficult
to definedharmain termsof Westernthought as it is to
define"culture" in Sanskrit,andforthesamereason:bothareall-comprising
termsincluding institutions,a wayof thinking and living,accomplishments
characteristic of people. Even modernusagesof the termshow the all-
inclusivescopeof the conceptof dharma:one speaksof Hindu Dharma,
ChristDharma,wherethetermdenotesfarmorethana certaincreed.
These remarks maywarnagainsta naturaloverestimation of the signif-
icanceof the trivarga(dharma,artha,and kama) as classifying different
setsof practices.In principle, all threearedharma.It is notlessimportant
formanto seekartha,achievement in hisoccupation in thelargestsenseof
the word,or to gratify thosedesiresthatmaintainthe populationof the
earth,thanto followtheprecepts ofreligionandobservethecanonsof law.
One cannotchoosetheruleofdharmaifthatimpliesthatonecanalso refuse
to do so,evenlessthanin oursociety we can chooseto liveon a levelwhere
law is notappliedand yetformpartof thesociety.
In otherwords,dharmais all thatactivity thata man,if he is to live
fittingly, is requiredto contribute to thefixedorderofthings, to thenormof
theuniverse, whichis goodandshouldnotbe altered.Adharmais theexact
opposite:actscontrary to the established orderin the widestsenseof the
'Hence dharrmacould assume the meaning of "essential property; property," among the logicians.

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DHARMA AND MOKSA 37

word. The actsperformed bymanexist,onceperformed, forever, carrying

theirlatentpotential to a newscenewheretheywillmaterialize in newcir-
cumstances formanto livein.
Moksa,"release,"is releasefromtheentirerealmwhichis governedby
dharma,thatis, in the picturesque phrase,the Egg of Brahmd.It stands,
therefore, in opposition to dharma,but the oppositionis of anotherkind
thanthatof adharmato dharma.Dharmaupholdsthe established order,
whileadharmathreatens it; adharmais sheerlawlessness.Moksa,however,
is the abandonment of the established order,notin favorof anarchy, but
in favorof a self-realization whichis precludedin the realmof dharma.
Occasionally, especiallyin the Bhagavadgit?, we findsentiments to such
extentin favorof theestablished orderthataspirants are discouraged from
it
abandoning openly, but this is the exception rather
than the rule. Funda-
mentalto Indianthought is theidea thattheworldand phenomena, being
transitory,can neverbe an ultimately validgoal,thatthereis a lessertrue-
nessin the creationthanin thatprincipleor personfromwhomcreation
originated, who is eternal,constant, reliable,freefromchangesand trans-
formation, unalterable,and therefore trulyreal. Consequently, thereis uni-
versalagreement thatto seekcommunion withthatultimate is a higherpur-
pose thanto perpetuate one'sexistencein theworldorder.Let theworld
if
be, you can do better.
As saidabove,moreor lessdistinct developments contributed to theartic-
ulationof theidealof moksa,thoughtherecan be no doubtthattherewas
a greatdeal of interaction and exchangebeweenthesedevelopments. The
originating milieuofa certain conception ofmoksaremained largelydecisive
as tothemethods pursued to achieveit.
For our presentpurposes we may distinguishthree different
disciplines,
theupanisadic, theyogic,and thebhakti.
The upanisadic moksawasdevelopedoutoftheritualistic The
world-view.
laterpartsof someBrdhmanas, and theUpanisadsshowthe
theAranyakas,
effortsof thepriestto exhausttotallythe significationof the ritualas a cosmic
reproductive event. In the courseof a general evolutionin whichthe original
gods and powers,propitiated for certainpurposesby certainrites,had"grad-
ually to give way to an ever more total interpretation of the rite as a per-
petuatingreproductionof cosmic becoming and being which involved the
gods as much as officiantsand utensils,as partsof a whole much vasterthan
theywere,this "whole," manifestedin ritual,gave rise to speculationsas to
of whichtheritualand theritually
the"wholeentity," cosmos
perpetuated
The knowledgeof the One behindthe ritualis
werethe manifestations.
increasinglyimportant,to the extentthateventuallyit was feltto be useless

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38 J.A. B. VAN BUITENEN
to perform riteswithoutthisknowledge.With thisknowledgethe priest
enactedin his rite,and evenin himself, theself-manifestation of the One
beyond; and in so far as man himself was the self-manifestation-for it is
reflected on different levels,adhilokam,adhibhfitam, adhiyajiam, adhyat-
mams--mancouldbyvirtueof hisknowledge of theritetranscend himself
throughthe riteand returnto thestatebeforemanifestation. Knowledge
was theprincipalmeans,theriteitsapplication.
The originsofyogaare largelyobscure.It seemsprobablethatprimitive
inducement of trancestatesis at theroot;Yoga itselfhas nevergot ridof
it. Thoughthereis a superstructure of Smriakhya-inspired rationalization,the
physical manipulations, breath control, deliberate exhausting of thewakeful-
nesscenterbypin-pointed concentration, byhypnotic repetitions offormulae,
and, in heretical and perhaps more original forms, by intoxication, etc.,self-
hypnotization into a trance or
sleep cataleptic states, where every conscious-
nessceases,sufficiently testify to thearchaicpractices of shamanand medi-
cine-man.'Sdriakhya cosmogony was superimposed on thepractices, and the
yoginwas thought to repeatin thegradualslackening and ceasingof sup-
posedlyhierarchically orderedfunctions in reverseorderthe self-creation
processof theultimate in himself and to return through a sequenceof self-
dissolution to theoriginalstateof non-manifestation.
The theisticbhaktidisciplineis probablymostrelatedto whatis called
mysticism in theWest. Inspired byan illimitable loveforGod,theyearning
soul by a processof evermoreabsorbedcontemplation reachesan ecstasy
of yearning whichtransports himto themostperfect unionpossiblewith
God. Frequently, sincethedeityremainsdistinct fromthesoul thatseeks
him,thoughthesoulitselfmayloseall individuality in theabsorption ofhis
contemplation, the idea of a heavenly abode returns-Vaikuntha.
We have leftout of consideration herea muktidisciplinewhich,after
is
Yoga, probably best known outside India, thekarmayoga oftheBhagavad-
gitZ.Though far from so
being important or central in Indian soteriology
as is oftenerroneously supposed, it is indeed a most interesting doctrine, a
hybridic construction attempting to achieve a compromise between two in-
compatibles.
Dharma,as we saw,is thenormof actionfortheworldas it is: itsrealm
is satmsara. It involvesthe observance of a greatnumberof precepts, all
aimedat upholding thegivenorderofthings, fromprocreation and occupa-
tionalsuccessto law, religiousworship, and pilgrimage, and thustheper-
s"With referenceto, or as appliedto, the (three) worlds,the constituent
elements,the ritual,the
person."
performer's
'Cf. MirceaEliade,Schamanismus und ArchaischeEkstasetechnik (Zurich: RascherVerlag,1957).

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DHARMA AND MOKSA 39

formances of acts,ritualacts,whichachievethispurpose.Moksa,on the

contrary, witha deliberate
starts rejection of thisorder,a refusalto submit
to itsdemands,a totalseverance of all tieswithfamilyand societyand all
lawsandcustoms regulating it,withtheuniverse at largeandtheriteswhich
contribute to its stability.A brahminchoosingsariznysarenounces caste.
Whatpossiblerelationcan therebe betweendharmaand moksa?
Thisquestionhas occupiedthebestmindsin Indianthought.In Vedinta,
thediscussions centeraroundthemeaningof thefirst wordsof theVedanta
Sitra: "Subsequently, therefore,arisesthedesiretoknowBrahman."(AthaTto
brahma-jijiasa).Can thismeanthatthisdesireformoksathrough knowl-
edge is conditioned by something thatprecedesit? The questionis hotly
disputed.The originalVedantaviewwas indeedjifnakarmasamuccaya, i.e.,
thecombination of bothknowledge and act; butactsnecessarily involvere-
sults,and theresultsbindtheperformer. Sarihkarcairya, to quotethemost
explicitrejector, is obligedto statethatultimately therecan be no direct
relationbetweenanypartofsamizsara andtheknowledge ofBrahman, which
is synonymous withrelease."The knowledgeof Brahmanputsan end to
anyactivity,"he states,10 andin theUpadekasabasri " he repeats
emphatically
thenecessity of saminyasa, theabsoluterelinquishment of all worldlyties.
Otherthinkers continued thejinnakarmasamuccaya doctrine butnotwith-
out important modifications. Rdmdnuja, forinstance, as in othercasesad-
heringto a moretraditional viewand simultaneously modifying it,putsit
thus,thatactsifperformed notfortheirresults, thatis,as factors contribut-
ing to theestablished order,butsolelyas propitiation and worshipof God,
are indeedan indispensable propaedeusis to bhaktiand,throughbhakti,to
release.We notethat,hardlylessthanin garhkaracdrya's case,forRdmdnuja,
too,theactshavelosttheirownsignificance; it is nottheresultthatmatters,
buttheintention. Rimdnujawasundoubtedly inspired bytheBhagavadgZita,
on which,however, he imposeda stricter orderthantheoriginalauthors did.
The Bhagavadgit'is interesting forits documentation of a fundamental
conflictbetweenthe jianayogin,who is, largely,the yoginof the second
category distinguished above,witha Samkhyaor proto-Srmkhya rationale,
and thebrahministic upholders of karmanand dharma,betweentheasocial
sarinyasins and the mainstays of society.Releasehad alreadybecomethe
supremegoal of human aspirations:butwheredid thatleave thosewhose
sacreddutyit was to maintain thecosmicorderthrough theriteswhichonly
they were to
qualified perform? And if they were to renounce theirduty
and stepout to workfortheirown salvation, wherewouldthatleave the
10BrhaddranyakaUpanisad I.iv.7.
"lEspecially in the gadya (prose) portion.

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40 J. A. B. VAN BUITENEN

world? The worldobviously mustgo on, if onlybecausethedemandson

of theaspirantto releaseare too highto be metby
the capacityand effort
the ordinaryperson.The compromise thatis achievedis extremely interest-
ing: continueto performthenecessary acts,butabjuretheirresults.So, by
changing one's intention,namely,not to enjoy the good fruitsresultanton
of good deeds,one can preventthosefruitsfrombeing
the performance
of an act is no longer auto-
realized. But that means also that the efficacy
matic, and if thoughtthroughconsistently thisproposedchange of doctrine
could reformthe entiredoctrineof karman."2But it remainsa makeshift
solution which the authors are quite hesitantabout, sometimespreferring
it to jfianayoga,sometimessubordinatingit to jfanayoga; only when stated
as part of bhaktiyogadoes it become meaningful.

2
If it is possible to "wish away" the karmaphala (fruit of the act) while doing the act, this means
that the act is deprived of its finality, and its performerof his motivation, so that other motivations
have to be discovered for the agent, e.g., as the Gitd proposes, a sense of social responsibility. Rimi-
nuja, keenly realizing that the Gitd's doctrine of the renunciation of the rewards of the acts always
envisages ritual acts, explains, in his Gitdbhdsya, that among the three categories of acts (nitya, "daily
recurring,"; naimittika, "occasional"; and knamya,"inspired by desire") the last category alone must
be given up. This follows naturally from the Mimmrihsitheory, since in the kdmya acts (type svarga-
kAimojyotistomena yajeta) the performer's desire-for-heavenis his qualification (adhikara), and unless
he desires the phala (e.g., heaven) he cannot even perform the act; the nitya acts, on the other hand,
have no phala.

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