CHEMISTRY-VII, NOTES PREPARED BY Dr.

DHONDIBA VISHWANTH SURYAWANSHI, GFGC, KR PURAM, BENGALURU-36

UNIT-IV
Chemistry of Newer materials 10 hours Max. Marks: 24
Conducting polymers: Introduction, definition and examples- polyaniline,
polyacetylene. Mechanism of conduction. Qualitative treatment of doping.
Properties: elasticity with high electrical conductivities, Engineering and biological
applications. Superconductors: Introduction, definition, type-1, type-2 and
atypical. Preparation of high temperature superconductor- Y1Ba2Cu3Ox ±δ. BCS
theory (qualitative treatment only) and general applications of high temperature
super conductors. Fullerenes: Introduction, definition, preparation and isolation
of C60. Structure and chemical reactions (redox reactions, electrophilic aromatic
substitution and bromination) of C 60. Commercial uses of C60.Carbon nanotubes-
Introduction, definition, examples and structure. Nanomaterials: Introduction,
definition and structure. Different methods of production: Sol gel synthesis, inert
gas condensation, mechanical alloying (ball milling), plasma synthesis, electro
deposition, and general applications.

Introduction: The branch chemistry deals with the study of new materials and
they having very unique application in the various instruments which are useful
to human beings called Newer materials. (The word Newer materials means
new materials)

Examples:

1) Conducting polymers
2) Superconductors
3) High temperature super conductors
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4) Fullerenes
5) Carbon nanotubes
6) Nanomaterials

A) Conducting polymers

Definition: Those highly conjugated organic polymer having electrical

conductance property is in the order of conductance called conducting
polymers. An organic polymer with highly delocalized pi-electron system has
ability to transfer of electrons from one end to other end in the polymer
backbone takes place as a result conductance occurred

Examples: Poly-aniline (PANI), Poly-acetylene (PAC).

Conditions for conducting polymer:

1) The polymer must consist of conjugated double bonds.

2) The plastic has to be disturbed either by removing electrons from

(oxidation) or inserting electrons into (reduction) the material. This
process is called doping.

Classification of conducting polymers: These are classified into two types.

(Mechanism of conducting polymers)

1) Intrinsic conducting polymer: Those conduction polymers whose

conducting property not depends on addition of amount of other
material are called intrinsic conducting polymers. These polymers

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required small quantity of other substance which initiates the

conduction. Intrinsic conducting polymers initiates by two methods.

i) Conduction of intrinsic conducting polymers initiates by

thermally or photo chemically: Due to presence of
conjugated pi system in this polymer, it required to activate
the pi electrons to make conduction this can be done by
giving thermal energy or light energy to jump the electrons
from valence band to conduction band; as a result conduction
is takes place.

CH3 CH2
 / h

H3C H2 C
n

Polyacetylene Polyacetylene
conducting polymer

 / h
NH2
H2N NH
NH H2N
N
n
n
Polyaniline Polyaniline
conducting polymer

ii) Conduction of intrinsic conducting polymers initiates by

doping: The conduction of conducting polymer is initiated by
addition of electron or removal of electron by adding other
material is called doping. There are two types of doping,

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a) p-doping: The conduction of intrinsic conducting polymer

is initiate by removing the electron from the conjugated
system by addition of Lewis acid as a result it creates + ve
centre in system which is attract by electrons and hence
the conduction is takes place.

CH3 CH3
[O]
H3C + FeCl 3
H3C
n Lewis acid n
Polyacetylene Polyacetylene
conducting polymer

NH2 [O]
H2N I2 NH2
NH + H2N
Lewis acid NH
n
n
Polyaniline
Polyaniline
conducting polymer

b) n-doping: The conduction of intrinsic conducting polymer

is initiate by adding the electron to the conjugated system
by addition of Lewis base as a result it creates - ve centre
in system which makes transfer of electrons and hence
the conduction is takes place.

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CH3
Na
CH3
[H]

H3C + H3C +
n n
Sodium naphthilide
Polyacetylene Polyacetylene
conducting polymer

Na
NH2 [H]
H2N
NH + H2N
NH2

n Sodium naphthilide NH

Polyaniline n
Polyaniline
conducting polymer

2) Extrinsic conducting polymer: Those conduction polymers whose

conducting property depends on addition of amount of other
material is called extrinsic conducting polymer.

Higher the mass of addition of other materials, higher the

conduction of conducting polymers.

Examples: When carbon black or some metal oxides or metallic

fibres are added to the polymer it becomes conduction. The
minimum concentration of element required for the conductivity is
called percolation threshold. The filler that percolate have more
surface area.

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CH3
H2N NH2
H3C NH
n
n
Polyacetylene
Polyaniline

Properties of conducting polymers:

a) Elasticity with high electrical conductivities: Hydrogels are the classic
representative of soft and elastic materials have been widely consumed in
our daily life, e.g., jellies, paints, cosmetics, and so on. These are generally
hydrophilic in nature and have a capacity to absorb large amount of water
or fluid within the networks formed.
b) The hydrogels show some novel properties, e.g., shape memory elasticity,
fast functionalization with various guest objects, and fast removal of
organic infectants from aqueous solutions, all of which cannot be observed
from non-elastic conducting polymer. They have light-weight, elastic, and
conductive organic sponges with excellent stress-sensing behavior
properties.
c) Hydrogels can be made electrically conductive by embedding various
conducting components (e.g., carbon, conducting polymers, metal nano-
materials) into aqueous gels mainly by physically compositing or forming
co-networks for the potential uses in chemical mimicry of neural networks
implantable electrochemical biosensors.
Applications conducting polymers: These are widely used in Engineering field and
biological field

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CHEMISTRY-VII, NOTES PREPARED BY Dr. DHONDIBA VISHWANTH SURYAWANSHI, GFGC, KR PURAM, BENGALURU-36

I) Applications conducting polymers in the field of

engineering:
a) Conducting polymers are useful in discharging large quantities of static
electricity in computer industries and in chemical industries. This can
be accomplished by coating the conducting polymer over an
insulating surface.
b) Conducting polymers used to coat on the cases of computer monitors
and cell phones because they can absorb harmful electromagnetic
radiation.
c) Conducting polymers used in printed circuit boards are used in electrical
and electronic instruments. They contain copper coated epoxy resins
which are expensive and have less adhesive nature. But polymer sheets
coated with conducting polymers are inexpensive and have better
adhesive properties.
d) Conducting polymers used as artificial intelligent materials: These are
also called as smart materials. The interesting aspect of these materials
is that they can remember configuration and can confirm when
exactly same stimulus is given. This property can be utilized in
generating pass words where high security is required.
e) Conducting polymers are used in the detection of types of
gases present. For example, the resistance of poly pyrrole increases on
contact with NH3 (reducing gas) while the resistance decreases in
presence of NO2(oxidizing gas).
f) Conducting polymers are used in Polymer rechargeable
batteries: Repeated oxidation and reduction of polymeric back
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bone constitutes the principle of polymer rechargeable batteries. For

example, in poly pyrrole lithium cell is useful rechargeable battery
compared to conventional Ni-Cd cell. So, these are environmentally safe
and non-toxic.
g) These are useful as corrosion inhibitors.
h) Conducting polymers are used in Flat Panel Displays (less than 2 mm
thick) which are thinner than liquid crystals displays or plasma displays
i) Conducting polymers are used as Flexible Display Devices for mobile
phones.
II) Applications of conducting polymers in the biological field
or in the medical field
i) Conducting polymers are used in the preparation of artificial nerves i.e.,
biocompatible conductive polymers can be used for transmitting electrical
signals in the body
ii) Conducting polymers are used neural probes and tissue engineering
iii) Conductive polymers are used as a substrate material for controllable drug
delivery
iv) Conducting polymers are used as biosensors in living systems
B) Superconductors
Definition: Those materials which do not acquire resistance at very low
temperature (critical temperature) is called superconductor and the
phenomenon is called super-conductivity.

Conditions of superconductivity (superconductors):

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i) Metals, alloys & inter-metallic compounds should acquire the infinite

electrical conductivity or zero electrical resistivity below the critical
(transition) temperature

ii) Metals, alloys & inter-metallic compounds should acquire

perfect diamagnetism i.e. expulsion of magnetic flux takes
place when cooled below the critical (transition) temperature.
Meissner effect: The exclusion of magnetic flux inside the superconductor
whenever it is cooled below Tc in an externally applied magnetic field then
superconducting material behaves as a perfect diamagnet. This effect is known as
Meissner effect.

Exclusion of magnetic flux

Classification of superconductors: These are classified into three types namely

Type I, type II and atypical super conductors
1) Type I Superconductors: Those superconductors which have only one

critical(transition) temperature point and which lose their

superconductivity very easily or suddenly above critical point when they

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placed in the external magnetic field and they perfectly obey Meissner
effect are called Type – I superconductors
For examples: Pure metals like aluminium at 1.17K, lead-7.2K, mercury-
4.15K, Zinc-0.85K Alloy like TaSi2, covalent doped material like SiC:B.
2) Type II Superconductors: Those superconductors which have two

critical(transition) temperature points and which lose their

superconductivity gradually or slowly between two critical
(transition)points [start from lower critical(transition) temperature point
and ends at upper critical (transition)temperature point] when they placed
in the external magnetic field and they partially obey Meissner effect are
called Type – II superconductors
For examples: The elements like Niobium (Nb), Vanadium (V),
Technetium(Tc). Doped material like Boron doped diamond and silicon,
Metal alloy like Nb : Ti, Nb : Sn, cuprate perovskite (CaTiO 3 ), BaBi3, etc.
3) Atypical superconductors: Those superconductors are made up of

fullerides like C60 which is spherical in shape and do not have high critical
temperature point; are called Atypical superconductors.
Example: Fullerenes (C60)
Differences of Type –I superconductors and Type –II superconductors

Type – I superconductor Type – II superconductor

1) It has only one critical (transition) 1) It has two critical (transition)

temperature point temperature points

2) It obeys Meissner effect perfectly 2) It obeys Meissner effect partially

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3) Superconductivity changes 3) Superconductivity changes slowly

suddenly at critical point between two critical points

4) Examples -Alloy like TaSi2 , covalent 4) Examples -Metal alloy like Nb : Ti,
doped material like SiC:B Nb : Sn, cuprate perovskite (CaTiO3),
BaBi3

C) High temperature Superconductors

Definition: Those materials which are behaves superconductors from lower to
higher temperature (at particular above highest temperature superconductity
lost) are called High-temperature superconductors.
Examples: i) Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO) and ii) yttrium
barium copper oxide (YBCO).
Preparation of high temperature superconductor-yttrium barium copper oxide
(YBCO): This is first material discovered as superconductor at above its boiling
point of nitrogen liquid (77K). The chemical formula of YBCO is Y1Ba2Cu3O7-δ. This
also called Y123 (Y:Ba:Cu::1:2:3).The superconducting state of YBCO can vary from
δ=0 to 0.5. Beyond 0.5, it changes into insulating state. YBCO is a type-II
superconductor with a mixed state.
1) YBCO can be prepared by heating a mixture of the metal carbonates at
the temperature between 1000 K and 1300 K.
1000K - 1300K Temp
Y2(CO3)3 +BaCO3 +6CuCO3 + (1/2 - x)O2 2YBa2Cu3O7-x + 13CO2

YBCO

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The superconducting state of YBCO can vary from δ=0 to 0.5. Beyond 0.5, it
changes into insulating state.

2) YBCO prepared by heating a mixture of the metal carbonate and metals

oxides in stoichiometric ratio

0.5Y2O3 (s) + 2BaCO3 (s) + 3CuO (s) YBa2Cu3O7- (s) + 2CO2 (g)

The superconducting state of YBCO where δ=0.5. Beyond 0.5, it changes

into insulating state.

BCS Theory of Superconductivity:

BCS stands for Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer. The BCS theory explains the
super conductivity of only TYPE I superconductors and does not explain TYPE II
superconductors. This theory can be explains using following points.
1) The valence electrons present in the superconductor gets paired, pairing
of electrons close to the Fermi level into Cooper pairs by interaction with
the crystal (Cooper pairs are a pair of electrons with opposite spins that are
loosely bound at absolute temperatures due to electron-lattice interactions)
2) This pairing of electrons takes place by slight attraction between the
electrons of crystal lattice. The process of coupling or pairing of electrons is
called phonon interaction.
3) Pairing of electrons can behave very differently from single electrons which
are fermions and must obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
4) The pair of electrons acts as bosons which can condense into the same
energy level.

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5) At the temperature, the thermal energy becomes less than the band gap
then the material acquires zero resistivity and behave superconductor.
Merits of BCS Theory:
1) This theory satisfactorily explain the superconductivity of Type I
superconductors.
2. This theory satisfactorily explains the superconductivity based on classical
mechanics.
3. This theory satisfactorily explain the relative superconductivity between
metals
Demerits of BCS Theory: This theory fails to explain the superconductivity of
Type II superconductors.
General applications of high temperature super conductors:

1) High temperature superconductors are used in the production of sensitive

magnetometers based on SQUIDs(Superconducting Quantum Interference
Devices (“SQUIDs”)
2) High temperature superconductors are used in the fast digital circuits
(including those based on Josephson junctions and rapid single flux
quantum technology),
3) High temperature superconductors are used in the powerful
superconducting electromagnets which is used in maglev trains, Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
machines, magnetic confinement fusion reactors (e.g. tokomaks), and the
beam-steering and focusing magnets used in particle accelerators
4) low-loss power cables

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5) High temperature superconductors are used in the RF and microwave filters

(e.g., for mobile phone base stations, as well as military ultra-
sensitive/selective receivers)
6) High temperature superconductors are used in the fast fault current
limiters
7) high sensitivity particle detectors, including the transition edge sensor, the
superconducting bolometer, the superconducting tunnel junction detector,
the kinetic inductance detector, and the superconducting nanowire single-
photon detector
8) High temperature superconductors are used in the railgun and coilgun
magnets
9) High temperature superconductors are used in the electric motors and
generators.

Drawbacks of high temperature superconductors: High temperature

superconductors are brittle ceramics which are very expensive to manufacture
and not easily formed into any desired shape.

D) Fullerenes
Definition: Fullerenes are the allotropic form of carbon which are available in the
form of hollow spheres, ellipsoids, tubes and many other shapes. The spherical
fullerenes, also referred to as Buckminster fullerenes (bulky balls) resemble the
balls used in football (soccer). Cylindrical fullerenes are also called carbon
nanotubes (buckytubes). Fullerenes are similar in structure to the graphites,
which is composed of stacked graphenes sheets of linked hexagonal rings; they
may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.
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Preparation fullerenes mixture (C60 and C80)

1) Old method: The fullerenes are prepared by passing a large amount of
current between the two graphite electrodes in presence of inert
atmosphere. During the discharging, a mixture of C60 and C70 nano-particles
of fullerenes is obtained
2) Modern method: When a mixture of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
containing 13 hexagons and 3 pentagons is subjected to flash vacuum
pyrolysis at 11000C, to form a fullerenes with low yield about 0.01-0.1%.
Isolation of C60: Isolation of C60 can be done using following two methods
1) Isolation of C60 by HPLC method: Fullerene obtained from any method
contains a mixture of C60, C70 and other higher homologue. This mixture is
subjected to HPLC process. During this process C60 fullerene is isolated.
2) By extraction method: Fullerene obtained from any method contains a
soot mixture of C60, C70 and other higher homologue is extracted with
toluene. During extraction, C60 and C70 are soluble in toluene and other
higher homologue remains insoluble in toluene. This mixture is subjected to
filtration, during filtration insoluble components and other homologues are
removed. Then the filtrate is evaporated to get residue. This residue is
again redissolved in toluene and subjected to column chromatography. The
first eluent C60 with purple colour is isolated and next eluent of C 70 with
reddish brown colour is also isolated.
Structures of Fullerene C60: Fullerenes consist of 20 hexagonal and
12 pentagonal rings as the basis of icosahedral symmetry closed cage structure.
Each carbon atom is bonded to three others and is sp2 hybridized. The C60
molecule has two bond lengths - the 6:6 ring bonds can be considered "double
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bonds" and are shorter than the 6:5 bonds. C60 is not" super-aromatic" as it tends
to avoid double bonds in the pentagonal rings, resulting in poor electron
delocalization. As a result, C60 behaves like an electron deficient alkenes and
reacts readily with electron rich species i.e. it undergoes nucleophilic substitution
reaction. The geodesic and electronic bonding factors in the structure account for
the stability of the molecule. In theory, an infinite number of fullerenes can exist,
their structure based on pentagonal and hexagonal rings, constructed according
to rules for making icosahedral. This is shown in below diagram

Chemical reactions of Fullerenes C60:

1. Redox reactions of fullerene C60: C60 undergo Birch reduction reaction, it

reacts with lithium in liquid ammonia followed by tertiary butanol to form a

mixture of polyhydrofullerens.such as C60H18, C60H32, C60H36. This mixture of
polyhydrofullerenes can be reoxidized by 2, 3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-
benzoquinone to gives C60.

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Li / Liquid NH 3 [O]
C60 + [H] C60H18 + C60H32 + C60H36
O
C60
ter - Butanol
Fullerene Reduced
NC Cl Oxydised
fullerene
Fullerene
NC Cl

2. Electrophilic aromatic substitution: C60 undergo electrophilic substitution

reaction using ferric chloride as catalyst to form monochloro substituted
fullerene, C60
FeCl 3
C60 Ar + Cl 2 C60 Ar Cl + HCl

Where Ar = phenyl, tolyl, anisyl, tert-butylphenyl, fluorophenyl, tri-

methylsilylphenyl and thienyl.

3. Bromination reaction of fullerene C60 : When fullerene C60 undergo

bromination reaction to 1,3 and 1,4 addition reaction takes place to C 60Br6 which
is on time passing to form C60Br8, then C60Br14 and finally C60Br18

Br2 Br2 Br2

C60 + 3Br2 C60Br6 C60Br8 C60Br14 C60Br18

Commercial uses of C60:

1) It is used as anti-inflammatory agent by trapping free radicals generated

during allergic reaction.
2) It is used as antioxidant agent to fight the deterioration (abnormal) of
motor function due to multiple sclerosis.
3) It is used in the production of solar cells by combining with nanotutes and
polymers

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4) It is used to store hydrogen as a fuel tank for hydrogen powered cars.

5) It is used to reduce the growth of bacteria in pipes and membranes in
water systems
6) It is used in inhibiting the spread of the HIV virus by binding HIV molecules
with proteins
7) It is used in antidepressant by acting on CNS
8) It is used in the cancer therapy
9) It is used in treatment of macular degradation
10) It is used in the treatment of diabetic mellitus
11) It is used in longevity as life span enhancer

E) Carbon nanotubes
Meaning: A carbon nanotube is a tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having
a diameter measuring on the nanometer (10-9m) scale. A nanometer is one-
billionth of a meter, or about 10,000 times smaller than a human hair. CNT are
unique because the bonding between the atoms is very strong and the tubes can
have extreme aspect ratios. A carbon nanotube can be as thin as a few
nanometers yet be as long as hundreds of microns. To put this into perspective, if
your hair had the same aspect ratio, a single strand would be over 40 meters long.
Examples: Diamond, Graphite, Graphenes, etc.
Classification of carbon nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are classified into two
types
1) Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes: Single-walled carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs) have a diameter of close to 1 nanometer, and can be many
millions of times longer. The structure of a SWCNT can be conceptualized

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by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of graphite called graphene into a

seamless cylinder. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are hollow,
long cylinders with extremely large aspect ratios, made of one atomic sheet
of carbon atoms in a honeycomb lattice. They possess extraordinary
thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties. This is shown in diagram

2) Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes: Multi Walled Carbon nanotubes are hollow,

cylindrically shaped allotropes of carbon that have a high aspect ratio (length to
diameter ratio). Their name is derived from their structure and the walls are
formed by multiple one-atom-thick sheets of carbon. MWNTs consist of multiple
rolled layers of concentric nanotubes of graphene inside other nanotubes. This is
shown in diagram

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Structure of Carbon Nanotubes: In order to visualize how nanotubes are built up,
we start with graphite, which is the most stable form of crystalline carbon.
Graphite consists of layers of carbon atoms. Within the layers the atoms are
arranged at the corners of hexagons which fill the whole plane.

Different types of structures of carbon nano tubes

The bonding in carbon nanotubes is sp², with each atom joined to three
neighbors, as in graphite. The tubes can therefore be considered as rolled-up
graphene sheets (graphene is an individual graphite layer). There are three
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distinct ways in which a graphene sheet can be rolled into a tube, as shown in the
diagram. The first two of these, known as “armchair” (top left) and “zig-zag”
(middle left) have a high degree of symmetry. The terms "armchair" and "zig-zag"
refer to the arrangement of hexagons around the circumference. The third class
of tube, which in practice is the most common, is known as chiral, meaning that it
can exist in two mirror-related forms. An example of a chiral nanotube is shown at
the bottom left. The structure of a nanotube can be specified by a vector, (n, m),
which defines how the graphene sheet is rolled up.
Applications of carbon nanotubes:
1) These are used in micro- and nano-electronics
2) These are used in making of flat-panel displays
3) These are used in making of Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) tips
4) These are used in manufacturing of Ultra-capacitors
5) These are used in Radar-absorbing coating
6) These are used in Technical textiles
7) These are used in Gas storage
8) These are used in Power applications, Sensors and Biosensors
9) These are used in Conductive Adhesives & Connectors and Thermal
Materials
10) These are used in Biomedical Applications
F) Nanomaterials
Meaning: Nanomaterials are the particles (crystalline or amorphous) of
organic or inorganic materials having size range of 1-100 nm. Nanomaterials
are classified into nanostructured materials that are referred to condensed

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bulk materials which are nanometer in size and nanophase/nanoparticle

materials are basically dispersive nanoparticles.

Classification of nanomaterials: Depending on the dimension in which the

size effect on the resultant property becomes apparent, the nanomaterials can
be classified as

1) Zero dimensional (quantum dots): The zero dimensional nanomaterials in

which the movement of electrons is confined in all three dimensions

Fullerenes (0D)

2) One-dimensional (quantum wires): The one-dimensional nanomaterials in

which the electrons can only move freely in the X-direction(in only one
direction)

Nanotubes(1D)

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3) Two-dimensional (thin films): The two-dimensional nanomaterials in

which case the free electron can move in the X-Y plane(in only two
directions)

Graphene(2D)

4) Three dimensional (nanostructured material built of nanoparticles as

building blocks): The three dimensional nanomaterials in which the free
electron can move in the X, Y and Z directions (in all three directions)

Graphite (3D) Diamond(3D)

Different methods of production of Nano materials: There are five widely known
methods to produce nanomaterials, and they are as follows:

1) Sol-gel synthesis 2) Inert gas condensation 3) Mechanical alloying or high-

energy ball milling 4) Plasma synthesis and 5) Electrodeposition.
1) Sol-gel synthesis:

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Principle: This method is used for the production of ceramic nanostructured

polymers as well as oxide nanoparticles. The synthesis takes place under relatively
mild conditions and low temperatures.The term sol refers to dispersion of solid
particles in water or organic solvents. In sol-gel process, conversion of material
from a liquid sol state to solid gel state via a sol- gel transformation. On controlled
heat treatment in air can transform gels into a ceramic oxide material
nanoparticles
Procedure: Sol–gel method mainly undergoes hydrolysis, condensation, and
drying process to deliver the final metal oxide which are nanostructured. The
formation of metal oxide involves different consecutive steps, initially the
corresponding metal precursor undergoes rapid hydrolysis to produce the metal
hydroxide solution, followed by immediate condensation which leads to the
formation of three-dimensional gels. After that the gel is subjected to drying
process and the resulting product is readily converted to Xerogel or Aerogel based
on the mode of drying. Sol–gel method can be classified into two ways, such as
aqueous sol–gel and non-aqueous sol–gel methods depending on the nature of
the solvent utilized. If water is used as reaction medium it is known as aqueous
sol–gel method and use of organic solvent as reaction medium for sol–gel process
is termed as non-aqueous sol–gel. The reaction pathway for the production of
metal oxide nanostructures in the sol–gel method is shown in below diagram. In
the sol–gel method, nature of metal precursor and solvent plays a significant role
in the synthesis of metal oxides nanoparticles

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2) Inert gas condensation method: The inert gas evaporation–condensation

(IGC) technique, in which nano particles are formed via the evaporation of a
metallic source in an inert gas, has been widely used in the synthesis of
ultrafine metal particles.
In this process a metal is evaporated inside an ultra high
vacuum(UHV) chamber filled with helium inert gas. The vaporized metals
collide with helium molecules thus losing kinetic energy. As collisions
increases the movement of particles decreases as a result super saturation
of the metallic particles achieved. At high super saturation, the vapours
rapidly form number of clusters. These clusters get condensed on cold

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liquid nitrogen surfaces to form nanoparticles. This is shown in diagram

3) Mechanical alloying or high-energy ball milling method of synthesis:

The following steps involved in this method

i. This method consists of balls and a mill chamber. It contains a stainless

steel container and many small iron, hardened steel, silicon carbide, or
tungsten carbide balls are made to rotate inside a mill (drum).
ii. The powder of a material is taken inside the steel container. This powder
will be made into nanoparticles using the ball milling technique. A magnet
is placed outside the container to provide the pulling force to the material

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and this magnetic force increases the milling energy when milling container
or chamber rotates the metal balls.
iii. The ball to material mass ratio is normally maintained at 2 :1
iv. These silicon carbide balls provide very large amount of energy to the
material become powder and this powder is then get crushed. This process
of ball milling is done approximately 100 to 150 hrs to get uniform fine
powder.
v. Ball milling is a mechanical process and thus all the structural and chemical
changes are produced by mechanical energy to produce nanoparticles
Examples: Metastable a-Fe2O3−MO2 (M: Ti and Sn) solid solutions by high-energy
milling for C2H5OH detection.
4) Plasma method of synthesis: Plasma method is another method
used to produce nanoparticles. The plasma is generated by radio frequency
(RF) heating coils. The initial metal is enclosed in a pestle and the pestle is
enclosed in an evacuated chamber. The metal is then heated above its
evaporation point by high voltage radio frequency coils wrapped around
the evacuated chamber. The Helium (He) gas is used in this procedure
which forms a high-temperature plasma in the region of the coils after
flowing into the system. The metal vapor nucleates on the helium gas
atoms and diffuses up to a cold collector rod, this is where nanoparticles
are collected. This is shown in diagram

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5) Electrodeposition: This is a simple and well-established process to produce

nanocrystalline materials. It involves the electrolyte containing positive and
negative ions. Therefore, it is considered an ionic conductor. To prepare an
electrolyte, the desired metal contained in a chemical species liquidized
(mostly dissolved in water) to form a molten salt. The different organic and
ionic liquids are currently used for particular electro deposition process. To
begin electro deposition, the cathode is act as working electrode which is
immersed in the electrolyte contained in a vessel (cell) along with the
anode which is act as counter electrode. The two electrodes are connected
to a battery. The cathode is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery, while the anode is connected to the positive terminal then the

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electric current is allowed to flow in the circuit so that the metal ions get
reduced to metal atoms and deposited on the surface of cathode electrode.
This is shown in figure. During this process, all metal ions are removed from
the solution and are deposited on the surface of the cathode as a thin layer
as a nano sized particles. The reaction in aqueous medium at the cathode is
given below
n+ -
M + ne M

The thickness of the electrodeposited layer of nanoparticles on the cathode

electrode is depends on time and concentration of solution used.

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Examples: The synthesis of mono-dispersed gold (Au) nanoparticles on

indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass, preparation of Au nanorods on
nanoporous anodic alumina oxide (AAO), formation of Au nanoclusters on
polypyrrole-modified glassy carbon electrode and one-step electro
deposition of nickel nanoparticle chains embedded in TiO 2 .
Applications of Nanomaterials: Nano materials having following applications-

1) These are used in preparation of computer chips

2) These are used in kinetic energy penetrators with enhanced lethality
3) These are used in the preparation of better insulation materials
4) These are used in phosphors for high-definition TV
5) These are used in manufacture of low-cost flat-panel displays

6) These are used in the manufacture of tougher and harder cutting tools
7) These are used in the elimination of pollutants

8) These are used in high energy density batteries

9) These are used in high-power magnets
10) These are used as high-sensitivity sensors
11) These are used in automobiles with greater Fuel Efficiency
12) These are used in manufacture of aerospace components with
enhanced performance characteristics

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