Energies 13 04486

energies
Article
Energy Performance Evaluation for Exterior
Insulation System Consisting of Truss-Form
Wire-Frame Mullion Filled with Glass Wool
Jin-Hee Song 1 , Cheol-Yong Park 2 and Jae-Weon Jeong 2, *
1 Lotte Engineering & Construction, 50-2 Jamwon-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06515, Korea; jinheesong5@lotte.net
2 Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Korea;
fnmlove@naver.com
* Correspondence: jjwarc@hanyang.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-2-2220-2370

Received: 15 July 2020; Accepted: 26 August 2020; Published: 31 August 2020
Abstract: Heat loss and gain through opaque envelopes of buildings are major factors that affect the
overall cooling and heating loads in buildings. The government has enforced regulations to strengthen
the thermal transmittance requirement level as a major means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions
in the building sector. In addition, the thermal bridge is considered to be one of the major factors in
heating load of buildings. In this study, truss-form wire frame was developed in order to minimize
thermal bridge of steel mullion in exterior insulation system. In the case of thermal transmittance test
for specimen of 0.145 W/m2 K as design value, the value of the steel pipe was 0.190 W/m2 K and the
value of the truss-form wire frame was 0.150 W/m2 K, respectively. This means the other is much
smaller than the one in thermal bridge. For four cases, annual energy performance analysis was
calculated using Passive House Planning Package (PHPP)—ideal condition without thermal bridge,
steel pipe mullion without insulation in the rear side, steel pipe mullion with insulation in the rear
side, and truss-form wire-frame mullion filled with glass wool. As results, the annual heating energy
demands were 15.68 kWh/m2 , 25.42 kWh/m2 , 16.78 kWh/m2 , and 16.09 kWh/m2 , respectively.
Keywords: thermal bridge; truss insulation frame; dry exterior insulation system; building envelope
performance; energy performance
1. Introduction
1.1. Background and Objective

Heat loss and gain through opaque envelopes of buildings, such as walls and roofs, are major
factors that affect the overall cooling and heating loads in buildings. According to a previous study,
the proportions are, respectively, 35% and 32% for heating and cooling of residential buildings, and 46%
for the heating energy of commercial buildings [1]. The Korean government has proposed regulations
to strengthen the thermal transmittance requirement level as a major means of reducing greenhouse
gas emissions in the building sector, and it gradually strengthened the design standards in order to
realize energy saving in buildings [2]. Accordingly, the design standards of energy saving for buildings
were again strengthened in September 2018. For residential houses in the Central I Region of Korea,
the maximum required levels of thermal transmittance for external walls and windows are; 015; W/m2 ,
K. and 0.9 W/m2 K, respectively. Meanwhile, for nonresidential houses, the corresponding maximum
values are 0.17 W/m2 K and 1.3 W/m2 K [3].
In addition, the thermal bridge is considered to be one of the major considerations in heating
loads of buildings. The heat loss due to the thermal bridge can, therefore, be reduced by changing the
previous scoring method involving the energy performance index in the energy saving plan according
Energies 2020, 13, 4486; doi:10.3390/en13174486 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 4486 2 of 19
to the application area of exterior insulation. The scoring method was changed to a new scoring
method that discriminates a score depending on the construction details in the thermal bridge portions
by presenting a linear thermal transmittance for each thermal bridge portion. As per the related
regulations, the thermal bridge is limited, occurring in major structural joints, which can be minimized
primarily by employing exterior insulation [4].
For exterior insulation, various construction methods exist based on the insulation materials and
finish materials. These methods are largely classified as wet or dry construction methods. The wet
exterior insulation system generally refers to the processing of the surface finish, i.e., methods such as
using paints, by coating base-coating materials on the insulation material’s surface after applying the
insulation material to the concrete wall. This approach is used in a limited scope in concrete wall-type
buildings. The dry exterior insulation system refers to a method of fixing exterior materials, such as
stones and metals, using brackets after fixing insulation materials between lattices, which are made of
vertical and horizontal members, such as square pipes and C channels. These are built in advance to
fix insulation materials and finish materials. This approach has been widely applied in curtain wall
buildings of various sizes, lower stories in apartments, subsidiary facilities, etc.
For dry exterior insulation systems, metal-fixing ironware, such as vertical and horizontal
members, brackets, and anchor bolts, which are used to fix insulation materials and exterior materials,
was penetrated through insulation materials, to form a thermal bridge. Several studies have analyzed
thermal bridge effects due to fixing ironware in dry exterior insulation systems. Koo et al. [5] and
Theodosiou et al. [6] quantitatively evaluated the heat loss through a thermal bridge that was formed
during the construction of exterior materials, such as stone curtain walls and metal cladding, and they
proposed improvements. Kosny and Kossecka [7] reported that the total insulation performance was
degraded by around 40–50% if there was a thermal bridge through metal members such as metal
curtain walls and complex envelopes. Song et al. [8] reported that the effective thermal transmittance
of metal and stone exterior insulation systems could be more than three times larger than the legally
required thermal transmittance even if the legal thermal transmittance requirements are met during
the exterior insulation construction of concrete exterior walls and curtain wall buildings. In particular,
as the envelope insulation performance is improved, the proportion of thermal loss through the thermal
bridge will increase [9]. Thus, the thermal bridge should be considered as the required level if thermal
transmittance is increased.
The present study developed a truss insulation frame (TIF) whose sides were supported by
truss-form steel wires, and the interior was filled with insulation materials to minimize the heat
loss in the metal vertical members, which were major thermal bridge portions in the dry exterior
insulation system. This study also evaluated the air leakage and water penetration performance of
the dry exterior insulation system using the TIF, structural performance, fire resistance performance,
insulation performance, condensation resistance performance, and energy performance. By doing
this, an envelope system is proposed to save energy in buildings in a practical manner, and the
need to strengthen the envelope insulation performance in buildings is addressed by evaluating the
applicability of dry exterior insulation systems using TIF on construction sites.
1.2. Methods and Procedures

A full scale of specimens, including the TIF, was manufactured, and step-by-step envelope
performance tests were conducted to analyze the overall envelope performance of dry exterior
insulation systems using TIF. In addition, a building energy analysis was performed to determine the
linear thermal transmittance in the thermal bridge portions of the vertical members, and to evaluate
the effect of the dry exterior insulation system using the TIF on the building’s energy. The study
methodology and procedure were as follows:
A 4-m-wide and 8-m-high specimen was manufactured, and curtain wall mock-up tests were
conducted to evaluate the air leakage and water penetration and structural performances according
to the related standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) [10–12] and the
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 3 of 19

to the related standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) [10–12] and the
American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA) [13,14]. An evaluation was also
conducted
American to determine
Architectural whether the design
Manufacturers standards
Association were[13,14].
(AAMA) met. An evaluation was also conducted
A 3-m-wide and 3-m-high specimen
to determine whether the design standards were met. was manufactured to evaluate the thermal insulation and
fire integrity to evaluate the fire resistance performance according to the fire resistance test methods
A 3-m-wide and 3-m-high specimen was manufactured to evaluate the thermal insulation and fire
[15] of Korea Standard (KS) F 2257 construction members.
integrity to evaluate the fire resistance performance according to the fire resistance test methods [15] of
A 2-m-wide and 2-m-high specimen was manufactured, and thermal transmittance and
Korea Standard (KS) F 2257 construction members.
condensation resistance performance tests were conducted to evaluate the insulation performance
A 2-m-wide and 2-m-high specimen was manufactured, and thermal transmittance and
and condensation resistance performance according to the insulation performance measurement
condensation resistance performance tests were conducted to evaluate the insulation performance
methods [16] of KS F 2278 building components and the condensation resistance performance test
and condensation
methods resistance
[17] of KS performance
F 2295 windows. according
In addition, to usetosquare-shaped
the insulation performance
pipes, measurement
thermal transmittance
methods [16] of KS F 2278 building components and the condensation
tests were conducted under the same conditions to compare the insulation performance.resistance performance test
methods [17] of KS F 2295 windows. In addition, to use square-shaped pipes, thermal
To evaluate the energy performance, a target building was chosen, and the linear thermal transmittance
tests were conducted
transmittances aroundunder
thethe same members
vertical conditions to compare
when using a the insulation
square performance.
pipe and TIF were calculated.
To evaluate the energy performance, a target building was chosen,
Based on the results, the required annual cooling and heating energy were calculated. and the
Forlinear thermal
the analysis
transmittances around the vertical members when using a square pipe and TIF were
tool to evaluate the building energy performance, the passive house planning package (PHPP) was calculated. Based
on used.
the results, the required annual cooling and heating energy were calculated. For the analysis tool to
evaluate the building energy performance, the passive house planning package (PHPP) was used.
2. Development of Dry Exterior Insulation System Using TIF
2. Development of Dry Exterior Insulation System Using TIF
TIF was developed to block the heat transfer path that is formed through vertical members in
theTIFdry
wasexterior insulation
developed to blocksystem.
the heat The galvanized
transfer steelis sheets
path that formedand stainless-steel
through wires were
vertical members in the
dryprocessed, as shown in
exterior insulation Figure 1,
system. Theto form a truss-shaped
galvanized frame,
steel sheets andand the core was filled
stainless-steel wireswith
wereinsulation
processed,
as materials.
shown in Figure 1, to form a truss-shaped frame, and the core was filled with insulation materials.
Figure 1. Truss insulation frame (TIF).

Figure 1. Truss insulation frame (TIF).
Grooves for bolting were carved in the frame to simplify the attachment of brackets and anchor
Grooves for bolting were carved in the frame to simplify the attachment of brackets and anchor
bolts during the fixing to building structures in the early prototype [18].
bolts during the fixing to building structures in the early prototype [18].
In addition, inorganic insulation materials were used as the core material to verify the fire-protecting
In addition, inorganic insulation materials were used as the core material to verify the fire-
performance. Figure 1 shows the shape of the steel wire before inserting the insulation material into
protecting performance. Figure 1 shows the shape of the steel wire before inserting the insulation
both sides of the core. Because both core insulation materials are filled during construction, the steel
material into both sides of the core. Because both core insulation materials are filled during
wires are not revealed.
construction, The TIF
the steel wires arecould replaceThe
not revealed. general steel replace
TIF could square general
pipes orsteel
C channels, andor
square pipes it C
can,
therefore, be applied to both concrete wall-type and curtain wall-type buildings.
channels, and it can, therefore, be applied to both concrete wall-type and curtain wall-type buildings.
The dry
The dryexterior
exteriorinsulation
insulationsystem
systemthat
that was
was manufactured
manufactured to toconduct
conductthe theenvelope
envelope performance
performance
evaluation this study employed 125 mm ×
evaluation in this study employed 125 mm × 75 mm TIF as the vertical member, as shown inasFigure
in 75 mm TIF as the vertical member, shown
in 2,
Figure 2, and the glass wool, which was a nonflammable insulation material,
and the glass wool, which was a nonflammable insulation material, was applied, considering the was applied,
considering
fire safetytheandfire safety and
thermal thermal conductivity
conductivity for wallmaterials.
for wall insulation insulation materials.
For the glassFor the glass
wool, wool,
a water-
a water-repellent-coated
repellent-coated product product was selected
was selected to prevent
to prevent moisture
moisture absorption,
absorption, and a 220-mm-thick
and a 220-mm-thick coat wascoat
applied to satisfy 0.15 W/m 2
2·K, which is the current required level of the thermal transmittance
was applied to satisfy 0.15 W/m ·K, which is the current required level of the thermal transmittance in in
apartments
apartments located
located ininthe
theCentral
CentralI IRegion
Regionof ofKorea.
Korea.
Each of the TIFs was fixed at a distance of 1 m from the slab, and a 50 × 50 mm square pipe,
which was used as the exterior material construction in the front and L-shaped transverse reinforcement
for the construction of insulation material in the rear side, was fastened with brackets and screws,
respectively. The L-shaped transverse reinforcement beam was a member that was directly connected
to the TIF, which could be another thermal bridge. Thus, as shown in the enlarged drawing in
Figure 2, it was capped with a T-shaped insulation cap made of polyamide, thus preventing additional
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 4 of 19
thermal loss through the L-shaped transverse reinforcement. In addition, a membrane-like permeable
waterproof sheet, which could prevent the moisture inflow from the outside while releasing the inside
water vapor, was applied to the front of the insulation material, and a moisture-resisting sheet was
applied to the
Energies 2020, 13, xrear
FORside.
PEER The construction order is shown in Figure 3.
REVIEW 4 of 18
Figure 2. Configuration of the dry exterior insulation system using TIFs.
which was used as the exterior material construction in the front and L-shaped transverse
reinforcement for the construction of insulation material in the rear side, was fastened with brackets
and screws, respectively. The L-shaped transverse reinforcement beam was a member that was
directly connected to the TIF, which could be another thermal bridge. Thus, as shown in the enlarged
drawing in Figure 2, it was capped with a T-shaped insulation cap made of polyamide, thus
preventing additional thermal loss through the L-shaped transverse reinforcement. In addition, a
membrane-like permeable waterproof sheet, which could prevent the moisture inflow from the
outside while releasing the inside water vapor, was applied to the front of the insulation material,
and a moisture-resisting sheet was applied to the rear side. The construction order is shown in Figure
3. Figure 2. Configuration of the dry exterior insulation system using TIFs.
Figure 2. Configuration of the dry exterior insulation system using TIFs.
which was used as the exterior material construction in the front and L-shaped transverse
reinforcement for the construction of insulation material in the rear side, was fastened with brackets
and screws, respectively. The L-shaped transverse reinforcement beam was a member that was
directly connected to the TIF, which could be another thermal bridge. Thus, as shown in the enlarged
drawing in Figure 2, it was capped with a T-shaped insulation cap made of polyamide, thus
preventing additional thermal loss through the L-shaped transverse reinforcement. In addition, a
membrane-like permeable waterproof sheet, which could prevent the moisture inflow from the
outside while releasing the inside water vapor, was applied to the front of the insulation material,
and a moisture-resisting
(a) brackets sheet was(b)
applied
TIFs to the rear side.(c)The construction order is (d)
windows shown
Z-barin Figure
3.
(e) Two-ply Glass Wool (f) T-caps (g) Fixing steel pipes for exterior materials
(a) brackets (b) TIFs (c) windows (d) Z-bar
Figure 3. Construction of the TIF exterior insulation system on the curtain
curtain wall
wall building.
building.
3. Performance Test Results

The envelope of buildings should be such that air leakage, water penetration, and structural
performances are compliant with the fire resistance and insulation performance regulations that are
set in related laws. Accordingly, the performances are shown in Figure 4, and as shown in Figure 5,
full-scale tests were conducted four times to evaluate each of the performances shown in Figure 4.
(e) Two-ply Glass Wool (f) T-caps (g) Fixing steel pipes for exterior materials
3.3.Performance
PerformanceTest
TestResults
Results
The
Theenvelope
envelopeofofbuildings
buildingsshould
shouldbe besuch
suchthat
thatair
airleakage,
leakage,water
waterpenetration,
penetration,and
andstructural
structural
performances
performancesare arecompliant
compliantwith
withthethefire
fireresistance
resistanceand
andinsulation
insulationperformance
performanceregulations
regulationsthat
thatare
are
set
setin
inrelated
related laws.
laws.
Energies 2020, 13, 4486
Accordingly,
Accordingly, the
theperformances
performances are
areshown
shown in
inFigure
Figure4,
4,and
andas shown
as shown ininFigure
Figure 5,5,
5 of 19
full-scale tests were conducted four times to evaluate each of the performances shown
full-scale tests were conducted four times to evaluate each of the performances shown in Figure 4. in Figure 4.
Figure
Figure
Figure 4.
4.4. Test
Test proceduresofof
procedures
Test procedures ofthe
thebuilding
the buildingenvelope
building envelopeperformance.
envelope performance.
performance.
(a)
(a)1st
1sttest
test(Full
(Fullmock-up)
mock-up) (b)
(b)2nd
2ndtest
test(Fire-resistance)
(Fire-resistance) (c)
(c)3rd
3rdand
and4th
4thtests
tests(U-value,
(U-value,etc.)
etc.)
Figure
Figure5.5.
Figure Testspecimens.
5.Test
Test specimens.
specimens.
Thefirst
The
The firsttest
first testwas
test wasaaacurtain
was curtainwall
curtain wallmock-up
wall mock-uptest,
mock-up test,inin
test, inwhich
whichaaa4-m-wide
which 4-m-wideand
4-m-wide and8-m-high
and 8-m-highspecimen
8-m-high specimenwas
specimen was
was
manufacturedtoto
manufactured
manufactured toevaluate
evaluatethe
evaluate thestructural,
the structural,water
structural, waterpenetration,
water penetration,and
penetration, andair
and airleakage
air leakageperformance,
leakage performance,asas
performance, aswell
wellasas
well as
the
the inter-story
theinter-story displacement
inter-storydisplacement
displacementofoftheof the system.
thesystem.
system.TheThe second
Thesecond
secondtest test was
testwas to evaluate
wastotoevaluate
evaluatethethe thermal
thethermal insulation
thermalinsulation
insulation
andfire
and
and fireintegrity
fire integrityofof
integrity ofthe
thesystem
the systemby
system bymanufacturing
by manufacturingaaa3-m-wide
manufacturing 3-m-wideand
3-m-wide and3-m-high
and 3-m-highspecimen.
3-m-high specimen.The
specimen. Thethird
The thirdand
third and
and
fourthtests
fourth
fourth testswere,
tests were,respectively,
were, respectively,conducted
respectively, conductedtoto
conducted todetermine
determinethe
determine thethermal
the thermaltransmittance
thermal transmittanceand
transmittance andcondensation
and condensation
condensation
prevention
prevention performance
preventionperformance
performanceafter after fabricating
afterfabricating a 2-m-wide
fabricatingaa2-m-wide
2-m-wideand and 2-m-high
and2-m-high specimen.
2-m-highspecimen.
specimen.EachEach of the
Eachofofthe specimens
thespecimens
specimens
hadthe
had
had thesame
the sameconfiguration
same configurationasas
configuration asshown
showninin
shown inFigure
Figure2.2.
Figure 2.
3.1.Structural
3.1.
3.1. StructuralPerformance
Structural Performance
Performance
Forthe
For
For the design
designwind
thedesign windpressure
wind pressure
pressureforforthethe
for structural
the structural
structuralperformance
performance
performancetest,test,
the
test,design
the wind pressure
thedesign
design wind applied
windpressure
pressure
to exterior
applied
applied materials
totoexterior was calculated
exteriormaterials
materials was and applied.
wascalculated
calculated andThe
and positive
applied.
applied. The
Theand negative
positive
positive and
andpressures
negative
negative that were applied
pressures
pressures that
that
were
were 1458
wereapplied Pa
appliedwereand 1210
were1458
1458PaPa based
Paand
and1210 on
1210Pa the ground
Pabased
basedon onthesurface
theground illumination
groundsurface in
surfaceilluminationregions where
illuminationininregions 50-m-high
regions where
where
medium-rise
50-m-high
50-m-high buildingsbuildings
medium-rise
medium-rise were distributed
buildings were in Seoul in
weredistributed
distributed with a normal
inSeoul
Seoul withaawind
with normal
normal velocity
wind of
windvelocity26 m/s.
velocity The
ofof26 test
26m/s.
m/s.
standards
The
The test and allowable
teststandards
standards and values,values,
andallowable
allowable as well as
values, as test
wellresults
aswell asastest for eachfor
testresults
results test,
foreacharetest,
each presented
test,are in Tablein1.
arepresented
presented inTable
Table1.1.
The structural performance was evaluated by determining whether the allowable value of the
maximum deflection of TIF and1.exterior
Table
Table 1.Results material
Resultsof ofthe waswall
thecurtain
curtain exceeded
mock-up
wall mock-upafter
test.maintaining the design wind
test.
pressure for 10 s. The residual displacement was evaluated by determining whether the allowable
Results
Results Criterion
Criterion Standard
Standardfor forTest
TestMethod
Method
value of the residual displacement of TIF and exterior material was exceeded after maintaining +75%,
Maximum
Maximum <10.28
<10.28mmmm ASTM ASTME330-14:
E330-14:Standard
Standardtest
test
+150%
Structural
Structural of TIF
the
TIFdesign wind pressure 8.01/6.90
for 10 s.mm
8.01/6.90 mmBoth tests satisfied the allowable values proposed in the
deflection
deflection (L/360)
(L/360) method
methodfor forstructural
structuralperformance
performance
Building Construction Standard Specifications [19] and AAMA [20], thereby verifying the structural
safety against wind load.
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 6 of 19
Table 1. Results of the curtain wall mock-up test.
Results Criterion Standard for Test Method

Maximum deflection <10.28 mm
8.01/6.90 mm
TIF (Positive/negative) (L/360)
Residual deflection <7.40 mm ASTM E330-14: Standard
1.22/1.12 mm
Structural (Positive/negative) (2 L/1000) test method for structural
Maximum deflection No Breakage performance
CRC No Breakage
(Positive/negative) (0.12/0.37 mm)
Board
Residual deflection No Breakage
No Breakage
(Positive/negative) (0.25/0.03 mm)
ASTM E283-04: Standard
test method for
determining rate of air
Air leakage 0.0031 m3 /min·m2 <0.0183 m3 /min·m2
leakage
AAMA 501-05: Test
methods for Exterior Walls
ASTM E331-00: Standard
test method for water
Static pressure No Water Leakage No Water Leakage
penetration by uniform
static air difference
Water penetration
AAMA 501.1-17: Standard
test method for water
Dynamic pressure No Water Leakage No Water Leakage
penetration using dynamic
pressure
AAMA 501.4-09: Static test
Satisfied (Group of Keep on function method subjected to
Movement
Essential Facilities) and form of all walls seismic and wind-induced
interstory drifts
The inter-story drift test evaluates whether there are any abnormalities in the functions and
forms of all members after applying a displacement of 1/100 of the story height on the right and
left sides to the middle slab of the specimen. A displacement of 37 mm was applied based on the
application of a 3.7 m story height, and the functions of the envelope, air leakage and water penetration
performance, and the structural performance were maintained at the same value as before without
visible damage and falling off. This satisfies the requirements of the essential facility group, such as
standard occupancy (general buildings), high-occupancy assembly (buildings of densely populated
occupancy), and essential facility (important buildings such as hospitals, schools, fire stations, etc.).
3.2. Air Leakage and Water Penetration Performance

The air leakage performance measures the amount of air leakage through the specimen after the
standard pressure difference (+75 Pa) is maintained in the specimen, and it evaluates whether the
allowable value is satisfied after the leakage measurement is converted to one at a standard state.
The test result showed that the air leakage through the specimen was 0.031 m3 /(min·m2 ) at 75 Pa.
This was around 1/6 of the level of 0.183 m3 /(min·m2 ) at 75 Pa, which is the allowable leakage rate
for general buildings recommended by the AAMA 501 [21], and satisfied the recommended standard.
(In AAMA 501, the air leakage performance criteria are recommended by classifying buildings into
two groups: General buildings and buildings whose air quality and humidity control are important).
AAMA 501 is cited as the criteria for curtain wall-fixed portions during mock-up tests of curtain
walls in Korea: General buildings: 0.06 cfm/ft2 (=0.183 m3 /(min·m2 )) or smaller (based on a pressure
difference of 75 Pa), and buildings whose air quality and humidity control are important: 0.06 cfm/ft2
or smaller (based on a pressure difference of 300 Pa).
The water penetration performance was conducted by spraying water at a rate of 204 L/m3 per
hour for 15 min, while maintaining a minimum pressure (+300 Pa) or blowing externally wind that
corresponded to the minimum pressure (dynamic pressure condition) proposed by AAMA 501 (static
pressure condition). It also involved determining whether water leakage occurred in the specimen,
and both tests satisfied the water penetration performance criteria without leakage.
The water penetration performance was conducted by spraying water at a rate of 204 L/m3 per
hour for 15 min, while maintaining a minimum pressure (+300 Pa) or blowing externally wind that
corresponded to the minimum pressure (dynamic pressure condition) proposed by AAMA 501 (static
pressure condition). It also involved determining whether water leakage occurred in the specimen,
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 7 of 19
and both tests satisfied the water penetration performance criteria without leakage.
3.3.
3.3. Fire
Fire Resistance
Resistance Performance
Performance
The
The fire
fire resistance
resistanceperformance
performanceofofthe theenvelope
envelopewaswasmeasured
measured by by
exposing
exposingthethe
twotwo
sides of the
sides of
specimen,
the specimen,including the the
including exterior andand
exterior interior materials,
interior totoa aheating
materials, heatingfurnace
furnace(exposed
(exposed side)
side) and
and
outside
outside air
air (unexposed
(unexposed side).
side). In
In addition,
addition, the
the temperature
temperature inside
inside the
the heating
heating furnace
furnace was
was heated
heated
according
according to the standard heating curve, thereby enabling the evaluation of the thermal insulation,
to the standard heating curve, thereby enabling the evaluation of the thermal insulation,
which
which limited
limited the
the temperature
temperature rise
rise level
level at
at the
the unexposed
unexposed side
side of
of the
the specimen
specimen below
below the
the specified
specified
level, and the fire integrity that prevented passing flame or high-temperature gases
level, and the fire integrity that prevented passing flame or high-temperature gases or flame occurrence or flame
occurrence at the unexposed side. The thermal insulation and fire integrity test results
at the unexposed side. The thermal insulation and fire integrity test results are shown in Table 2 and are shown in
Table
Figure26,and Figure 6, respectively.
respectively.
Table
Table 2.
2. Results
Results of
of the
the fire
fire resistance
resistance test.
test.
Performance
Performance Criteria
Criteria Time Results
Time Results Criterion Reference
Criterion Reference
Average increased temperature 0.9 K <140 K
Thermal insulation Average increased temperature 0.9 K <140 K
Thermal insulation Maximum increased temperature 1.8
Maximum increased temperature 1.8 K
K <180 K K
<180
Cracks gaps
Cracks gaps of 6 mm of 6 mm n/a should notnot
KS F 2275
3030 min n/a
min
should KS F 2275
Cracks
Cracks gapsgaps
of 25ofmm
25 mm n/a
n/a should notnot
should ISO 834ISO 834
Fire integrity
Fire integrity
Sustained
Sustainedflaming on the
flaming onunexposed side side
the unexposed n/a should
n/a should
notnot
Ignition of a of
Ignition cotton woolwool
a cotton pad pad n/a should
n/a should
notnot
(a) Furnace side (b) Outdoor air side
Figure
Figure 6. Specimen
Specimen after
after the
the fire
fire resistance
resistance test.
The thermal
The thermal insulation
insulation was was evaluated
evaluated by by the elapsed
elapsed time for which the average increased
temperature was maintained below 140 K and
was maintained below 140 K and the maximumthe maximum increased
increased temperature
temperature below
below180180
K atKthe
at
unexposed
the side side
unexposed of theofspecimen
the specimencompared to the initial
compared to thetemperature. The fire integrity
initial temperature. The fire was evaluated
integrity was
by considering
evaluated the elapsed the
by considering timeelapsed
from thetime
penetration
from the through the crack
penetration gauge,the
through flame occurrence
crack at the
gauge, flame
unexposed side, and to the ignition of the cotton wool pad. For the dry exterior
occurrence at the unexposed side, and to the ignition of the cotton wool pad. For the dry exterior insulation system
using TIF, its
insulation average
system andTIF,
using maximum increased
its average temperatures
and maximum after 30temperatures
increased min heat up after
were 300.9min
K and 1.8up
heat K,
respectively,
were which
0.9 K and 1.8 satisfied both thermal
K, respectively, whichinsulation and fire
satisfied both integrity
thermal for 30 min.
insulation and Thus, it satisfied
fire integrity forthe
30
nonbearing
min. Thus, itexterior wall
satisfied thecriteria [22] among
nonbearing the wall
exterior fireproof construction
criteria [22] among performance criteria.
the fireproof construction
performance criteria.
3.4. Insulation Performance
The specimens were installed in the middle of the constant-temperature and low-temperature
rooms according to the guarded hot box of KS F 2277, and calories supplied to maintain the temperature
in the constant-temperature room were measured to evaluate the thermal transmittance of the
component. For the insulation performance, specimens that had the same insulation structure and size
were fabricated, even when using the square pipe to perform the thermal transmittance test.
The insulation material was constructed in the two layers, which was the same as the use of
the TIF, and the insulation material was continuous in the rear side of the square pipes, except for
measurement points that connected vertical and horizontal members (points indicated in Figure 7).
temperature in the constant-temperature room were measured to evaluate the thermal transmittance
of the component. For the insulation performance, specimens that had the same insulation structure
and size were fabricated, even when using the square pipe to perform the thermal transmittance test.
The insulation material was constructed in the two layers, which was the same as the use of the
TIF, and
Energies 2020,the insulation material was continuous in the rear side of the square pipes, except
13, 4486 8 offor
19
measurement points that connected vertical and horizontal members (points indicated in Figure 7).
Figure 7. Test specimen for the dry exterior insulation

insulation system
system using
using steel
steel pipes.
pipes.
Table
Table33presents
presentsthe thetest
testresults
resultsofofthe
thethermal
thermaltransmittance.
transmittance.TheThe calculated
calculatedone-dimensional
one-dimensional (1-D)
(1-
thermal
D) thermaltransmittance
transmittance value thatthat
value did not
did consider a two-dimensional
not consider a two-dimensional(2-D)(2-D)
and three-dimensional (3-D)
and three-dimensional
thermal bridge,bridge,
such as such
vertical 2 ·K) and, when
(3-D) thermal as and horizontal
vertical members, members,
and horizontal was 0.145 W/(m
was 0.145 W/(m2·K) considering
and, when
the dry exterior
considering insulation
the dry exteriorsystem using
insulation square
system pipes,
using the thermal
square transmittance
pipes, the was20.19
was 0.19 W/(m
thermal transmittance ·K),
which increased
W/(m2·K), which by 31% compared
increased to the calculated
by 31% compared 1-D thermal
to the calculated transmittance
1-D thermal value. This
transmittance value.result
This
indicated that anthat
result indicated additional thermal
an additional loss occurred
thermal owingowing
loss occurred to the connected pointspoints
to the connected with square pipes
with square
and
pipeshorizontal members,
and horizontal even if
members, the ifinsulation
even materials
the insulation werewere
materials continuous on the
continuous on rear side side
the rear of theof
square pipes. In contrast, the thermal transmittance of the dry exterior insulation
the square pipes. In contrast, the thermal transmittance of the dry exterior insulation system using system using TIF
was 0.15 0.15 2 ·K), 2and increased by 3.4%, indicating that the insulation performance closer to the
W/(mW/(m
TIF was ·K), and increased by 3.4%, indicating that the insulation performance closer to
calculated 1-D 1-D
the calculated thermal transmittance
thermal transmittance value could
value be ensured.
could be ensured.
Table 3. Test
Table 3. Test results
results of
of U-value.
U-value.
Steel
Steel Pipe
Pipe TIF TIF
THK9.5THK9.5
× 2 Gypsum
× 2 Gypsum
THK9.5 ×
THK9.5 × 2 Gypsum -Vapor-Vapor
barrierbarrier
-THK100
-THK100G/W
G/W(40 (40K)
K) -THK100-THK100
G/W (40 G/W
K) (40 K)
Specimen -THK120 G/W
Specimen -THK120 G/W (40 K) (40 K) -THK120 G/W (40 K) (40 K)
-THK120 G/W
-THK50 Cavity (R = 0.086(m 2 ·K)/W)
-THK50 Cavity (R = 0.086(m ·K)/W)-Water-Water
2 barrierbarrier
-THK12 CRC board
-THK12 CRC board -THK50 CavityCavity
-THK50 (R =(m
(R = 0.086 0.086 (m2 ·K)/W)
2·K)/W)
-THK12 CRC board
-THK12 CRC board
U-value (1D) 0.145 W/(m22·K) 0.145 W/(m2 ·K)
U-value (1D) 0.145 W/(m 2 ·K) 0.145 W/(m2·K) 2
U-value 0.19 W/(m 2·K) 0.152 W/(m ·K)
U-value
Increasing ratio 0.19 W/(m
+0.045 ·K)
(+31.0%) 0.15 W/(m ·K) (+3.4%)
+0.005
Increasing ratio+0.045 (+31.0%) +0.005 (+3.4%)
3.5. Condensation Prevention Performance

3.5. Condensation Prevention Performance
The condensation prevention performance of the envelope was evaluated by observing a surface
The condensation prevention performance of the envelope was evaluated by observing a surface
temperature in the indoor side after installing a specimen in the middle of the constant- and
temperature in the indoor side after installing a specimen in the middle of the constant- and low-
low-temperature rooms according to KS F 2295. Here, the temperature conditions of the rooms
temperature rooms according to KS F 2295. Here, the temperature conditions of the rooms were 25 °C
were 25 ◦ C for the constant-temperature room (Thot ) and −15 ◦ C for the low-temperature room (Tcold )
for the constant-temperature room (Thot) and −15 °C for the low-temperature room (Tcold) by referring
by
to referring to the
the design designfor
criteria criteria for condensation
condensation prevention
prevention in apartments
in apartments [23].
[23]. TheThesame
same specimen
specimen
configuration was set up with that of the thermal transmittance test, and the measurement points of
the surface temperature on the indoor side are shown in
The test results of the condensation prevention performance showed that the surface temperature
at 25 points was 24.2 ◦ C on average, 24.6 ◦ C at maximum, and 23.0 ◦ C at minimum, as shown in
Table 4, and the values decreased by less than 2 ◦ C compared to those in the constant-temperature
room. In particular, with the exception of measurement points No. 21 and No. 22, all measurement
points showed a temperature difference of around 1.0 ◦ C in comparison to the constant-temperature
room. Further, no effective difference was found in the surface temperature according to the measured
portions, such as the rear sides of the vertical and horizontal members. Figure 8.
configuration was set up with that of the thermal transmittance test, and the measurement points
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 9 of of
19
the surface temperature on the indoor side are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
Figure Measurement points
8. Measurement points for
for condensation
condensation risk.
risk.
Table 4. Test results of condensation risk (Unit: ◦ C).

The test results of the condensation prevention performance showed that the surface
No.24.2 °C on average,
temperature at 25 points was 1 2 °C at maximum,
24.6 3 4 and523.0 °C at minimum, as
shown in Table 4, and the Tvalues
m decreased
24.1 by less than 2 23.9
24.1 °C compared
24.4 to those in the constant-
24.5
Tint. − Tm with the0.9exception0.9
temperature room. In particular, 1.1
of measurement 0.6 points
0.5 No. 21 and No. 22, all
measurement points showed TDR 0.02
a temperature 0.02
difference 0.03 1.0 °C
of around 0.02in comparison
0.01 to the constant-
No. 6 7 8
temperature room. Further, no effective difference was found in the surface9 10temperature according
to the measured portions, such
Tm as the rear24.2
sides of the
24.1vertical and horizontal
24.4 24.4 24.6members.
Tint. − Tm 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.4
TDR 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01
Table 4. Test results of condensation risk (Unit: °C). 0.01
No. 11 12 13 14 15
No. 1 2 3 4 5
Tm Tm 24.4
24.1 24.123.923.9 24.4 24.224.5 24.2 24.4
Tint. − TmTint. - Tm 0.6 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.6
TDR 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01
TDR 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01
No. No. 166 7 17 8 918 10 19 20
Tm Tm 24.2
24.2 24.124.224.4 24.4 24.424.6 24.5 24.3
Tint. − TmTint. - Tm 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.7
TDR TDR 0.02 0.02 0.020.020.02 0.01 0.020.01 0.01 0.02
No. No. 11
21 12 22 13 1423 15 24 25
Tm 24.4 23.9 24.2 24.2 24.4
Tm 23.0 23.5 24.4 24.4 24.6
Tint. − TmTint. - Tm 2.0 0.6 1.1 1.5 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.4
TDR TDR 0.01
0.05 0.03 0.040.02 0.02
0.010.01 0.02 0.01
No. 16 17 18 19 20
- Average Max. Min. SD
Tm 24.2 24.2 24.4 24.5 24.3
Total Tint. - Tm T0.8 m 0.824.20.6 0.5 24.60.7 23.0 0.34
T
TDR 0.02 int. − Tm 0.8
0.02 0.02 0.01 0.020.4 2.0 0.34
TDR 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.009
No. 21 22 23 24 25
Where, TDR = (Tint. − Tm )/(Tint. − Text. ), Tint. = 25 ◦ C, Text. = −15 ◦ C, Tm = measured temperature.
Tm 23.0 23.5 24.4 24.4 24.6
Tint. - Tm 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.6 0.4
TDR 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.01
4. Evaluation of Building Energy Performance
- AverageMax.Min. SD
Previously, several studies were T 24.2 24.6 23.0 0.34
Totalconducted to determine the effect of the heat loss through the
m
thermal bridge of a building envelope on heatingT int. - Tm 0.8 and0.4 2.0 0.34
cooling loads in buildings. Song et al. [24]
TDR
calculated the linear thermal transmittance in major structural 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.009
joints during interior and exterior
insulation construction and compared annual cooling and heating loads to determine the above results.
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 10 of 19
Lee et al. [25] calculated the linear thermal transmittance in major structural joints when applying
exterior insulation precast concrete (PC) walls for calculating the heating load in a building.
In the present study, the annual cooling and heating demand in the building was determined by
finding the linear thermal transmittance in the vertical member areas during the construction of dry
exterior insulation system. Then, a comparison was made of the results and those obtained by the use
of the square pipe with the use of TIF, thus aiming to evaluate quantitatively the energy performance
of the dry exterior insulation system using TIF.
4.1. Evaluation Overview

For the analysis tool to evaluate the building energy performance, the PHPP in Germany was
used. The PHPP is a building energy analysis tool using spreadsheets. It is based on the monthly
calculation method proposed by ISO 13790 [26]. The monthly calculation method calculates the number
of calories, that is, the cooling and heating energy demand, required to maintain heating and cooling set
temperatures for monthly average outdoor air temperatures considering the heat loss due to envelopes,
ventilation, and heat gain resulting from internal heating and solar radiation in a building. Assuming
that there is a continuous heating and cooling operation, this study applied heat gain and heat loss
calorie utilization coefficients when calculating the heating and cooling energy demands in order to
determine the heat capacity of building elements that were in direct contact with indoor air [24].
The building selected to analyze the building energy is shown in Figure 9. It was a one-story
childcare building located in Seoul, and the interior spaces of the insulation material construction line
were all assumed to be a heating space. The thermal transmittance of the exterior wall was assumed to
be at the same level as that of the mock-up specimen. Accordingly, the thermal transmittance of the
window was set to the level of a passive house (refer to Table 5). By referring to the climate data of
the Seoul area, the monthly average outdoor air temperature and solar radiation by direction were
substituted and set temperatures of 20 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C were assumed for heating and cooling, respectively.
It was assumed that the number of occupants was 15, and that the internal caloric value, of 4.10 W/m2 ,
was applied in the childcare facility in the PHPP. Because no additional criteria about the number of
indoor ventilations in the childcare were available, this study assumed 0.5 time/h, along with the use
of a heat-recovery ventilation system.
Table 5. U-values of the envelope.
Materials U-Value
(Exterior) THK30 Stone
-THKVar. Cavity (R = 0.086 (m2 ·K)/W)
Exterior Wall
-THK220 G/W 0.145 W/(m2 ·K)
(Curtain wall)
-THKVar. Cavity (R = 0.086 (m ·K)/W)
2
-THK9.5 Gypsum board (Interior)

(Exterior) THK100 Plain concrete
-Waterproofing membrane
Roof -THK150 Concrete 0.143 W/(m2 ·K)
-THK185 XPS
(Interior) THK50 Heating panel
-THK130 Rigid PU foam board
Floor 0.145 W/(m2 ·K)
-THK30 EPS
-THK150 Concrete (Exterior)
Fenestration Window: 0.878 W/(m2 ·K), Door: 1.392 W/(m2 ·K)
of the Seoul area, the monthly average outdoor air temperature and solar radiation by direction were
substituted and set temperatures of 20 °C and 25 °C were assumed for heating and cooling,
respectively. It was assumed that the number of occupants was 15, and that the internal caloric value,
of 4.10 W/m2, was applied in the childcare facility in the PHPP. Because no additional criteria about
the number
Energies of4486
2020, 13, indoor ventilations in the childcare were available, this study assumed 0.5 time/h,
11 of 19
along with the use of a heat-recovery ventilation system.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW Plan 11 of 18
Figure9.9.Plan
Figure Planand
andelevation
elevationofofthe
theexample
examplebuilding.
building.
4.2. Calculation of Linear Thermal Transmittance
Table 5. U-values of the envelope.
To determine the effect of the vertical member in the dry exterior insulation system, the linear
Materials U-Value
thermal transmittance of the thermal bridge portion in the vertical member was calculated, which was
(Exterior) THK30 Stone
then reflected in the calculation-THKVar.
of cooling and(Rheating
Cavity energy
= 0.086 (m2·K)/W) demand in buildings. In the
Exterior Wall
monthly calculation method, the-THK220
linear thermal transmittance (Ψj )0.145
in the thermal bridge portion
G/W W/(m 2·K)
(Curtain bridge
and corresponding thermal wall) length (l ) were inputted2 and reflected in Equation (1) in the
-THKVar. Cavity
j (R = 0.086 (m ·K)/W)
calculation of envelope heat loss. -THK9.5 Gypsum board (Interior)
 (Exterior) THK100 Plain concrete
X -Waterproofing
X membrane
=  U-THK150
Qtr Roof A + Ψ l  × ft × (θint.set − θ0.143 ) × t 2·K) (1)
 
 i i Concrete
j j ext.mnW/(m
i -THK185j XPS
where (Interior) THK50 Heating panel
Qtr : Envelope heat quantity (MJ), -THK130 Rigid PU foam board
Floor 0.145 W/(m2·K)
-THK30 EPS 2
Ui : Thermal transmittance of general portion i (W/(m ·K)),
-THK150 Concrete (Exterior)
Ai : Area of corresponding 2 ),
portion (mWindow:
Fenestration 0.878 W/(m2·K), Door: 1.392 W/(m2·K)
Ψ j : Linear thermal transmittance of thermal bridge portion j (W/(m·K)),
l j4.2.
: Length of the of
Calculation corresponding
Linear Thermal thermal bridge portion (m),
Transmittance
ft : Temperature coefficient factor (directly facing the outdoor air: 1.0),
To determine the effect of the vertical member in the dry exterior insulation system, the linear
θthermal
int.set : Indoor set temperature
transmittance of the in heatingbridge
thermal or cooling mode
portion (◦ C),vertical member was calculated, which
in the
θwas : Monthly
ext.mn then average
reflected outdoor
in the air temperature
calculation
◦
of cooling( and
C), and
heating energy demand in buildings. In the
t:monthly
Calculation time interval
calculation (Ms).
method, the linear thermal transmittance (Ψj) in the thermal bridge portion and
corresponding thermaltransmittance
The linear thermal (lj) be
bridge lengthcan were inputtedusing
calculated and reflected
Equationin Equation
(2), and the (1) in the calculation
evaluation portion
of envelope heat loss.
to calculate the heat quantity per unit length was set by referring to ISO 10211 [27]. This standard
proposes that if the distance to the symmetry plane is 1 m or smaller than three times the structure
𝑄 𝑈 𝐴 𝛹 𝑙 𝑓 𝜃 . 𝜃 . 𝑡 (1)
thickness in the general portion, the evaluation portion is to be set up at the symmetry plane for
repeated thermal bridge portions, as shown in Figure 10a. This can be used to determine the vertical
where
member of the dry exterior insulation system constructed at a constant distance. To include the effect
𝑄 : Envelope heat quantity (MJ),
𝑈 : Thermal transmittance of general portion i (W/(m2·K)),
𝐴 : Area of corresponding portion (m2),
𝛹 : Linear thermal transmittance of thermal bridge portion j (W/(m·K)),
𝑙 : Length of the corresponding thermal bridge portion (m),
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 12 of 19
of the stainless-steel wire of the TIF, a 3-D shape whose unit height was 1.0 m was set to the final
the effect of
evaluation the stainless-steel
model (refer to Figurewire of In
10b). thethe
TIF, a 3-D
case shape
where whose
square unit
pipes height
were usedwas 1.0vertical
as the m was set to the
member,
final evaluation model (refer to Figure 10b). In the case where square pipes were used as the
a case was set depending on whether the insulation material at the rear side of the square pipe had vertical
member,
been a case was set depending on whether the insulation material at the rear side of the square
constructed.
pipe had been constructed. Φ X
Ψ= − Ui li (2)
∆T𝛷
where Ψ 𝑈 𝑙 (2)
∆𝑇
Ψ:
where Linear thermal conductivity (W/(m·K)),
Φ:
𝛹: Heat quantity
Linear thermalper unit length(W/(m·K)),
conductivity of the evaluation portion (W/m),
∆T:
𝛷: HeatTemperature
quantity difference between
per unit length indoor
of the and outdoor
evaluation portion(K),
(W/m),
U∆𝑇: : Thermal transmittance in the general portion (flanking
i Temperature difference between indoor and outdoor (K), elements) (W/(m2 ·K)), and
l𝑈
i : :Length
Thermalof transmittance
general portionin(flanking elements)
the general portion(m).
(flanking elements) (W/(m2·K)), and
𝑙 : Length of general portion (flanking elements) (m).
(a) 3-D model in TRISCO for the TIF
(b) ISO 10211 cutting planes of linear thermal bridges at

fixed distances
Figure 10. The
Figure10. The 3-D
3-D model
model according
according to
to ISO
ISO 10211.
10211.
Physibel TRISCO 14.0w [28] was used for the heat quantity analysis program for the calculation
Physibel TRISCO 14.0w [28] was used for the heat quantity analysis program for the calculation
of the linear thermal transmittance, and the boundary conditions between indoor and outdoor and
of the linear thermal transmittance, and the boundary conditions between indoor and outdoor and
material properties are presented in Table 6. In the analysis, the cavity layer inside the evaluation model
material properties are presented in Table 6. In the analysis, the cavity layer inside the evaluation
was assumed to be a solid that had an equivalent thermal conductivity. For the continuous cavity layer
model was assumed to be a solid that had an equivalent thermal conductivity. For the continuous
with a large width and height, and which was formed between a stone exterior and insulation material,
cavity layer with a large width and height, and which was formed between a stone exterior and
and between insulation material and gypsum board, the equivalent thermal conductivity was also
insulation material, and between insulation material and gypsum board, the equivalent thermal
calculated and inputted, as presented in Equation (3). This satisfied the energy-saving design criteria
conductivity was also calculated and inputted, as presented in Equation (3). This satisfied the energy-
(Table 6) of the thermal resistance 0.086 (m2 ·K)/W building that was2applied during the calculation of
saving design criteria (Table 6) of the thermal resistance 0.086 (m ·K)/W building that was applied
the 1-D thermal transmittance in the general portion (flanking elements) and a 1.0 cm or thicker air
during the calculation of the 1-D thermal transmittance in the general portion (flanking elements)
layer constructed in sites [3]. For the cavity layer inside the square pipes and TIF, an equivalent thermal
and a 1.0 cm or thicker air layer constructed in sites [3]. For the cavity layer inside the square pipes
and TIF, an equivalent thermal conductivity that was automatically calculated by the program was
used to increase the accuracy of the analysis.
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 13 of 19
conductivity that was automatically calculated by the program was used to increase the accuracy of
the analysis.
dcavity
λeq = (3)
Rcavity
where
λeq : Equivalent thermal conductivity in the cavity layer (W/(m·K)),

dcavity : Design thermal resistance in the cavity layer ((m2 ·K)/W), and
Rcavity : Thickness of the cavity layer (m).
Table 6. Boundary conditions and material properties.
Temperature (◦ C) Surface Heat Transmittance (W/(m2 ·K))

Outdoor −11.3 23.25
Indoor 20.0 9.09
Materials Thermal Conductivity (W/(m·K)) Materials Thermal Conductivity (W/(mK))
Concrete 1.6 Gypsum board 0.18
Steel 53.0 Stone exterior 3.3
Stainless steel 15.0 Glass-wool (G/W) 0.034
The length of the thermal bridge was calculated by determining the width of the elevation by
direction, the distance between vertical members, and the story height. Although there was a slight
difference owing to the location of the door and windows, the construction distance between vertical
members averaged 1.0 m, and the height of the story was assumed to be up to 3.5 m for the length
of the thermal bridge in the vertical member that affected the building energy. Table 7 presents the
calculation results of the thermal transmittance.
The lowest surface temperature on the indoor side of Type A, which has no insulation on the rear
side of the square pipe, was 17.3 ◦ C and the linear thermal transmittance was 0.241 W/(m·K). The lowest
surface temperature on the indoor side of Type B, which took an insulation measure on the rear side
of the square pipe, was 19.3 ◦ C and the linear thermal transmittance was 0.027 W/(m·K). In contrast,
for Type C, which replaced the square pipe with TIF, its linear thermal transmittance was reduced
to 0.010 W/(m·K) and the lowest surface temperature on the indoor side was 19.4 ◦ C. The lowest
internal surface temperature was found on the rear side of the vertical member, but the difference
between the highest and lowest surface temperatures was 0.07 ◦ C, indicating that the deviation in the
surface temperature on the indoor side according to the location of the vertical member was minimal.
For Types A and B, the differences between the highest and lowest temperatures were 2.09 ◦ C and
0.17 ◦ C, respectively; the reduction in the surface temperature on the rear side of the vertical member
was clearly seen in Type A, while it was insignificant in Type B.
Materials Indoor
Indoor
Indoor
Materials
Steel Thermal
Thermal 20.0(W/(m
20.0
20.0
Conductivity
Conductivity
53.0 (W/(m
·K))·K)) Stone Materials
Materials
Stone exterior 9.09
9.09
9.09
Thermal
Thermal Conductivity
Conductivity (W/(mK))
(W/(mK))
Steel Steel
Materials
Materials
Materials
Steel Thermal
Thermal
Thermal 53.0 53.0
Conductivity
Conductivity
Conductivity
53.0 (W/(m
(W/(m
(W/(m·K)) ·K))
·K))
Stone
Materialsexterior
exterior
Materials
Materials
Stone Thermal
exteriorThermal
Thermal 3.33.33.33.3
Conductivity
Conductivity
Conductivity (W/(mK))
(W/(mK))
(W/(mK))
Materials
Materials
Materials
Concrete
Concrete
Stainless steel Thermal
Thermal
Conductivity
Conductivity
1.6
1.6
15.0 (W/(m
(W/(m
(W/(m · K))
· · K))
K)) Materials
Materials
Materials
Gypsum
Gypsum board
board
Glass-wool (G/W) Thermal
Thermal
Conductivity
Conductivity
0.18
0.18
0.034 (W/(mK))
(W/(mK))
(W/(mK))
Stainless
Stainless steel
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
Stainless steel
steel 15.0 15.0
1.61.6
1.6
15.0 Glass-wool
Glass-wool
Gypsum
Gypsum
Gypsum (G/W)
board (G/W)
board
board
Glass-wool (G/W) 0.034 0.034
0.18 0.034
0.18
0.18
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
Steel
Steel 53.0
53.0 1.6
1.6
1.6 Gypsum
Gypsum
Gypsum
Stone
Stone board
board
board
exterior
exterior 0.18
0.18
0.18
3.3 3.3
Steel
Steel
Steel 53.0
53.0
53.0 Stone
Stone
Stone exterior
exterior
exterior 3.33.3
3.3
Stainless
Stainless Steel
Steel
Steelsteel
steel 53.0
53.0
53.0
15.0
15.0 Stone
Glass-wool
Glass-wool exterior
Stoneexterior
Stone exterior
(G/W)
(G/W) 3.3
3.33.3
0.034
0.034
The TheThe length
length
Stainless
Stainless
Stainless of of
length
steel
steel
steel the
of
the thermal
the thermal
thermal bridge
bridge
15.0
15.0
15.0 was
bridge
was was calculated
calculated byby
calculated
Glass-wool
Glass-wool
Glass-wool bydetermining thethe
determining
determining
(G/W)
(G/W)
(G/W) width
the
widthwidth
of of
the
0.034
0.034
0.034 the
of elevation
the bybyby
elevation
elevation
The length
Stainless
Stainless
Stainless steelof the thermal
steel
steel 15.0bridge was calculated
15.0
15.0 Glass-wool
Glass-wool
Glass-wool by determining the0.034
(G/W)
(G/W)
(G/W) width
0.034 of the elevation by
0.034
direction,
thethe
direction,
direction, distance
the between
distance
distance between
between vertical members,
vertical
vertical and
members,
members, and the
and
the story
the
story height.
story Although
height.
height. there
Although
Although was
there
there was wasa slight
a slight
a slight
direction,
The the
length distance between vertical members, and the story height. Although there was a slight
The
Energies 2020,difference
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The
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owing
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of
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owing
owingofofthe
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thermal
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the
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door
the
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calculated
door
and
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thermal and by
calculated
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calculated by
by
windows,
and by
by
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bridge
bridge
bridge
determining
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was
was
was
the
determining
determining
determining the
thethe
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the construction
construction width
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width
width ofofof
of
distance
calculated
calculated
calculated
of
distance
distance
by by
by
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between
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determining
determining
determining
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direction,
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direction,
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distance
distance
the the to
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between location
between
between
between vertical of the
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members,
members,
vertical members, and and windows,
andthe
and the story
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the the construction
height.
height.
story height. Although
Although
Although distance
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there was between
was
was aslight
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aslight
slight vertical
direction,
members
members
members averaged
direction,
direction,
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averaged
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the
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averaged1.01.0
distance
distance
distance m,1.0m, between
m,
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the
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between the vertical
the height
height ofmembers,
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of
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was
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and
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be
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Although
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m3.5m
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owing
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owing
owing
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of height
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the door
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and
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and the story the
windows,
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the assumed
construction
construction
the construction
construction
construction todistance
be up tobetween
distance
distance
distance
distance 3.5
between m for
between
between
between the length of
vertical
vertical
vertical
vertical
vertical
thethethethermal
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difference
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owing
owing
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totothe
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location of member
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and
and affected
affected
affected
windows,
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the
the
the building
building
building
construction
construction
construction energy.
energy.energy. Table
Table
distance
distance
distance Table 7 presents
7between
presents
between
between 7 presents thethethe
vertical
vertical
vertical
the
members
members thermal Table
bridge
averaged
averaged 7.
1.0 inCalculated
m, the and vertical
the linear
height ofthermal
memberof the transmittance
that
story affected
was assumed values.
the building
to be up energy.
to 3.5
mmm Table
for the 7length
presents
length of the
members
members
members
calculation
calculation
calculation
members
members
members
averaged
results
results of1.0
averaged
averaged
results
averaged
averaged
averaged of
the m,
1.0
1.0
the
of
1.0
1.0
1.0
and
m,m,
the
1.0
m,
m, and
thermal
thermal
m,m,
the
and
and
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and
and
and the
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the
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transmittance.
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transmittance.
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height
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story
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story
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was assumed
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was
assumed
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to be
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up
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up
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toto3.5
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3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5 mmm
for
for the
the
for
for
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length
length
length
length
length
length
of
ofofof
ofofof
the calculation
the
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the
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the
the
thermal
thermal
thermal
thermal
results
bridge
bridgebridgeinin
bridge
bridge
bridge
of
the
in the
the
ininthe thethermal
vertical
vertical
the vertical
vertical
vertical transmittance.
member
member member
member
member thatthat
thatthat
that affected
affected
affected
affected
affectedthe the
the the building
building
building
building
building energy.
energy.
energy.
energy.
energy. Table
Table
Table
Table presents
7presents
presents
presents
77presents the
the
thethe
the
the
the thermal
thermal bridge
bridge ininin the
the
the vertical
vertical
vertical member
member
member
(A-type) that
that
that
Steel affected
affected
affected the
the
the
(B-type) building
building
building
Steel Pipe energy.
energy.
energy. Table
Table
Table 7presents
presents
7 7presents the
the
the
calculation
calculation
calculation
calculation
calculation results results
results
results
results ofof ofof
the of
the
thethethe
thermal
TableTablethermal
thermal
thermal
thermal
Table transmittance.
transmittance.
transmittance.
transmittance.
7.transmittance.
Calculated
7.
7. CalculatedCalculated linear
linear linear thermal
thermalthermal transmittance
transmittance
transmittance values.
values.values.
calculation
calculation
calculation results
results
results ofofof
the the
the thermal
thermal
thermal transmittance.
transmittance.
transmittance.
Pipe without the with the
Table 7. Calculated
Additional transmittance values.(C-type) TIF
linear thermal Additional
Table
Table
Table (A-type)
(A-type) Steel
(A-type)
Steel
7.Calculated
Calculated
Calculated
7.Calculated Pipe
Steel
Pipe Pipe
linear
linear
linear (B-type)
thermal
thermal
thermal (B-type)
(B-type) Steel
Steel
transmittance
transmittance
transmittance Pipe
Steel
Pipe with
Pipe
with
values.
values.with
values. (C-type)
TIFTIFTIF
(C-type)
(C-type)
Table
Table 7. 7.
Calculated linear
linear thermal
thermal transmittance
transmittance values.
values.
Table
Table
Tablewithout theInsulation
7.without
Calculated
7.Calculated
Calculated
7.without the
(A-type) linear
linear
linear
Additional
the
Additional
SteelAdditional
Pipe thermal
thermal
thermal
thethe Insulation
transmittance
transmittance
transmittance
the(B-type) values.
values.
values.
Additional
Additional
Additional
Steel Pipe with (C-type) TIF
(A-type)
(A-type)
(A-type)
Insulation
Insulation
Insulation
without
(A-type)
(A-type) Steel Steel
Steel
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the
Steel Pipe
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(B-type)
(B-type)
Insulation Steel
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theSteel
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with
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with
with (C-type)
(C-type)
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TIF
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(A-type)
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(B-type)
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with
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TIF
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without
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the the
the Additional the
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without
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Isothermal
Isothermal
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(2D) (2D)
(Increment
(Increment
(Increment = 1.0℃)
= 1.0℃) =(2D)
1.0℃)
Isothermal
Isothermal
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Isothermal (2D)
(2D)(2D)
(2D)
Isothermal
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Isothermal
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(2D)
(2D) (2D)
(2D)
(Increment
(Increment
(Increment =
(Increment
(Increment
(Increment
=1.0
==1.0℃)◦ C)
=1.0℃)
1.0℃)
1.0℃)
=1.0℃)
1.0℃)
(Increment
(Increment
(Increment
(Increment ==1.0℃)
= 1.0℃)=1.0℃)
Images
Images
Images
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Images Isothermal
Images
Images Isothermal
Isothermal
(3D)(3D) (3D)
Images
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Images
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Images
(Increment
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(Increment = 0.1℃)
= 0.1℃)
Isothermal
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(3D) 0.1℃)
(3D)
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(3D) (3D)
(3D)
(3D)
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(Increment
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(Increment =0.1℃)
=0.1℃)0.1℃)
(Increment
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(Increment =
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= 0.1℃)
=0.1℃)
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Temperature
TemperatureTemperature profileprofile
profile
X-axis
X-axis X-axis
: grids
Temperature
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Temperature
Temperature
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Y-axis
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Y-axis
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Range Range :
X-axis
Range :
: (17~20℃)
(17~20℃) grids Temperature
Temperature
: Temperature
: grids
grids
: grids
(17~20℃)
X-axis:
Y-axis
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Y-axis : Temperature
: Temperature
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Indoor lowest Y-axis
Y-axis :Range
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Y-axis
Y-axis:
surface :Temperature
RangeTemperature
Temperature
: (17~20℃)(17~20℃)
(17~20℃)
Temperature
temperature
IndoorIndoor
lowest lowest
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surface
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surface (17~20℃)
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(17–20 temperature
temperature
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temperature ◦ C) 17.3℃
17.3℃ 17.3℃ 19.3℃19.3℃
19.3℃ 19.4℃
19.4℃ 19.4℃
(Indoor
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lowest
lowest temperature
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surface 20℃) 20℃) 20℃)
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17.3℃ 19.3℃
19.3℃ 19.4℃
19.4℃
17.3℃ 19.3℃ 19.4℃
Indoor
Indoor (Indoor
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lowestlowest air
airair temperature
temperature
temperature
surface
surface temperature
temperature 20℃) 20℃)
20℃) 𝛹 𝛹 17.3℃
17.3℃
17.3℃ 19.3℃
19.3℃
19.3℃ 19.4℃
19.4℃
19.4℃
Indoor
Linear
IndoorLinear
lowestLinear
thermallowest
thermal
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(Indoor
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air air
air surface
transmittance,
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temperature
temperature
temperature temperature𝛹
20℃) 20℃)
20℃) 0.234
0.234 W/(m·K)
0.234
W/(m·K)W/(m·K) 0.027
0.027 W/(m·K)
0.027
W/(m·K)W/(m·K) 0.010
0.010 W/(m·K)
0.010 W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
𝛹𝛹𝛹 17.3℃
17.3℃ ◦C
17.3℃ 19.3℃
19.3℃ ◦C19.3℃ 19.4℃
19.4℃
◦W/(m·K)
Total Linear
Linear
Linear
(Indoor
(Indoor
Total Total
length
(Indoor
Linear
Linear
Linear air air
length thermal
thermal
thermal
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temperature
length
air
thermal
thermal
thermal of of
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linearlinear
temperature thermal
transmittance,
transmittance, 20℃)
thermal
transmittance,◦ C) 20℃)
thermal
20℃) 𝛹𝛹𝛹
0.234
0.234
0.234
0.234
0.234
0.234
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
17.3W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
0.027
0.027
0.027
19.3
0.027
0.027
0.027
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
0.010
0.010
0.010
19.4
0.010
0.010
0.010
C 19.4℃
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
(Indoor air temperature
Total length 20
oflinear 251.8m
251.8m 251.8m
Total
Linear
Linear Total
thermal
Total
Total
Total
length
length
bridges,
bridges,
thermal ofof𝑙linear
bridges,
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length
length
length of 𝑙linear
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oflinear
linear
oftransmittance,
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thermal𝛹𝛹𝛹
thermal
thermal
thermal 0.234
0.234 W/(m·K)
W/(m·K) 0.027
0.027 W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
251.8m
251.8m
251.8m 0.010
0.010 W/(m·K)
W/(m·K)
Linear thermal bridges,
bridges,
bridges, 𝑙𝑙𝑙 Ψ 0.234 W/(m·K) 0.027
251.8m
251.8m
251.8m W/(m·K) 0.010 W/(m·K)
Linear thermal
Total
Total length transmittance,
length of of linear
linear
bridges,
bridges,
bridges, 𝑙
thermal𝑙 𝑙
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Total length of linear thermal 251.8m
251.8m
The The The
lowest bridges,
bridges,
lowestlowest surface 𝑙surface
𝑙surface temperature
temperature onon
temperature on
the the indoor
the
indoor side
indoor
side of of
side Type
of
Type A,A,
Type 251.8m
which
A,
which hashas
which no
has
no noinsulation onon
insulation
insulation thethe
on
the
Total length of linearThe thermal
bridges,
lowest 𝑙
bridges,
surface li
temperature on the indoor side 251.8 m
The
The lowest
lowest surface
surface temperature
temperature ononthe
the indoor
indoor side
side ofofof
TypeType
Type A, A,
A, which
which
which hashas
hasno
nono insulation
insulation
insulationon
onon
thethe
the
rear
rear side
rear
side The
The
The
side
of of
the lowest
lowest
lowest
the
of square
the
square surface
surface
surface
squarepipe,
pipe, temperature
temperature
temperature
pipe,
waswas was17.3
17.3 17.3
°C on
°C on
onthe
and
°C
and the
and
the the indoor
indoor
indoor linear
the
linear linearside
side
side ofofof
thermal
thermalthermal Type
Type
Type A, A,
A, which
which
which
transmittance
transmittance
transmittance has
has
has
was no
was no
no
was insulation
insulation
insulation
0.241
0.241 on
W/(m·K).
0.241 on
on
W/(m·K).
W/(m·K). ThetheThe
the
theThe
rearrear
rear
The
The side
side
side ofofof
the
lowest
lowest the
the square
square
square
surface
surface pipe,
pipe,
pipe, waswas
was
temperature
temperature 17.3
17.3
17.3
on°C
on°C
°Candand
and
thethe the
thethe
indoor
indoor linear
linear
linear
side thermal
thermal
thermal
side of of
Type transmittance
transmittance
transmittance
Type A,A, which
which has was
was
was
has
no 0.241
0.241
0.241
no W/(m·K).
W/(m·K).
W/(m·K).
insulation
insulation onThe
on The
The
the the
lowest
lowest rear
rear
rear
lowest side
side
side ofof
surface of
surface
surface the
the
the square
square
square
temperature pipe,
pipe,
pipe,
temperature
temperature on on was
was
was the
on
the 17.3
17.3
17.3 °C
indoor
the
indoor °C
°C
indoorand
and
and
side the
side the
the
side
of of linear
linear
linear
TypeType
of Type
B, thermal
thermal
thermal
B, which
B,
which transmittance
transmittance
transmittance
which took
took took
an an an was
was
was
insulation0.241
0.241
0.241
insulation
insulation W/(m·K).
W/(m·K).
W/(m·K).
measure
measure
measure on on The
The
The on
the theon the
4.3. Analysis oflowest
rear
rear the
side
The
lowest
lowest lowest
surface
surface
surface
Reduction
sideof of
thethesquare
surface
temperature
temperature
temperature
Effect
square of
pipe,
pipe,
temperature
on
on
Annual
waswas on
the
17.3 the
the indoor
indoor
Cooling
17.3
°C °C
onside
indoor
and
and
the
and
the side
side
the
indoor
ofofof Type
Type
Type
Heating
linear
linear
side
B,
B,B,
thermal
thermal
of Type
which
which
which
Energy took
took
took
Demand A,
an
anan
transmittance
transmittance
which
insulation
waswas
has
insulation
insulation no insulation
measure
measure
measure
0.241
0.241 on on
on
W/(m·K).
W/(m·K). thethethe
the
TheThe
lowest
lowest
lowest surface
surface
surface temperature
temperature
temperature on on
on the
the
the indoor
indoor
indoor side
side
side ofofof Type
Type
Type B,B,B, which
which
which took
took
took an
anan insulation
insulation
insulation measure
measure
measure on on
on the
the
the
rear side of the square pipe, was 17.3 °C and the linear thermal transmittance was 0.241 W/(m·K). The
lowest
lowest surface
surface temperature
temperature onon the
the indoor
indoor side
side ofof Type
Type B,B, which
which took
took anan insulation
insulation measure
measure onon the
the
The calculation results
lowest surface of the annual
temperature on cooling and
the indoor heating
side energy
of Type demand
B, which using
took an the PHPP
insulation are
measure on the
presented in Table 8. To estimate the overall effect of the thermal bridge on the vertical member,
the cooling and heating energy demand was calculated in Case 1 without determining the linear
thermal transmittance. In Case 1, the annual heating and cooling energy demands were 15.68 kWh/m2
and 9.53 kWh/m2 , respectively.
In Table 8, Cases 2 to 4 show the results of the linear thermal transmittance of the thermal bridge
in Types A, B, and C in Table 7. The annual heating energy demands of Cases 2 to 4 were 25.42, 16.78,
and 16.09 kWh/m2 , which increased by 62.1, 7.0, and 2.6%, respectively, compared to that of Case 1.
For Case 2, for which there was no insulation measure on the rear side of the square pipe, the increased
rate of heat loss relative to that of Case 1 was more than 60%, which indicated that measures should
be taken to reduce the heat loss in the corresponding thermal bridge portion in order to decrease the
actual heating energy. For Case 3, for which there was a measure of insulation on the rear side of the
square pipe, the rate and amount of increase were 7.0% and 1.10 kWh/m2 , respectively, which were
significantly reduced compared to those of Case 2. For the case that involved replacing the square pipe
with TIF, the rate and amount of increase were 2.6% and 0.41 kWh/m2 , respectively, which indicated
that the heating energy demand was the lowest.
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 15 of 19
Table 8. Annual heating and cooling energy demands.
Case 1 Case 2: A-Type Case 3: B-Type

Case 4: C-Type
(Without Thermal (Steel Pipe Without the (Steel Pipe with the
(TIF)
Month Bridges) Additional Insulation) Additional Insulation)
Heating Cooling Heating Cooling Heating Cooling Heating Cooling
(kWh/m2 ) (kWh/m2 ) (kWh/m2 ) (kWh/m2 ) (kWh/m2 ) (kWh/m2 ) (kWh/m2 ) (kWh/m2 )
1 5.00 0.00 7.45 0.00 5.28 0.00 5.11 0.00
2 3.55 0.00 5.49 0.00 3.77 0.00 3.63 0.00
3 2.00 0.00 3.56 0.00 2.18 0.00 2.07 0.00
4 0.02 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.00
5 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02
6 0.00 1.67 0.00 1.38 0.00 1.63 0.00 1.66
7 0.00 2.98 0.00 2.98 0.00 2.98 0.00 2.98
8 0.00 3.32 0.00 3.35 0.00 3.32 0.00 3.32
9 0.00 1.53 0.00 1.15 0.00 1.49 0.00 1.52
10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
11 1.17 0.00 2.53 0.00 1.32 0.00 1.23 0.00
12 3.94 0.00 6.10 0.00 4.19 0.00 4.04 0.00
15.68 9.53 25.42 8.87 16.78 9.45 16.09 9.50
Total (-) (-) (+62.1%) (-6.9%) (+7.0%) (-0.8%) (+2.6%) (-0.3%)
25.21 (-) 34.29 (+36.0%) 26.24 (+4.1%) 25.59 (+1.5%)
The cooling energy demands in Cases 2 to 4 were 8.87, 9.45, and 9.50 kWh/m2 , which showed an
opposite trend to those of the heating energy demand, which was due to the increase in the quantity
of lost calories utilized effectively during cooling. The reduction in the cooling energy demand was
around 7% of the increase in the heating energy demand. The total cooling and heating energy demands
were 25.21, 34.29, 26.24, and 25.59 kWh/m2 in Cases 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively, and the total rate of
increase for Case 2 compared to Case 1 was 36.0%, while those of Cases 3 and 4 were, respectively,
4.1% and 1.5% compared to that of Case 1.
Figure 11 shows the percentage of heat loss in the thermal bridge portion of the vertical member
for each case compared to the envelope’s heat loss amount. Of the total heat loss, the percentages
of heat loss in the thermal bridge portion were 25.7, 3.8, and 1.5% in Cases 2, 3, and 4, respectively.
Without the insulation measures on the rear side of the square pipe, the proportion of the heat loss
relative to the total heat loss was 25.7%, which was the highest in all elements in Case 2. Meanwhile,
the proportion of the heat loss through walls, including the thermal bridge, was close to 50% in Case 2.
With the insulation measure on the rear side of the square pipe, the proportion was reduced to 3.8%
and, with the use of TIF, the proportion decreased to 1.5% of the total heat loss.
heat loss in the thermal bridge portion were 25.7, 3.8, and 1.5% in Cases 2, 3, and 4, respectively.
Without the insulation measures on the rear side of the square pipe, the proportion of the heat loss
relative to the total heat loss was 25.7%, which was the highest in all elements in Case 2. Meanwhile,
the proportion of the heat loss through walls, including the thermal bridge, was close to 50% in Case
2. With
Energies the13,insulation
2020, 4486 measure on the rear side of the square pipe, the proportion was reduced to
16 of 19
3.8% and, with the use of TIF, the proportion decreased to 1.5% of the total heat loss.
Figure 11. Percentage

Figure 11. Percentage of
of heat
heat lost
lost through
through thermal
thermal bridges.
bridges.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
This study evaluated the site applicability of the dry exterior insulation system by conducting a
This study evaluated the site applicability of the dry exterior insulation system by conducting a
performance evaluation of the overall envelope using TIF. The TIF was developed to minimize the heat
performance evaluation of the overall envelope using TIF. The TIF was developed to minimize the
loss through metal vertical members, which were major thermal bridge portions in the dry exterior
heat loss through metal vertical members, which were major thermal bridge portions in the dry
insulation system. The main results of the study are as follows:
exterior insulation system. The main results of the study are as follows:
(1)
(1) For theoverall
For the overallenvelope
envelope performance
performance evaluation,
evaluation, the the structural
structural performance,
performance, air leakage,
air leakage, water
water penetration performance, insulation performance, and
penetration performance, insulation performance, and condensation prevention performance condensation prevention
performance
were determined. wereThe determined. The structural
structural performance performance
test results showedtest thatresults showed
both the allowablethatvalues
both
thethe
of allowable
maximum values of the maximum
and residual deflections and residual
were robust deflections
to the designwere robust
wind to the and
pressure, design
the wind
inter-
pressure, and the inter-story drift test results also indicated that no
story drift test results also indicated that no problems occurred in the forms and functions,problems occurred in the
forms andthe
verifying functions,
robustnessverifying
to windthe and
robustness
seismictoloads.
wind The
and seismic loads.
air leakage and The air leakage
water and
penetration
water penetration
performance performance
test results test results
also satisfied also satisfied
the allowable the allowable
air leakage air leakage
rate, and rate, and
no additional no
water
additional water leakage occurred. The fire resistance test results also verified
leakage occurred. The fire resistance test results also verified that there was thermal insulation that there was
thermal
and fireinsulation
integrity andfor fire integrity
30 min, for 30 min,
satisfying the satisfying the firestructure
fire resistance resistanceapproval
structurecriteria
approvalof
criteria of nonbearing
nonbearing walls. walls.
(2) The insulation
(2) The insulationperformance
performance test test
results showed
results that when
showed thatusing
whenthe TIF,
usingthethe
thermal
TIF, transmittance
the thermal
was 2 ·K),
transmittance was 0.15 W/(m ·K), which was an increase of 3.4% compared to the1-D
0.15 W/(m which was an
2 increase of 3.4% compared to the calculated value of thermal
calculated
transmittance without considering the thermal bridge. Further, the results
value of 1-D thermal transmittance without considering the thermal bridge. Further, the results verified that the heat
loss was significantly reduced at the thermal bridge portion compared to a thermal transmittance
of 0.19 W/(m2 ·K) when using the square pipe.
(3) The condensation prevention performance test results showed that the difference between the
surface temperature on the indoor side and the air temperature in the constant-temperature room
was within 2.0 ◦ C, indicating that condensation was unlikely to occur.
(4) The annual heating energy demand of the target building was calculated to determine the linear
thermal transmittance in the thermal bridge portion, and the results showed that, when using the
TIF, the thermal transmittance was 16.09 kWh/m2 , a reduction of 36.7% compared to 25.42 kWh/m2 ,
which was the annual heating energy demand of the dry exterior insulation system without
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 17 of 19
the additional insulation measure. Further, it was reduced by 4.1% compared to 16.78 kWh/m2 ,
which was taken with the insulation measure.
(5) The proportion of heat loss in the vertical member compared to the heat quantity loss in the
envelope was 25.7% in the case involving the use of the square pipe without the insulation
measure in the rear side, which was very high. The proportion was 3.8% with the insulation
measure on the rear side of the square pipe, and 1.5% when using the TIF, which showed a
decreasing trend.
(6) In conclusion, when using the TIF by replacing existing square pipes or C channels, the effects of a
significant reduction in thermal bridge through the corresponding portion, as well as a reduction
in the heating energy demand, are expected.
For future studies, the construction performance and economic feasibility of the dry exterior
insulation system using TIF will be analyzed through a number of site applications.
Author Contributions: J.-H.S. performed the simulation and data analysis. C.-Y.P. wrote this paper, and J.-W.J.
validated the results. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant
(No. 2019R1A2C2002514).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
Tint. Indoor temperature [◦ C]
Text. Outdoor temperature [◦ C]
Tm Measured temperature on indoor surface [◦ C]
Qtr Envelope heat quantity [MJ]
Ui Thermal transmittance of general portion i [W/(m2 ·K)]
Ai Area of corresponding portion i [m2 ]
Ψj Linear thermal transmittance of thermal bridge portion j [W/(m·K)]
lj Length of the corresponding thermal bridge portion j [m]
ft Temperature coefficient factor (directly facing the outdoor air: 1.0)
θint,set Indoor set temperature in heating or cooling mode [◦ C]
θe,mn Monthly average outdoor air temperature [◦ C]
t Calculation time interval [Ms]
Ψ Linear thermal transmittance [W/(m·K)]
Φ Heat quantity per unit length of the evaluation portion [W/m]
∆T Temperature difference between indoor and outdoor [K]
Ui Thermal transmittance in the general portion [W/(m2 ·K)]
li Length of general portion [m]
λeq Equivalent thermal transmittance in the cavity layer [W/(mK)]
Rcavity Design thermal resistance in the cavity layer [(m2 ·K)/W]
Dcavity Thickness of the cavity layer [m]
TIF Truss insulation frame
PHPP Passive house planning package
cfm Cubic feet / minute
CRC board Cellulose fiber reinforced cement board
THK Thickness
TDR Temperature difference ratio
ISO International Standard Organization
MJ Mega Joule (106 )
Ms Minutes
G/W Glass wool
XPS Extruded polystyrene sheet
PU Polyurethane
EPS Expanded polystyrene sheet
Energies 2020, 13, 4486 18 of 19
References
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Thesis, Kyonggi University, Suwon, Korea, 2013.
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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energies

1.1. Background and Objective

Energies 2020, 13, 4486; doi:10.3390/en13174486 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

1.2. Methods and Procedures

Energies 2020, 13, 4486 3 of 19

Figure 1. Truss insulation frame (TIF).

Figure 2. Configuration of the dry exterior insulation system using TIFs.

3. Performance Test Results

Table 1. Results of the curtain wall mock-up test.

Results Criterion Standard for Test Method

3.2. Air Leakage and Water Penetration Performance

(a) Furnace side (b) Outdoor air side

Figure 7. Test specimen for the dry exterior insulation

3.5. Condensation Prevention Performance

Table 4. Test results of condensation risk (Unit: ◦ C).

4.1. Evaluation Overview

Table 5. U-values of the envelope.

-THK9.5 Gypsum board (Interior)

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW Plan 11 of 18

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

(a) 3-D model in TRISCO for the TIF

(b) ISO 10211 cutting planes of linear thermal bridges at

λeq : Equivalent thermal conductivity in the cavity layer (W/(m·K)),

Table 6. Boundary conditions and material properties.

Temperature (◦ C) Surface Heat Transmittance (W/(m2 ·K))

Table 8. Annual heating and cooling energy demands.

Case 1 Case 2: A-Type Case 3: B-Type

Figure 11. Percentage

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