SLB Well Completion

acetic acid
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1. n. [Well Completions, Drilling Fluids, Well Workover and Intervention]
An organic acid used in oil- and gas-well stimulation treatments. Less corrosive than the
commonly used hydrochloric acid, acetic acid treatments can be more easily inhibited or retarded
for treatments of long duration. This is necessary particularly in applications requiring the
protection of exotic alloys or in high-temperature wells. In most cases, acetic acid is used in
conjunction with hydrochloric acid and other acid additives. It can also be used as a chelating
agent.
See: inhibit, retarder
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acid job
1. n. [Well Workover and Intervention, Well Completions]
The treatment of a reservoir formation with a stimulation fluid containing a reactive acid. In
sandstone formations, the acid reacts with the soluble substances in the formation matrix to
enlarge the pore spaces. In carbonate formations, the acid dissolves the entire formation matrix.
In each case, the matrix acidizing treatment improves the formation permeability to enable
enhanced production of reservoir fluids. Matrix acidizing operations are ideally performed at
high rate, but at treatment pressures below the fracture pressure of the formation. This enables
the acid to penetrate the formation and extend the depth of treatment while avoiding damage to
the reservoir formation.
Synonyms: acid stimulation, acidize, acidizing, matrix acidizing, matrix stimulation
See: matrix, stimulation fluid
acid stimulation
1. n. [Well Completions, Well Workover and Intervention]
The treatment of a reservoir formation with a stimulation fluid containing a reactive acid. In
sandstone formations, the acid reacts with the soluble substances in the formation matrix to
enlarge the pore spaces. In carbonate formations, the acid dissolves the entire formation matrix.
In each case, the matrix acidizing treatment improves the formation permeability to enable
enhanced production of reservoir fluids. Matrix acidizing operations are ideally performed at
high rate, but at treatment pressures below the fracture pressure of the formation. This enables
the acid to penetrate the formation and extend the depth of treatment while avoiding damage to
the reservoir formation.
Synonyms: acid job, acidize, acidizing, matrix acidizing, matrix stimulation
acidize
1. vb. [Well Completions, Well Workover and Intervention]
To pump acid into the wellbore to remove near-well formation damage and other damaging
substances. This procedure commonly enhances production by increasing the effective well
radius. When performed at pressures above the pressure required to fracture the formation, the
procedure is often referred to as acid fracturing.
See: acid frac, acid job, acid stimulation, acidizing, hydraulic fracturing, matrix acidizing, matrix
stimulation
acidizing
The pumping of acid into the wellbore to remove near-well formation damage and other
damaging substances. This procedure commonly enhances production by increasing the effective
well radius. When performed at pressures above the pressure required to fracture the formation,
the procedure is often referred to as acid fracturing.
See: acid frac, acid job, acid stimulation, acidize, hydraulic fracturing, matrix acidizing, matrix
stimulation
adjustable choke
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1. n. [Drilling]
A valve usually used in well control operations to reduce the pressure of a fluid from high
pressure in the closed wellbore to atmospheric pressure. It may be adjusted (opened or closed) to
closely control the pressure drop. Adjustable choke valves are constructed to resist wear while
high-velocity, solids-laden fluids are flowing by the restricting or sealing elements.
See: choke, choke line, choke manifold, well control
2. n. [Well Completions]
A valve, located on or near the Christmas tree that is used to control the production of fluid from
a well. Opening or closing the variable valve influences the rate and pressure at which
production fluids progress through the pipeline or process facilities. The adjustable choke is
commonly linked to an automated control system to enable the production parameters of
individual wells to be closely controlled.
See: choke
ambient temperature
The temperature at a point or area expressed as an average of the surrounding areas or materials.
Ambient surface temperature is generally given to be 70 to 80oF [21 to 27oC]-an average of daily and
seasonal variations.
annular space
The space surrounding one cylindrical object placed inside another, such as the space surrounding a
tubular object placed in a wellbore.
Synonyms: annulus
See: wellbore
annular velocity
1. n. [Drilling]
The speed at which drilling fluid or cement moves in the annulus. It is important to monitor annular
velocity to ensure that the hole is being properly cleaned of cuttings, cavings and other debris while
avoiding erosion of the borehole wall. The annular velocity is commonly expressed in units of feet per
minute or, less commonly, meters per minute. The term is distinct from volumetric flow.
Alternate Form: AV
The linear velocity of a fluid passing through an annular space. The term critical annular velocity is often
used to describe the flow rate or velocity at which entrained solids will be efficiently transported by the
annular fluid. If the fluid velocity falls below the critical rate, there will be a risk of particles settling,
forming beds or bridges that may obstruct the wellbore.
area open to flow

1. n. [Perforating, Well Completions]

The calculated flow area provided by perforations across a specific zone of interest. The resulting value
is used to calculate pressure drops and fluid-flow performance.
artificial lift
Any system that adds energy to the fluid column in a wellbore with the objective of initiating and
improving production from the well. Artificial-lift systems use a range of operating principles,
including rod pumping, gas lift and electric submersible pump.
See: rod pump
More Details:
• Artificial Lift for High-Volume Production
atmospheric corrosion
Corrosion (oxidization) resulting from exposure of susceptible materials to oxygen and moisture.
Atmospheric corrosion is generally associated with surface storage conditions, or with upper
wellbore annuli that may not be fluid-filled.
More Details:
• Corrosion in the Oil Industry
axial loading
The force acting along the axis of an object. In wellbore tubulars, axial loading is typically expressed as
tension or compression and may result from applied conditions such as set-down-weight, or be induced
by operating conditions or variations such as changes in temperature that cause expansion or
contraction of components.
back pressure
The pressure within a system caused by fluid friction or an induced resistance to flow through the
system. Most process facilities require a minimum system pressure to operate efficiently. The necessary
back-pressure is often created and controlled by a valve that is set to operate under the desired range of
conditions.
Alternate Form: back-pressure
back pressure valve

A type of check valve, typically installed in the tubing hanger, to isolate the production tubing. The back-
pressure valve is designed to hold pressure from below yet enable fluids to be pumped from above, as
may be required for well-control purposes.
Alternate Form: back-pressure valve

back up ring
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A supporting ring used with an O-ring, or similar seal, to prevent extrusion of the seal material under
high differential pressures or excess wear under dynamic sealing conditions
See: back-up ring
back wash
1. n. [Drilling]
Another term for reverse circulation, the intentional pumping of wellbore fluids down
theÂ annulusÂ and back up through theÂ drillpipe. This is the opposite of the normal direction of
fluidÂ circulationÂ in a wellbore. Since the inside volume of the drillpipe is considerably less than the
volume of the annulus outside of the drillpipe, reverse circulation can bring bottomhole fluids to the
surface faster than normal circulation for a given flow rate. Two potential hazards of reverse circulation
include lifting cuttings and other junk into theÂ drillstringÂ and the rapid flow ofÂ reservoirÂ fluids to
the surface in aÂ kickÂ situation.
Synonyms: reverse circulation, reversing out
See: cuttings, displacement, junk

2. vb. [Well Completions]
To conduct reverse circulation, that is, toÂ circulateÂ fluid down the wellboreÂ annulus,
withÂ returnsÂ being made up the tubing string. Reverse circulationÂ is often used to remove debris
from the wellbore since the highÂ fluid flowÂ rate inside the tubing string enables the recovery of large
or dense debris particles that are difficult or impossible to remove with conventional circulation.
back-pressure
The pressure within a system caused by fluid friction or an induced resistance to flow through the
system. Most process facilities require a minimum system pressure to operate efficiently. The necessary
back-pressure is often created and controlled by a valve that is set to operate under the desired range of
conditions.
back-pressure valve
A type of check valve, typically installed in the tubing hanger, to isolate the production tubing. The back-
pressure valve is designed to hold pressure from below yet enable fluids to be pumped from above, as
may be required for well-control purposes.
backside
A term used to describe the annulus surrounding a production tubing string above the production
packer.
back-up ring
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A supporting ring used with an O-ring, or similar seal, to prevent extrusion of the seal material under
high differential pressures or excess wear under dynamic sealing conditions.
backwash
1. n. [Drilling]
Another term for reverse circulation, the intentional pumping of wellbore fluids down
theÂ annulusÂ and back up through theÂ drillpipe. This is the opposite of the normal direction of
fluidÂ circulationÂ in a wellbore. Since the inside volume of the drillpipe is considerably less than the
volume of the annulus outside of the drillpipe, reverse circulation can bring bottomhole fluids to the
surface faster than normal circulation for a given flow rate. Two potential hazards of reverse circulation
include lifting cuttings and other junk into theÂ drillstringÂ and the rapid flow ofÂ reservoirÂ fluids to
the surface in aÂ kickÂ situation.
To conduct reverse circulation, that is, to circulate fluid down the wellbore annulus, with returns being
made up the tubing string. Reverse circulation is often used to remove debris from the wellbore since
the high fluid flow rate inside the tubing string enables the recovery of large or dense debris particles
that are difficult or impossible to remove with conventional circulation.
balanced plug
A plug of cement or similar material placed as a slurry in a specific location within the wellbore and
which has set to provide a means of pressure isolation or mechanical platform. For correct placement,
the volume of slurry and the displacement fluid must be carefully calculated and measured. The correct
volume ensures that the column of fluid in the tubing string is balanced by the column of fluid in the
annulus.
ball catcher
A downhole device or assembly used to catch and retain balls used to actuate ball-operated tools or
equipment. Following activation, some ball-operated tools incorporate a means of ejecting the
activation ball to regain a fullbore flow path. In such cases, the ball can be retained in a ball catcher.
See: drop ball
ball operated
1. adj. [Well Completions]
Describing a mechanism or system that is actuated by a ball that is dropped or pumped through the
tubing string. Once located on a landing seat, the tool mechanism is generally actuated by hydraulic
pressure.
Alternate Form: ball-operated
ball sealers
Small spheres designed to seal perforations that are accepting the most fluid, thereby diverting reservoir
treatments to other portions of the target zone. Ball sealers are incorporated into the treatment fluid
and pumped with it. The effectiveness of this type of mechanical diversion to keep the balls in place is
strongly dependent on the differential pressure across the perforation and the geometry of the
perforation itself.
See: chemical diversion, mechanical diversion
ball-operated
Describing a mechanism or system that is actuated by a ball that is dropped or pumped through the
tubing string. Once located on a landing seat, the tool mechanism is generally actuated by hydraulic
pressure.
See: drop ball
barefoot completion
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Â A well completion that has no casing or liner set across the reservoir formation, allowing the produced
fluids to flow directly into the wellbore. This type of completion suffers the major disadvantage that the
sandface is unsupported and may collapse. Also, without any casing or liner installed, selective
treatments or remedial work within the reservoir section are more difficult.
Synonyms: openhole completion

barite plug
A plug made from barite weighting materials that is placed at the bottom of a wellbore. Unlike a cement
plug, the settled solids do not set solid, yet a barite plug can provide effective and low-cost pressure
isolation. A barite plug is relatively easy to remove and is often used as a temporary facility for pressure
isolation or as a platform enabling the accurate placement of treatments above the plug.
beam pump
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An artificial-lift pumping system using a surface power source to drive a downhole pump assembly. A
beam and crank assembly creates reciprocating motion in a sucker-rod string that connects to the
downhole pump assembly. The pump contains a plunger and valve assembly to convert the
reciprocating motion to vertical fluid movement.
See: rod pump, sucker rod
bean choke
A fixed choke used to control the flow of fluids, usually mounted on or close to the Christmas tree. A
bean choke contains a replaceable insert, or bean, made from hardened steel or similar durable
material. The insert is manufactured with a precise diameter hole that forms the choke through which
all fluids must pass. Choke inserts are available in a complete range of sizes, generally identified by
choke diameter stated in 64ths of an inch; for example, a "32 bean" is equivalent to a 1/2-in. choke
diameter.
See: bean
blank pipe
A short section of plain tubing used to separate or space-out specialized components in a completion
assembly. Blank pipe is commonly used in sand control completions where intervals of screen are
separated by short sections of blank pipe. The term is also used to describe unperforated sections of
casing or liner.
blast joint
A section of heavy walled tubing that is placed across any perforated interval through which the
production tubing must pass, such as may be required in multiple zone completions. In addition to being
heavier than normal completion components, the wall of a blast joint is often treated to resist the
jetting action that may result in the proximity of the perforations.
See: production tubing
blasting cap
1. n. [Well Completions, Geophysics]
A small, electrically activated explosive charge that explodes a larger charge. Detonators, also called
caps,Â seismicÂ caps or blasting caps, are used for seismicÂ acquisitionÂ with an explosiveÂ sourceÂ to
achieve consistent timing of detonation.
See: cap, detonator
2. n. [Well Completions, Geophysics]
A device containing primary high-explosive material that is used to initiate an explosive sequence. The
two common types of detonators are electrical detonators (also known as blasting caps) and percussion
detonators. Electrical detonators have a fuse material that burns when high voltage is applied to initiate
the primaryÂ high explosive. Percussion detonators contain abrasive grit and primary high explosive in a
sealed container that is activated by a firing pin. The impact force of the firing pin is sufficient to initiate
the ballistic sequence that is then transmitted to the detonating cord. Several safety systems are used in
conjunction with detonators to avoid accidental firing duringÂ rig-up or rig-down. Safety systems also
are used to disarm the gun or ballistic assembly if downhole conditions are unsafe for firing.
blow down

To vent gas from a well or production system. Wells that have been shut in for a period frequently
develop a gas cap caused by gas percolating through the fluid column in the wellbore. It is often
desirable to remove or vent the free gas before starting well intervention work.
Alternate Form: blowdown
blowdown
To vent gas from a well or production system. Wells that have been shut in for a period frequently
develop a gas cap caused by gas percolating through the fluid column in the wellbore. It is often
desirable to remove or vent the free gas before starting well intervention work.
bottomhole choke
A downhole device used to control fluid flow under downhole conditions. Downhole chokes are
generally removable with slickline intervention and are located in a landing nipple in the tubing string.
See: choke, nipple
bottomhole injection pressure (bhip)
The downhole pressure at which a treatment fluid can be injected into a zone of interest. The
bottomhole injection pressure is typically calculated by adding the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid
column to the surface pump pressure measured during an injection test.
bottomhole pressure
1. n. [Drilling]
The pressure, usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi), at the bottom of the hole. This pressure
may be calculated in a static, fluid-filled wellbore with the equation:
BHP = MW * Depth * 0.052
where BHP is the bottomhole pressure in pounds per square inch, MW is the mud weight in pounds per
gallon, Depth is the true vertical depth in feet, and 0.052 is a conversion factor if these units of measure
are used. For circulating wellbores, the BHP increases by the amount of fluid friction in the annulus. The
BHP gradient should exceed the formation pressure gradient to avoid an influx of formation fluid into
the wellbore.
On the other hand, if BHP (including the added fluid friction pressure of a flowing fluid) is too high, a
weak formation may fracture and cause a loss of wellbore fluids. The loss of fluid to one formation may
be followed by the influx of fluid from another formation.
Alternate Form: BHP
See: formation pressure
2. n. [Well Testing]
The pressure measured in a well at or near the depth of the producing formation. For well-test
purposes, it is often desirable to refer the pressure to a datum level chosen at a reference depth by
calculating the pressure that would occur if the pressure measurement were made at the datum level
rather than at the actual depth of the gauge.
Alternate Form: BHP
See: depth reference
The downhole pressure, measured or calculated at a point of interest, generally the top of the
perforated interval.
Alternate Form: BHP
bottomhole sampler
A tool or assembly used to retrieve samples of fluids or fill material from the wellbore. Used as a
treatment design aid, the retrieved samples can be checked for compatibility with the selected
treatment fluid to verify performance or identify any undesirable reactions.
bottomhole static temperature

1. n. [Drilling, Well Completions]
The temperature of the undisturbed formation at the final depth in a well. The formation cools during
drilling and most of the cooling dissipates after about 24 hours of static conditions, although it is
theoretically impossible for the temperature to return to undisturbed conditions. This temperature is
measured under static conditions after sufficient time has elapsed to negate any effects from circulating
fluids. Tables, charts and computer routines are used to predict BHST as functions of depth, geographic
area and various time functions. The BHST is generally higher than the bottomhole circulating
temperature, and can be an important factor when using temperature-sensitive tools or treatments.
Alternate Form: BHST
See: total depth
2. n. [Drilling Fluids]
The undisturbed temperature at the bottom of a well, abbreviated as BHST. After circulation and after
the well is shut in, the temperature approaches the BHST after about 24 to 36 hours, depending on the
well conditions. The BHST is the temperature used in most tests in which the cement slurry is required
to set or is set.
Alternate Form: BHST
bottomhole temperature
1. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The temperature in the borehole at total depth at the time it is measured. In log interpretation, the
bottom hole temperature (BHT) is taken as the maximum recorded temperature during a logging run, or
preferably the last of series of runs during the same operation. BHT is the temperature used for the
interpretation of logs at total depth. Farther up the hole, the correct temperature is calculated by
assuming a certain temperature gradient. The BHT lies between the bottomhole circulating temperature
(BHCT) and the bottomhole static temperature (BHST).
Alternate Form: BHT
The downhole temperature measured or calculated at a point of interest. The BHT, without reference to
circulating or static conditions, is typically associated with producing conditions.
Alternate Form: BHT
breakdown pressure
The pressure at which the rock matrix of an exposed formation fractures and allows fluid to be injected.
The breakdown pressure is established before determining reservoir treatment parameters. Hydraulic
fracturing operations are conducted above the breakdown pressure, while matrix stimulation
treatments are performed with the treatment pressure safely below the breakdown pressure.
breakthrough
1. n. [Well Completions, Enhanced Oil Recovery]
A description of reservoir conditions under which a fluid, previously isolated or separated from
production, gains access to a producing wellbore. The term is most commonly applied to water or gas
breakthrough, where the water or gas injected to maintain reservoir pressure via injection wells breaks
through to one or more of the producing wells.
See: flood front, injection well, producing well
bridge
1. n. [Drilling]
The gangplank or stairway connecting a jackup rig to a fixed platform.
2. vb. [Drilling]
To intentionally or accidentally plug off pore spaces or fluid paths in a rock formation, or to make a
restriction in a wellbore or annulus. A bridge may be partial or total, and is usually caused by solids
(drilled solids, cuttings, cavings or junk) becoming lodged together in a narrow spot or geometry change
in the wellbore.
See: blowout, drill solids, formation damage
A wellbore obstruction caused by a buildup of material such as scale, wellbore fill or cuttings that can
restrict wellbore access or, in severe cases, eventually close the wellbore.
bridge plug
A downhole tool that is located and set to isolate the lower part of the wellbore. Bridge plugs may be
permanent or retrievable, enabling the lower wellbore to be permanently sealed from production or
temporarily isolated from a treatment conducted on an upper zone.
See: bridge
brine
1. n. [Geology]
Water containing more dissolved inorganic salt than typical seawater.
See: connate water, formation water, fresh water, interstitial water
2. n. [Drilling]
Saline liquid usually used in completion operations and, increasingly, when penetrating a pay zone.
Brines are preferred because they have higher densities than fresh water but lack solid particles that
might damage producible formations. Classes of brines include chloride brines (calcium and sodium),
bromides and formates.
See: aquifer, completion fluid, producing formation
A general term that refers to various salts and salt mixtures dissolved in an aqueous solution. Brine can
be used more strictly, however, to refer to solutions of sodium chloride. We prefer to use brine as a
general term. The emulsified calcium chloride [CaCl2] solution (or any other saline phase) in an oil mud is
referred to as "brine" or "brine phase." The oil/brine ratio, abbreviated OBR, is used to compare solids
content and salinities of oil muds. Clear brines are salt solutions that have few or no suspended solids.
Synonyms: clear brine
See: balanced-activity oil mud, bromide brine, calcium bromide, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride,
carboxymethyl hydroxyethylcellulose, cesium acetate, drill-in fluid, formate, guar gum, hydrometer,
hydroxyethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl starch, PVT, synthetic/brine ratio, undersaturated fluid
A water-based solution of inorganic salts used as a well-control fluid during the completion and
workover phases of well operations. Brines are solids free, containing no particles that might plug or
damage a producing formation. In addition, the salts in brine can inhibit undesirable formation reactions
such as clay swelling. Brines are typically formulated and prepared for specific conditions, with a range
of salts available to achieve densities ranging from 8.4 to over 20 lbm/gal (ppg) [1.0 to 2.4 g/cmo].
Common salts used in the preparation of simple brine systems include sodium chloride, calcium chloride
and potassium chloride. More complex brine systems may contain zinc, bromide or iodine salts. These
brines are generally corrosive and costly.
See: producing formation
5. n. [Production Facilities]
Water containing salts in solution, such as sodium, calcium or bromides. Brine is commonly produced
along with oil. The disposal of oilfield brine is usually accomplished by underground injection into salt-
water saturated formations or by evaporation in surface pits.
bring in the well

To prepare a well for production by initiating flow from the reservoir. This is the final phase of a
completion or workover process.
bubble flow
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A multiphase fluid flow regime characterized by the gas phase being distributed as bubbles through the
liquid phase. In a producing wellbore where the bubbles are uniformly distributed, there is little relative
motion between the phases. Where the bubbles congregate and combine to form a less uniform
distribution of the gas phase, some slippage will occur between the phases with the gas tending to cut
through the liquid phase.
See: flow regime, slip
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2. n. [Production Logging]
A multiphase flow regime in pipes in which one fluid moves as small dispersed bubbles through a
continuous fluid. The relative velocity of the bubbles depends mainly on the difference in density
between the two fluids. Bubble flow normally occurs at low flow rate and low holdup of the bubbly fluid.
As the velocity of the continuous fluid increases, the bubbles are dispersed into smaller, more widely
separated bubbles. This is known as a dispersed or finely dispersed bubble flow, or sometimes dispersed
flow.
Synonyms: dispersed bubble flow
See: flow structure, plug flow, slug flow

buoyancy
The upward force acting on an object placed in a fluid. The buoyancy force is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced by the object. Buoyancy can have significant effects over a wide range of completion and
workover activities, especially in cases in which the wellbore and tubing string contain liquid and gas.
Any change in the relative volumes or fluid levels will change the buoyancy forces.
buttress thread
A thread profile used on casing or liner tubulars. Buttress threads are square-cut and create a hydraulic
seal through the interference fit of the mating threads.
calcium carbonate plug

A temporary plug formulated with graded granules or flakes of calcium carbonate that are generally
circulated into place as a slurry and allowed to settle out. Calcium carbonate plugs commonly are used
to isolate lower production zones, either to enable a column of well control fluid to be placed, or to
provide some protection for a lower zone while treating upper zones. Because of their high reaction rate
with hydrochloric acid, calcium carbonate plugs are easily removed using common acidizing materials
and equipment.
cap the well

To regain control of a blowout well by installing and closing a valve on the wellhead.
carbon dioxide corrosion

The deterioration of metal components resulting from contact with a gas or solution containing
carbon dioxide.
Alternate Form: sweet corrosion
More Details:
carbonate scale
A common type of mineral deposit that is often found on wellbore tubulars and components as the
saturation of produced water is affected by changing temperature and pressure conditions in the
production conduit. Carbonate scales have a high dissolution rate in common oilfield acids and generally
can be effectively removed using acid or chemical treatments. Scale inhibition techniques also may be
used to prevent scale formation. In the majority of cases, scale prevention is simpler and more cost-
effective than attempting a cure.
See: scale inhibitor, scale removal, scale-inhibitor squeeze
carrier fluid
A fluid that is used to transport materials into or out of the wellbore. Carrier fluids typically are designed
according to three main criteria: the ability to efficiently transport the necessary material (such as pack
sand during a gravel pack), the ability to separate or release the materials at the correct time or place,
and compatibility with other wellbore fluids while being nondamaging to exposed formations.
cased hole
1. n. [Drilling]
The portion of the wellbore that has had metal casing placed and cemented to protect the openhole
from fluids, pressures, wellbore stability problems or a combination of these.
Antonyms: openhole
See: barefoot, cement, packer
A wellbore lined with a string of casing or liner. Although the term can apply to any hole section, it is
often used to describe techniques and practices applied after a casing or liner has been set across the
reservoir zone, such as cased-hole logging or cased-hole testing.
Antonyms: openhole
casing
1. n. [Drilling]
Large-diameter pipe lowered into an openhole and cemented in place. The well designer must design
casing to withstand a variety of forces, such as collapse, burst, and tensile failure, as well as chemically
aggressive brines. Most casing joints are fabricated with male threads on each end, and short-length
casing couplings with female threads are used to join the individual joints of casing together, or joints of
casing may be fabricated with male threads on one end and female threads on the other. Casing is run
to protect fresh water formations, isolate a zone of lost returns or isolate formations with significantly
different pressure gradients. The operation during which the casing is put into the wellbore is commonly
called "running pipe." Casing is usually manufactured from plain carbon steel that is heat-treated to
varying strengths, but may be specially fabricated of stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, fiberglass and
other materials.
See: box, brine, cased hole, casing grade, cement bond log, concentric, day rate, displacement, float
joint, float shoe, joint, pin, scratcher, turnkey
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Steel pipe cemented in place during the construction process to stabilize the wellbore. The casing forms
a major structural component of the wellbore and serves several important functions: preventing the
formation wall from caving into the wellbore, isolating the different formations to prevent the flow or
crossflow of formation fluid, and providing a means of maintaining control of formation fluids and
pressure as the well is drilled. The casing string provides a means of securing surface pressure control
equipment and downhole production equipment, such as the drilling blowout preventer (BOP) or
production packer. Casing is available in a range of sizes and material grades.
See: BOP, casing grade, casing joint
casing bowl
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A wellhead component or a profile formed in wellhead equipment in which the casing hanger is located
when a casing string has been installed. The casing bowl incorporates features to secure and seal the
upper end of the casing string and frequently provides a port to enable communication with the
annulus.
Alternate Form: casing spool
casing burst pressure

The theoretical internal pressure differential at which a joint of casing will fail. The casing burst pressure
value is a key consideration in many well-control and contingency operations and is a major factor in the
well design process.
casing collar locator (CCL)

A downhole tool used to confirm or correlate treatment depth using known reference points on the
casing string. The casing collar locator is an electric logging tool that detects the magnetic anomaly
caused by the relatively high mass of the casing collar. A signal is transmitted to surface equipment that
provides a screen display and printed log enabling the output to be correlated with previous logs and
known casing features such as pup joints installed for correlation purposes.
casing collar log

A log provided by a casing collar locator tool that generally incorporates a gamma ray log to correlate
the relative position of casing string features, such as the location of a pup joint, with the reservoir or
formation of interest.
See: casing collar locator (CCL)
casing completion
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A completion configuration in which a production casing string is set across the reservoir interval and
perforated to allow communication between the formation and wellbore. The casing performs several
functions, including supporting the surrounding formation under production conditions, enabling
control of fluid production through selective perforation and allowing subsequent or remedial isolation
by packers, plugs or special treatments.
Antonyms: openhole completion
See: conductor pipe, intermediate casing, packer, perforated interval, production casing, selective
perforating, surface casing
casing hanger
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The subassembly of a wellhead that supports the casing string when it is run into the wellbore. The
casing hanger provides a means of ensuring that the string is correctly located and generally
incorporates a sealing device or system to isolate the casing annulus from upper wellhead components.
See: wellhead
casing hardware
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A generic term used to describe equipment attached to, and run with, the casing string. Commonly used
casing hardware includes guide or float shoes, float or landing collars, centralizers, scratchers and
cement baskets. More specialized casing hardware may include stage-cementing collars, differential fill-
up equipment and other specialized equipment to help achieve successful placement and cementation
of the casing string.
See: centralizer, float collar, float shoe, landing collar, scratcher
casing joint
A length of steel pipe, generally around 40 ft [13 m] long with a threaded connection at each end. Casing
joints are assembled to form a casing string of the correct length and specification for the wellbore in
which it is installed.
See: casing
casing pressure
A term used in well-control operations, typically during the drilling or workover phases of a well, to
describe the pressure in the drillpipe or tubing annulus.
See: well control
casing reciprocation
Movement applied to the casing string during the cementing operation to help in removal of drilling
fluid and efficient placement of the cement slurry.
casing shoe test

A pressure test applied to the formation directly below a casing shoe. The test is generally conducted
soon after drilling resumes after an intermediate casing string has been set. The purpose of the test is to
determine the maximum pressures that may be safely applied without the risk of formation breakdown.
The results of the test are used to design the mud program for the subsequent hole section and to set
safe limits on casing shut-in or choke pressures for well-control purposes.
See: casing string

casing spool
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A wellhead component used in flanged wellhead assemblies to secure the upper end of a casing string.
Casing spools or bowls are available in a wide range of sizes and pressure ratings and are selected to suit
the specific conditions.
Alternate Form: casing bowl
See: casinghead, flange
casing swage
A short crossover joint used between two sizes or specifications of casing. A circulating swage is an
adapter that enables a temporary circulating line to be rigged to the top of the casing string, allowing
circulation of fluids to help properly locate the casing string.
casing test
A general term used to describe a drillstem test (DST) performed in cased hole.
Antonyms: openhole test
Alternate Form: DST
casing thread
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The threadform found on casing joints. In addition to providing mechanical or structural strength, the
casing thread must be compatible with the pressures and fluids associated with the application. Some
advanced threadforms incorporate a gas seal.
See: casing joint
casing valve
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A valve installed in the wellhead assembly to provide access to the casing annulus of non-producing
casings.
cement
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1. n. [Geology]
The binding material in sedimentary rocks that precipitates between grains from pore fluids.
Calcite and quartz are common cement-forming minerals.
See: authigenic, cased hole, cementation, chlorite, diagenesis, hardground, lithification,
sandstone
2. n. [Drilling]
The material used to permanently seal annular spaces between casing and borehole walls.
Cement is also used to seal formations to prevent loss of drilling fluid and for operations ranging
from setting kick-off plugs to plug and abandonment. The most common type by far is API
Oilwell Cement, known informally as Portland cement. Generally speaking, oilfield cement is
thinner and exhibits far less strength than cement or concrete used for construction due to the
requirement that it be highly pumpable in relatively narrow annulus over long distances. Various
additives are used to control density, setting time, strength and flow properties. Additionally,
special additives are often used to reduce the occurrence of annular gas flow. The cement slurry,
commonly formed by mixing Portland cement, water and assorted dry and liquid additives, is
pumped into place and allowed to solidify (typically for 12 to 24 hours) before additional drilling
activity can resume. The cement usually must reach a strength of 5000 psi [34,474 KPa] before
drilling or perforating. More advanced oilfield cements achieve higher set-cement compressive
strengths by blending a variety of particle types and sizes with less water than conventional
mixtures of Portland cement, water and chemical additives.
See: free water, kick, neat cement, plug and abandon, wait on cement
More Details:
• Concrete Developments in Cementing Technology
A generic term used to describe Portland cement used in oil- and gas-well applications. In its
simplest form, cement powder is ground from kiln-fired limestone and clay. However, modern
oilfield cements are precise blends of quality assured materials to achieve consistent and
predictable performance. Cement sets as the water in the slurry reacts chemically with the active
ingredients, the most significant of which is tricalcium silicate reacting to create calcium silicate
hydrate. Cement additives are used to control the setting process of the cement slurry and
enhance the performance of the set cement. The API has developed a classification system for
oilwell cement specification and performance.
See: c
cement accelerator
A chemical additive mixed with cement slurry to reduce the time required for the set cement to develop
sufficient compressive strength to enable drilling operations to continue. Accelerators are generally
used in near-surface applications in which the temperature is relatively low.
cement additive
Chemicals and materials added to a cement slurry to modify the characteristics of the slurry or set
cement. Cement additives may be broadly categorized as accelerators, retarders, fluid-loss additives,
dispersants, extenders, weighting agents, lost circulation additives and special additives designed for
specific operating conditions. Cement additives are commonly available in powder or liquid form,
enabling some flexibility in how the cement slurry is prepared.
See: cement accelerator, cement dispersant, cement extender, cement retarder, fluid-loss additive
cement dispersant
A chemical additive that reduces the cement slurry viscosity to improve fluid flow characteristics.
Adequately dispersed cement slurries exhibit improved fluid-loss control, can displace drilling fluid more
efficiently and be successfully mixed and pumped at higher densities.
cement extender
A chemical additive or inert material used to decrease the density or increase the yield of a cement
slurry. The slurry yield is typically expressed in cubic feet of slurry per sack of cement. Increasing the
yield reduces the cost per volume of cement slurry, while reducing the slurry density reduces the
hydrostatic pressure of the cement column, enabling weak zones to be successfully cemented and
isolated.
cement plug
A balanced plug of cement slurry placed in the wellbore. Cement plugs are used for a variety of
applications including hydraulic isolation, provision of a secure platform, and in window-milling
operations for sidetracking a new wellbore.
See: sidetrack
cement retainer
An isolation tool set in the casing or liner that enables treatments to be applied to a lower interval while
providing isolation from the annulus above. Cement retainers are typically used in cement squeeze or
similar remedial treatments. A specially profiled probe, known as a stinger, is attached to the bottom of
the tubing string to engage in the retainer during operation. When the stinger is removed, the valve
assembly isolates the wellbore below the cement retainer.
cement retarder
A chemical agent used to increase the thickening time of cement slurries to enable proper placement.
The need for cement retardation increases with depth due to the greater time required to complete the
cementing operation and the effect of increased temperature on the cement-setting process.
cement squeeze
A remedial cementing operation designed to force cement into leak paths in wellbore tubulars. The
required squeeze pressure is achieved by carefully controlling pump pressure. Squeeze cementing
operations may be performed to repair poor primary cement jobs, isolate perforations or repair
damaged casing or liner.
centralizer
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A device fitted with a hinged collar and bowsprings to keep the casing or liner in the center of the
wellbore to help ensure efficient placement of a cement sheath around the casing string. If casing strings
are cemented off-center, there is a high risk that a channel of drilling fluid or contaminated cement will
be left where the casing contacts the formation, creating an imperfect seal.
See: bow-spring centralizer, cementing, deviated hole, eccentricity
A device used to keep a tool string in the center of the tubing, casing or wellbore. Tool centralization
may be required for several reasons: to prevent the tool from hanging up on obstructions on the
wellbore wall, to place fluid efficiently and to avoid excessive standoff.
A device that helps to maintain the logging tool in the center of the borehole. On wireline tools such
devices typically have three or more flexible bow springs. They may be mounted on the outside surface
of the logging tool or else mounted in-line, between two cartridges or sondes. Some measurements,
such as acoustic logs, respond better when the tool is centralized, while others, including induction logs,
are better when eccentralized.
Antonyms: eccentralizer
See: bow-spring centralizer, sonde

charged zone
A formation interval that has become overpressured by the injection of drilling or treatment fluids.
See: treatment fluid
check valve
A mechanical device that permits fluid to flow or pressure to act in one direction only. Check valves are
used in a variety of oil and gas industry applications as control or safety devices. Check valve designs are
tailored to specific fluid types and operating conditions. Some designs are less tolerant of debris, while
others may obstruct the bore of the conduit or tubing in which the check valve is fitted.
See: cementing, flapper valve, float shoe, well control
chelating agent
1. n. [Well Completions, Well Workover and Intervention, Drilling Fluids]

A chemical used to bind metal ions to form a ring structure. Chelating agents stabilize or prevent the
precipitation of damaging compounds. In the oil field, chelating agents are used in stimulation
treatments and for cleaning surface facilities. They are also used to treat or remove scale or weighting
agents in reservoir drilling fluids. During acid or scale-removal treatments, various compounds may be
dissolved in the treatment fluid. As the acid reacts and the pH increases, reaction products may
precipitate as a gelatinous, insoluble mass. Should this occur within the formation matrix, it is almost
impossible to remove and permanent permeability damage may occur. Chelating agents prevent
precipitation by keeping ions in a soluble form until the treatment fluid can be flowed back from the
formation during cleanup. Typical oilfield chelating agents include EDTA (ethylenediamine tetraacetic
acid), HEDTA (hydroxyethylenediamine triacetic acid), NTA (nitriolotriacetic acid) and citric acid.
See: acetic acid, chelation, sequestering agent
A chemical added to an acid to stabilize iron. The injected acid dissolves iron from rust, millscale, iron
scales or iron-containing minerals in the formation. Iron can exist as ferric iron [Fe+3] or ferrous iron
[Fe+2]. If the iron is not controlled, it will precipitate insoluble products such as ferric hydroxide and, in
sour environments, ferrous sulfide [FeS], which will damage the formation. Chelating agents associate
with iron [Fe+3 or Fe+2] to form soluble complexes. Citric acid, acetic acid and EDTA are effective
chelating agents and can be used at temperatures up to 400oF [204oC].
Synonyms: sequestering agent
See: reducing agent
chemical diverter
A chemical agent used in stimulation treatments to ensure uniform injection over the area to be treated.
Chemical diverters function by creating a temporary blocking effect that is safely cleaned up following
the treatment, enabling enhanced productivity throughout the treated interval. In matrix acidizing of
injection wells, benzoic acid is used as a chemical diverter, while oil-soluble resins are employed in
production wells. Both compounds are slightly soluble or inert in the acidic medium [HCl], but after
functioning as diverters, they dissolve with water injection or oil production, respectively. Stable, viscous
foams generated in the rock matrix are also considered to be chemical diverters.
Synonyms: diverting agent
See: chemical diversion, diversion, foam diversion
chemical wash
A fluid, generally water-based, to thin and disperse mud in preparation for cementing. The chemical
wash is pumped ahead of the cement slurry to help ensure effective mud removal and efficient cement
placement. Other specialized chemical washes may be used in the remedial treatment of scales or
paraffin deposits in production tubulars.
choke
A device incorporating an orifice that is used to control fluid flow rate or downstream system pressure.
Chokes are available in several configurations for both fixed and adjustable modes of operation.
Adjustable chokes enable the fluid flow and pressure parameters to be changed to suit process or
production requirements. Fixed chokes do not provide this flexibility, although they are more resistant
to erosion under prolonged operation or production of abrasive fluids.
See: adjustable choke, fixed choke, fluid flow
choke manifold
1. n. [Drilling]
A set of high-pressure valves and associated piping that usually includes at least two adjustable chokes,
arranged such that one adjustable choke may be isolated and taken out of service for repair and
refurbishment while well flow is directed through the other one.
See: choke line
A manifold assembly incorporating chokes, valves and pressure sensors used to provide control of flow
back or treatment fluids.
Christmas tree
1. n. [Drilling]
The set of valves, spools and fittings connected to the top of a well to direct and control the flow of
formation fluids from the well.
See: cellar, formation fluid, shut-in bottomhole pressure, shut-in pressure
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An assembly of valves, spools, pressure gauges and chokes fitted to the wellhead of a completed well to
control production. Christmas trees are available in a wide range of sizes and configurations, such as
low- or high-pressure capacity and single- or multiple-completion capacity.
See: choke, pressure gauge

churn flow
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1. n. [Well Completions, Production Logging]
AÂ multiphaseÂ flow regimeÂ in near-vertical pipes in which large, irregular slugs of gas move up the
center of the pipe, usually carrying droplets of oil or water with them. Most of the remaining oil or
water flows up along the pipe walls. The flow is relatively chaotic, producing a frothy mixture.
UnlikeÂ slug flow, neither phase is continuous. The gas slugs are relatively unstable, and take on large,
elongated shapes. Also known as transition flow, this flow is an intermediate flow condition between
slug flow and mist flow, and occurs at relatively high gas velocity. As the gas velocity increases, it
changes intoÂ annular flow.
Synonyms: transition flow
See: annular flow, bubble flow, flow regime, flow structure, mist flow, multiphase fluid flow, slug, slug
flow
A multiphase flow regime in near-vertical pipes in which large, irregular slugs of gas move up the center
of the pipe, usually carrying droplets of oil or water with them. Most of the remaining oil or water flows
up along the pipe walls. Unlike slug flow, neither phase is continuous. The gas slugs are relatively
unstable, and take on large, elongated shapes. Churn flow occurs at relatively high gas velocity and is
similar to froth flow. As the gas velocity increases, it changes into annular flow.
See: bubble flow, flow structure, mist flow
circulation device
A completion component, generally included in the lower assembly near the packer, that allows
communication between the tubing and annulus. Circulation devices enable the circulation of fluids for
well control or kickoff purposes.
See: sliding sleeve
cleanup
A period of controlled production, generally following a stimulation treatment, during which time
treatment fluids return from the reservoir formation. Depending on the treatment, the cleanup period
can be relatively short and uncomplicated. However, following more complex treatments such as gravel
pack or hydraulic fracturing, the cleanup process should be conducted carefully to avoid jeopardizing the
long-term efficiency of the treatment.
clear brine
1. n. [Geology]
Water containing more dissolved inorganic salt than typical seawater.
Synonyms: brine
See: cesium formate, formation water, fresh water
2. n. [Drilling]
Saline liquid usually used in completion operations and, increasingly, when penetrating a pay zone.
Brines are preferred because they have higher densities than fresh water but lack solid particles that
might damage producible formations. Classes of brines include chloride brines (calcium and sodium),
bromides and formates.
See: completion fluid, producing formation
A general term that refers to various salts andÂ saltÂ mixtures dissolved in an aqueous solution. Brine
can be used more strictly, however, to refer to solutions of sodium chloride. We prefer to use brine as a
general term. Clear brines are salt solutions that have few or noÂ suspended solids.
See: balanced-activity oil mud, bromide brine, calcium bromide, drill-in fluid, formate, guar gum,
hydrometer, synthetic/brine ratio, undersaturated fluid
A water-based solution of inorganic salts used as a well-control fluid during the completion and
workover phases of well operations. Brines are solids free, containing no particles that might plug or
damage a producing formation. In addition, the salts in brine can inhibit undesirable formation reactions
such as clay swelling. Brines are typically formulated and prepared for specific conditions, with a range
of salts available to achieve densities ranging from 8.4 to over 20 lbm/gal (ppg) [1.0 to 2.4 g/cmo].
Common salts used in the preparation of simple brine systems include sodium chloride, calcium chloride
and potassium chloride. More complex brine systems may contain zinc, bromide or iodine salts. These
brines are generally corrosive and costly.
See: cesium formate, producing formation
close in
To close a valve to stop or isolate fluid flow. The term is most commonly applied to "closing-in the well,"
meaning isolation of the wellbore by closing the master valve.
close-in
To close a valve to stop or isolate fluid flow. The term is most commonly applied to "closing-in the well,"
meaning isolation of the wellbore by closing the master valve.
See: closed-in well
coiled tubing completion

A completion that utilizes coiled tubing as the production conduit, or as a means of conveying
and installing completion equipment or components. Since the coiled tubing string is continuous,
problems associated with connections are avoided. Also, the pressure-control equipment used on
coiled tubing operations enables work to be safely conducted on live wells.
More Details:
• Coiled Tubing Takes Center Stage
collar
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A threaded coupling used to join two lengths of pipe such as production tubing, casing or liner. The type
of thread and style of collar varies with the specifications and manufacturer of the tubing.
See: casing coupling, drill collar
collar locator
A downhole tool or logging device used to detect and track (log) casing or tubing collars across a zone of
interest, typically for correlation purposes. Most collar locators detect the magnetic anomaly created by
the mass of the steel collar and transmit a signal to surface-display and depth correlation equipment.
See: casing collar locator (CCL)
collar lock
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A type of lock designed to be set in the recess of a tubing collar. Collar locks are compatible only with
conventional thread connections where a space exists between the two tubing joints. Premium tubing
grades have flush internal surfaces with no space to enable setting of the retaining dogs.
See: tubing grade, tubing joint
collar log
A log showing the depth or relative position of casing or tubing collars that is used to correlate depth for
depth-sensitive applications such as perforating or isolation treatments. Indications are provided by a
collar locator tool and correlations are made with previous baseline logs, such as the gamma ray log, or
the casing or tubing running tally prepared during the installation process.
commingled flow
A term used to describe the flow pattern where two or more fluid phases may be present in a relatively
even distribution. The flow rate and conduit geometry may cause an apparent mixing of the phases.
However, if the flow characteristics are changed through flow rate or conduit geometry, fluid separation
may occur. Fine solids also may be entrained in a commingled flow. Commingled flow may also describe
the production of fluid from two or more separate zones through a single conduit.
See: well flow rate

complete a well
To perform activities in the final stages of well construction to prepare a well for production. The well is
completed once zones of interest have been identified.
completion
1. n. [Drilling]
The hardware used to optimize the production of hydrocarbons from the well. This may range from
nothing but a packer on tubing above an openhole completion ("barefoot" completion), to a system of
mechanical filtering elements outside of perforated pipe, to a fully automated measurement and control
system that optimizes reservoir economics without human intervention (an "intelligent" completion).
See: brine, completion fluid, hydrocarbon, rathole, turnkey
A generic term used to describe the assembly of downhole tubulars and equipment required to enable
safe and efficient production from an oil or gas well. The point at which the completion process begins
may depend on the type and design of well. However, there are many options applied or actions
performed during the construction phase of a well that have significant impact on the productivity of
the well.
3. n. [Well Completions, Shale Gas]
A generic term used to describe the events and equipment necessary to bring a wellbore into
production once drilling operations have been concluded, including but not limited to the assembly of
downhole tubulars and equipment required to enable safe and efficient production from an oil or gas
well. Completion quality can significantly affect production from shale reservoirs.
completion fluid
A solids-free liquid used to "complete" an oil or gas well. This fluid is placed in the well to facilitate final
operations prior to initiation of production, such as setting screens production liners, packers, downhole
valves or shooting perforations into the producing zone. The fluid is meant to control a well should
downhole hardware fail, without damaging the producing formation or completion components.
Completion fluids are typically brines (chlorides, bromides and formates), but in theory could be any
fluid of proper density and flow characteristics. The fluid should be chemically compatible with the
reservoir formation and fluids, and is typically filtered to a high degree to avoid introducing solids to the
near-wellbore area. Seldom is a regular drilling fluid suitable for completion operations due to its solids
content, pH and ionic composition. Drill-in fluids can, in some cases, be suitable for both purposes.
See: brine, calcium carbonate, carboxymethyl starch, carboxymethyl hydroxyethylcellulose, cesium

acetate, cesium formate, drill-in fluid, formate, formation damage, liner, packer
completion skin
An indicator used to determine the effect that key completion components have on the production
efficiency of a well. If one or more of the well-completion components create a localized pressure drop,
the effect may be a reduction in the production capability of the well. Such conditions are evident as
completion skin.
compression-set packer
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A type of downhole packer that is activated or set by applying compressive force to the packer
assembly. In most cases, this is achieved with set-down weight from the running string, which is
controlled by the driller or operator observing the weight indicator on the rig or coiled tubing unit.
conductor pipe
1. n. [Drilling]
The casing string that is usually put into the well first, particularly on land wells, to prevent the sides of
the hole from caving into the wellbore. This casing, sometimes called drive pipe, is generally a short
length and is sometimes driven into the ground. Conductor pipe is run because the shallow section of
most wells onshore is drilled in unconsolidated sediment or soil rather than consolidated strata typically
encountered deeper. Offshore, the drive pipe or structural casing may be installed prior to the
conductor for similar reasons.
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A short string of large-diameter casing set to support the surface formations. The conductor pipe is
typically set soon after drilling has commenced since the unconsolidated shallow formations can quickly
wash out or cave in. Where loose surface soil exists, the conductor pipe may be driven into place before
the drilling commences.
coning
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The change in oil-water contact or gas-oil contact profiles as a result of drawdown pressures during
production. Coning occurs in vertical or slightly deviated wells and is affected by the characteristics of
the fluids involved and the ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability.
See: cresting, gas coning
contingency plan
A key component of the operational planning process that takes account of reasonably foreseeable
events that may prevent completion of normal operations. The formal plans and procedures for any
operation should include normal operating procedures, contingency plans and emergency responses.
continuous gas lift

An artificial-lift method in which the gas-lift system is operated on a continuous basis to sustain
liquid production at an efficient rate.
See: intermittent gas lift
More Details:
• The Pressure's On: Innovations in Gas Lift
control line
A small-diameter hydraulic line used to operate downhole completion equipment such as the surface
controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSV). Most systems operated by control line operate on a fail-safe
basis. In this mode, the control line remains pressurized at all times. Any leak or failure results in loss of
control line pressure, acting to close the safety valve and render the well safe.
See: surface-controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSV)
correlate
1. vt. [Geology]
To seek a comparison or equivalence. Scientists attempt to compare or match up well log signatures,
chemical signatures, seismic signatures, fossils and rock samples across wide areas to determine the
equivalence, extent, thickness, quality, relative age or other properties of stratigraphic units and rock
bodies.
Alternate Form: correlation
See: check-shot survey, chronostratigraphy, lithostratigraphy, marker bed, pick, signature, stratigraphy,
stratum, tie, two-dimensional survey
2. vb. [Production Logging, Well Completions, Formation Evaluation, Reservoir Characterization]
To compare and fix measured depths with known features onÂ baselineÂ logs of the
wellboreÂ tubularsÂ and the surroundingÂ formation.
Synonyms: depth correlation
corrosion-resistant alloy (CRA)

A specially formulated material used for completion components in wells likely to present
corrosion problems. Corrosion-resistant alloys can be formulated for a wide range of aggressive
wellbore conditions. However, cost generally determines the viability of any particular
completion design. Alloys with a high chrome content are commonly used for tubing strings.
More Details:
cresting
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The change in oil-water or gas-oil contact profiles as a result of drawdown pressures during production.
Cresting occurs in horizontal or highly deviated wells and is affected by the characteristics of the fluids
involved and the ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability.
See: coning, gas-oil contact, oil-water contact
cross over
A short subassembly used to enable two components with different thread types or sizes to be
connected.
crossflow
1. n. [Drilling]
The flow of fluid across the bottom of the bit after it exits the bit nozzles, strikes the bottom or sides of
the hole and turns upwards to the annulus. Modern, well-designed bits maximize crossflow using an
asymmetric nozzle arrangement.
See: bit nozzle
2. n. [Drilling]
The flow of reservoir fluids from one zone to another. Crossflow can occur when a lost returns event is
followed by a well control event. The higher pressured reservoir fluid flows out of the formation, travels
along the wellbore to a lower pressured formation, and then flows into the lower pressure formation.
See: annulus, backflow, bit nozzle, lost returns, well control
A condition that exists when two production zones with dissimilar pressure characteristics are allowed
to communicate during production. Reservoir fluid from the high-pressure zone will flow preferentially
to the low-pressure zone rather than up the production conduit unless the production parameters are
closely controlled.
crossover
A short subassembly used to enable two components with different thread types or sizes to be
connected.
crossover service tool

A specialized tool, frequently used in gravel-pack operations, that enables the circulation of the
treatment fluid (slurry) from the internal flow path of the tool string into the annulus area to be packed.
The returned carrier fluid enters the internal flow path at the base of the tool before crossing over to
the annulus above the packer assembly, isolating the annulus.
See: carrier fluid, gravel pack, slurry, tool string, treatment fluid
crown valve
The topmost valve on a Christmas tree that provides vertical access to the wellbore.
See: Christmas tree
crushed zone
1. n. [Drilling]
The rubblized rock just below the tooth of a rock bit. Rock in the crushed zone fails due to the high
compressive stress placed on it by the bit tooth (in the case of a roller-cone bit). The effective creation
of and removal of crushed zone rock is important to the efficiency of the drill bit. If the rock is not
broken and removed efficiently, the result is akin to effectively drilling the hole twice.
See: roller-cone bit
The rubblized or damaged zone surrounding a perforation tunnel where the action of the perforating
charge or bullet has altered the formation structure and permeability. Although it is generally damaging
to production, the severity or extent of the crushed zone depend greatly on the characteristics of the
formation, the perforating charge and the underbalance or overbalance conditions at time of
perforating. Measures to reduce the effect of the crushed zone include underbalanced perforating in
which the crushed zone and perforating debris are flushed from the perforating tunnel by the reservoir
fluid as soon as the perforation is created. Where overbalanced perforating techniques are used, it may
be necessary to acidize the crushed zone to achieve maximum productivity from the perforated interval.
See: overbalance, underbalance
crystallization temperature
The temperature at which crystals will appear in a brine solution of a given density as it cools. In
preparing oilfield brines, the crystallization temperature can be used to indicate the maximum
saturation (density) achievable for a brine solution at a given temperature.
See: brine
damaged zone
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The area surrounding the wellbore that has been harmed by the drilling process, generally as a result of
mud or cement-filtrate invasion. Near-wellbore damage can significantly affect productivity and is
typically easier to prevent than it is to cure. Although almost always present, a lightly damaged zone
around the wellbore can be bypassed by perforation tunnels to create connecting conduits from the
wellbore to the undamaged reservoir formation. More severe cases of damage may require a matrix-
acidizing treatment to restore the natural permeability, or a hydraulic fracturing treatment to create a
new high-conductivity flow path to the reservoir.
See: hydraulic fracturing, matrix acidizing

datum
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1. n. [Geophysics]
An agreed and known value, such as the elevation of a benchmark or sea level, to which other
measurements are corrected. In seismic data, the term refers to an arbitrary planar surface to which
corrections are made and on which sources and receivers are assumed to lie to minimize the effects of
topography and near-surface zones of low velocity.
See: benchmark, datum correction, elevation correction, receiver, source
A depth reference point, typically established at the time the well is completed, against which
subsequent depth measurements should be corrected or correlated.
depleted zone
An isolated section of reservoir in which the pressure has dropped below that of adjacent zones or the
main body of the reservoir formation.
depth control
The procedures and equipment used to measure and correlate depth to ensure that a treatment is
applied at the correct position within the wellbore.
2. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
The practice of ensuring that all measurements taken in a borehole are matched to the "base depth,"
normally the depth determined with the resistivity log.
See: depth matching, resistivity log
depth reference point

A point within the wellbore from which accurate depth measurements can be made, such as the end of
the tubing string, or a nipple or similar completion component.
See: depth reference
disposal well
A well, often a depleted oil or gas well, into which waste fluids can be injected for safe disposal. Disposal
wells typically are subject to regulatory requirements to avoid the contamination of freshwater aquifers.
See: aquifer
diverter
A chemical agent or mechanical device used in injection treatments, such asÂ matrixÂ stimulation, to
ensure a uniform distribution of treatment fluid across the treatment interval. Injected fluids tend to
follow the path of least resistance, possibly resulting in the leastÂ permeableÂ areas receiving
inadequate treatment. By using some means of diversion, the treatment can be focused on the areas
requiring the most treatment. To be effective, the diversion effect should be temporary to enable the
full productivity of the well to be restored when the treatment is complete. There are two main
categories of diversion: chemical diversion and mechanical diversion. Chemical diverters function by
creating a temporary blocking effect that is safely cleaned up following the treatment, enabling
enhanced productivity throughout the treated interval. Mechanical diverters act as physical barriers to
ensure even treatment.
See: diversion, matrix stimulation, treatment fluid
diverting agent

A chemical agent used inÂ stimulationÂ treatments to ensure uniform injection over the area to be
treated. Diverting agents, also known as chemical diverters, function by creating a temporary blocking
effect that is safely cleaned up following the treatment, enabling enhanced productivity throughout the
treated interval. InÂ matrix acidizingÂ of injection wells, benzoicÂ acidÂ is used as a chemical diverter,
while oil-soluble resins are employed inÂ productionÂ wells. Both compounds are slightly soluble or
inert in the acidic medium [HCl], but after functioning as diverters, they dissolve with water injection or
oil production, respectively. Stable, viscous foams generated in theÂ rockÂ matrixÂ are also considered
to be chemical diverters.
Synonyms: chemical diverter
See: diversion
down stream
Pertaining to equipment, facilities or systems that are located in the production train after the surface
choke or Christmas tree.
Antonyms: upstream
See: Christmas tree
downhole gauge
A pressure gauge, typically run on slickline, used to measure and record downhole pressure. Downhole
gauges are commonly used in assessing the downhole pressure under various flowing conditions, the
basis of pressure transient analysis.
See: pressure gauge, pressure transient test
downhole safety valve (DSV)

A downhole device that isolates wellbore pressure and fluids in the event of an emergency or
catastrophic failure of surface equipment. The control systems associated with safety valves are
generally set in a fail-safe mode, such that any interruption or malfunction of the system will result in
the safety valve closing to render the well safe. Downhole safety valves are fitted in almost all wells and
are typically subject to rigorous local or regional legislative requirements.
See: subsurface safety valve (SSSV)
downstream
Pertaining to equipment, facilities or systems that are located in the production train after the surface
choke or Christmas tree.
Antonyms: upstream
See: Christmas tree

drain hole
A hole or short conduit through which fluids can flow. In equipment applications, a drainhole is generally
made to avoid the buildup of pressure within a nonpressure area, such as may occur in the event of a
leak in a pressure housing within a tool assembly.
See: pressure buildup
drainhole
A hole or short conduit through which fluids can flow. In equipment applications, a drainhole is generally
made to avoid the buildup of pressure within a nonpressure area, such as may occur in the event of a
leak in a pressure housing within a tool assembly.
See: pressure buildup
drift
1. n. [Drilling]
A term to describe the inclination from vertical of a wellbore.
See: deviation survey, inclination
2. vb. [Drilling]
To guarantee the inside diameter of a pipe or other cylindrical tool by pulling a cylinder or pipe (often
called a rabbit) of known outside diameter through it. The drift diameter is the inside diameter (ID) that
the pipe manufacturer guarantees per specifications. Note that the nominal inside diameter is not the
same as the drift diameter but is always slightly larger. The drift diameter is used by the well planner to
determine what size tools or casing strings can later be run through the casing, whereas the nominal
inside diameter is used for fluid volume calculations such as mud circulating times and cement slurry
placement calculations.
See: casing string, inside diameter, rabbit
3. vb. [Drilling]
To pass a gauge through casing, tubulars and completion components to ensure minimum-diameter
specifications are within tolerance, as described in definition 2. This task is also performed to ensure
that there is no junk, dried cement, dirt, rocks or other debris inside the pipe.
4. n. [Geophysics]
In calibration of a check-shot survey, the difference between geometrically corrected transit time and
integrated sonic time.
See: check-shot survey, transit time
5. n. [Geophysics]
A gradual change in a measurement or recording device during surveying. Reference to or repetition of a

measurement at a base station can indicate whether drift is a problem.
See: base station, survey
An accurately machined device that is pulled through the casing, tubulars and completion components
to ensure minimum-diameter specifications are within tolerance, as described in definition 2. While this
tool is usually of a short length, the well planner may specify a special drift that either has a longer
length or a nonstandard outside diameter. The large-diameter casing drifts are frequently known as
"rabbits."
Synonyms: rabbit
drillable packer
A packer assembly that can be removed from the wellbore only by drilling or milling. Drillable packers,
and similar tools such as bridge plugs, are typically made from cast iron, aluminum, plastic or similar
brittle materials.
driller's depth
The depth of a well or features within the wellbore as measured while drilling. The measured length of
each joint of drillpipe or tubing is added to provide a total depth or measurement to the point of
interest. Drillers depth is the first depth measurement of a wellbore and is taken from the rotary table
level on the rig floor. In most cases, subsequent depth measurements, such as those made during the
well completion phase, are corrected to the wellhead datum that is based on drillers depth.
See: rig floor, total depth
drop ball

A ball that is dropped or pumped through the wellbore tubulars to activate a downhole tool or device.
When the ball is located on a landing seat, hydraulic pressure generally is applied to operate the tool
mechanism.
See: ball-operated
dry gas
1. n. [Geology]
Natural gas that occurs in the absence of condensate or liquid hydrocarbons, or gas that has had
condensable hydrocarbons removed. Dry gas typically has a gas-to-oil ratio exceeding 100,000 scf/STB.
Antonyms: wet gas
See: gas/oil ratio, hydrocarbon, natural gas
Gas produced from a well that produces little or no condensate or reservoir liquids. The production of
liquids from gas wells complicates the design and operation of surface process facilities required to
handle and export the produced gas.
Antonyms: wet gas
Alternate Form: lean gas
See: gas well
dual completion
A single wellbore having tubulars and equipment that enable production from two segregated zones. In
most cases, two tubing strings will be used to provide the necessary level of control and safety for the
fluids from both zones. However, in some simple dual completions, the second or upper zone is
produced up the tubing-casing annulus.
A wellbore with simultaneous production of hydrocarbons, water or both from more than one
producing zone. Although the term refers to cases in which only two separate zones are present, in
actuality there may be multiple zones involved. This completion technique avoids backflow from one
reservoir zone to another in the wellbore.
See: commingled completion, hydrocarbon
electric submersible pump

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An artificial-lift system that utilizes a downhole pumping system that is electrically driven. The
pump typically comprises several staged centrifugal pump sections that can be specifically
configured to suit the production and wellbore characteristics of a given application. Electrical
submersible pump systems are a common artificial-lift method, providing flexibility over a range
of sizes and output flow capacities.
See: artificial lift, centrifugal pump
More Details:
• Evolving Technologies: Electrical Submersible Pumps
2. n. [Heavy Oil]
An electric downhole pump used in heavy oil production that is designed with vane and fin
configurations to accommodate frictional losses and pump efficiencies caused by heavy oil
viscosity.
Alternate Form: ESP
See: heavy oil
More Details:
• Evolving Technologies: Electrical Submersible Pumps
equalizing valve
A device that is operated to equalize the pressure across a valve, plug or similar pressure or fluid
isolation barrier. The operating mechanism on many pressure-sealing devices is rendered inoperable
once the mechanism has been activated by pressure. In such cases, the pressure across the pressure
barrier must be equalized before the barrier can be removed.
2. n. [Well Workover and Intervention]
A high-pressure valve, generally of small diameter, located on a conduit that runs between the two sides
of an isolation valve or blowout preventer ram set. The forces acting on isolation devices such as
blowout preventer rams can be extremely high, preventing the rams from being opened, or causing
damage to the ram set seals during the opening process. The equalizing valve allows the pressure to be
equalized across the ram set or isolation valve, enabling the device to be opened safely.
See: blowout preventer
expansion joint
A device or completion component designed to enable relative movement between two fixed
assemblies in the event of thermal expansion or contraction. The forces generated by thermal expansion
or contraction can be significant. Expansion joints within the completion assembly prevent any
movement or forces being transmitted to fixed components such as packers or tubing hangers.
See: packer, tubing hanger
expendable plug
A temporary plug, inserted in the completion assembly before it is run, to enable pressure testing of the
completed string. With the operation complete, the expendable plug can be pumped out of the
assembly, thereby avoiding a separate retrieval run.
external pulling tool

A downhole tool used to pull or retrieve temporary plugs or similar equipment. The external pulling tool
engages on the external surfaces of the item to be retrieved.
external upset
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A type of tubing connection in which the external diameter of the tubing joint is larger adjacent to the
tubing connection to provide the necessary strength. The internal tubing surface is flush to enable good
fluid-flow characteristics.
See: fluid flow, tubing joint
filtered brine
A completion or workover fluid that has been treated to remove debris and fine particles that may cause
near-wellbore damage if allowed to enter the reservoir formation.
See: completion fluid, workover fluid
fines migration
The movement of fine clay, quartz particles or similar materials within the reservoir formation due to
drag forces during production. Fines migration may result from an unconsolidated or inherently unstable
formation, or from use of an incompatible treatment fluid that liberates fine particles. Unlike sand
migration that is best stabilized, the material mobilized in fines migration should be produced to avoid
near-wellbore damage. Fines migration causes particles suspended in the produced fluid to bridge the
pore throats near the wellbore, reducing well productivity. Fines can include different materials such as
clays (phyllosilicates smaller than 4 microns) and silts (silicates or aluminosilicates with sizes ranging
from 4 to 64 microns). Kaolinite and illite are the most common migrating clays. Damage created by
fines usually is located within a radius of 3 to 5 ft [1 to 2 m] of the wellbore, but can also occur in gravel-
pack completions. In sandstone formations, hydrofluoric acid [HF] mixtures are used to dissolve fines. In
carbonate formations, the goal is not to dissolve but rather to disperse fines in the wormholes, so
hydrochloric [HCl] acid is used as the treatment fluid.
See: gravel pack, induced particle plugging, pore throat, treatment fluid, wormhole
fixed choke
A device used to control the flow of fluids by directing flow through a restriction or hole of a fixed size.
The fluid characteristics and the pressure differential across the choke determine the flow rate through
a fixed choke.
See: fluid flow
flag joint
A joint of tubing or casing included in the string at a known position to provide a reference point for
further operations. A short pup joint that registers clearly in a collar locator log is a common flag joint.
See: collar locator

flange
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A connection profile used in pipe work and associated equipment to provide a means of assembling and
disassembling components. Most oilfield flanges feature a bolt-hole pattern to allow the joint to be
secured and a gasket profile to ensure a pressure-tight seal. The design and specification of a flange
relates to the size and pressure capacity of the equipment to which it is fitted.
float collar
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A component installed near the bottom of the casing string on which cement plugs land during the
primary cementing operation. It typically consists of a short length of casing fitted with a check valve.
This device may be a flapper-valve type, a spring-loaded ball valve or other type. The check-valve
assembly fixed within the float collar prevents flowback of the cement slurry when pumping is stopped.
Without a float collar, the cement slurry placed in the annulus could U-tube, or reverse flow back into
the casing. The greater density of cement slurries than the displacement mud inside the casing causes
the U-tube effect.
See: casing string, cement plug, check valve, displacement fluid, flapper valve, float joint, flow back,
primary cementing, U-tube effect
float shoe
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A rounded profile component attached to the downhole end of a casing string. An integral check valve in
the float shoe prevents reverse flow, or U-tubing, of cement slurry from the annulus into the casing or
flow of wellbore fluids into the casing string as it is run. The float shoe also guides the casing toward the
center of the hole to minimize hitting rock ledges or washouts as the casing is run into the wellbore. The
float shoe reduces hook weight. With controlled or partial fill-up as the string is run, the casing string
can be floated into position, avoiding the need for the rig to carry the entire weight of the casing string.
The outer portions of the float shoe are made of steel and generally match the casing size and threads,
although not necessarily the casing grade. The inside (including the taper) is usually made of cement or
thermoplastic, since this material must be drilled out if the well is to be deepened beyond the casing
point.
See: casing, casing shoe, check valve, float joint, guide shoe, washout
flow check
A test performed to ensure stable well conditions or the integrity of a plug, valve or flow-control device.
In most cases, the flow check involves observing stable fluid levels or conditions for a prescribed period.
flow coupling
A relatively short, heavy-walled completion component installed in areas where turbulence is

anticipated. The additional wall thickness prevents early failures due to erosion in the turbulent flow
area. Flow couplings are typically installed above and below completion components, such as landing
nipples, that may affect the flow.
See: nipple
fluid invasion
A general term to describe the presence of a particular fluid in an undesirable area, such as the
movement of drilling mud into a section of the reservoir formation.
See: drilling fluid
fluid-loss additive
A group of mud additives specifically designed to lower the volume of filtrate that passes through a filter
medium. Specific materials are available for all types of water- and oil-base mud systems and are
evaluated in static filtration tests or in various dynamic filtration tests.
See: dynamic filter press, dynamic filtration, filter medium, filtrate volume, fluid-loss control, high-
pressure, high-temperature filtration test, low-pressure, low-temperature filtration test, oil-base mud,
static filtration, water-base drilling fluid
A chemical additive used to control the loss of fluid to the formation through filtration. In cementing
operations, loss of the aqueous phase can severely affect the performance of the slurry and set cement.
In almost any operation, loss of fluid to the reservoir formation carries a high risk of permeability
damage.
flush joint
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A type of tubing connection in which the internal or external surfaces are the same diameter throughout
the tubing joint. Internal flush joints are most common, offering no restriction to fluid flow. Externally
flush joints are typically used in more specialized applications, such as washover pipe for fishing
operations, to allow adequate outer diameter (OD) clearance.
See: outside diameter, tubing joint, washover pipe

formation damage
1. n. [Drilling]
Alteration of the far-field or virgin characteristics of a producing formation, usually by exposure
to drilling fluids. The water or solid particles in the drilling fluids, or both, tend to decrease the
pore volume and effective permeability of the producible formation in the near-wellbore region.
At least two mechanisms are at work. First, solid particles from the drilling fluid physically plug
or bridge across flowpaths in the porous formation. Second, when water contacts certain clay
minerals in the formation, the clay typically swells, increasing in volume and decreasing the pore
volume. Third, chemical reactions between the drilling fluid and the formation rock and fluids
can precipitate solids or semisolids that plug pore spaces. One approach to minimize formation
damage is to use drill-in or completion fluids that are specially formulated to avoid damage to
the formation when drilling pay zones, rather than ordinary drilling fluids.
See: bridge, completion fluid, drill-in fluid, drilling fluid
More Details:
• Reversible Drilling-Fluid Emulsions for Improved Well Performance
A reduction in the natural capability of a reservoir to produce its fluids, such as a decrease in
porosity or permeability, or both. Damage can occur near the wellbore face (easier to repair) or
deep into the rock (harder to repair). Damage is caused by several mechanisms: (1) physical
plugging of pores by mud solids, (2) alteration of reservoir rock wettability, (3) precipitation of
insoluble materials in pore spaces, (4) clay swelling in pore spaces, (5) migration of fines into
pore throats, (6) introduction of an immobile phase, and (7) emulsion formation and blockage.
Damage can occur when sensitive formations are exposed to drilling fluids.
See: bridging material, completion fluid, drill-in fluid, drilling fluid, emulsion, fines, pore throat,
scale
More Details:
• Reversible Drilling-Fluid Emulsions for Improved Well Performance
A general term to describe the reduction in permeability to the near-wellbore area of a reservoir
formation. There are several recognized damage mechanisms, such as the invasion of
incompatible fluids swelling the formation clays, or fine solids from dirty fluids plugging the
formation matrix. Because formation damage can significantly affect the productivity of any
well, adequate precautions should be exercised to avoid damage during all phases in the life of a
well.
More Details:
•
formation fluid
Any fluid that occurs in the pores of a rock. Strata containing different fluids, such as various saturations
of oil, gas and water, may be encountered in the process of drilling an oil or gas well. Fluids found in the
target reservoir formation are referred to as reservoir fluids.
See: oil well, water saturation
formation fracture pressure

1. n. [Well Completions, Shale Gas, Well Testing, Well Workover and Intervention]
Pressure above which injection of fluids will cause the rock formation to fracture hydraulically.
See: fracture gradient, hydraulic fracturing
formation pressure
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1. n. [Geology]
The pressure of fluids within the pores of aÂ reservoir, usually hydrostatic pressure, or the
pressure exerted by a column of water from theÂ formation's depth to sea level. When
impermeable rocks such as shales form as sediments are compacted, theirÂ poreÂ fluids cannot
always escape and must then support the total overlyingÂ rockÂ column, leading to anomalously
high formation pressures. Because reservoir pressure changes as fluids are produced from a
reservoir, the pressure should be described as measured at a specific time, such as initial
reservoir pressure.
Alternate Form: pore pressure, reservoir pressure
See: abnormal pressure, absolute pressure, formation, geopressure, geostatic pressure,
hydrostatic pressure, lithostatic pressure, normal pressure, overpressure, pressure gradient, shale,
virgin pressure
More Details:
• A Sound Approach to Drilling
2. n. [Drilling]
The pressure of the subsurface formation fluids, commonly expressed as the density of fluid
required in the wellbore to balance that pore pressure. A normal pressure gradient might require
9 lbm/galUS [1.08 kg/m3], while an extremely high gradient may need 18 lbm/galUS [2.16
kg/m3] or higher.
See: formation fluid, pore-pressure gradient, pressure gradient
The pressure within the reservoir rock. The formation pressure value can be further categorized
as relating to flowing well or shut-in conditions.
See: naturally flowing well, shut-in pressure
frac balls
Another term for ball sealers, small spheres designed to seal perforations that are accepting the most
fluid, thereby diverting reservoir treatments to other portions of the target zone. Ball sealers are
incorporated into the treatment fluid and pumped with it. The effectiveness of this type of mechanical
diversion to keep the balls in place is strongly dependent on the differential pressure across the
perforation and the geometry of the perforation itself.
See: chemical diversion, mechanical diversion

frac fluid
1. n. [Shale Gas, Well Completions]
An abbreviation for fracturing fluid, a fluid injected into a well as part of a stimulation operation.
Fracturing fluids for shale reservoirs usually contain water, proppant, and a small amount of
nonaqueous fluids designed to reduce friction pressure while pumping the fluid into the wellbore.
These fluids typically include gels, friction reducers, crosslinkers, breakers and surfactants
similar to household cosmetics and cleaning products; these additives are selected for their
capability to improve the results of the stimulation operation and the productivity of the well.
More Details:
• Advanced Fracturing Fluids Improve Well Economics
frac job
1. n. [Well Completions, Shale Gas, Well Workover and Intervention]
Another term for hydraulic fracturing, a stimulation treatment routinely performed on oil and gas wells
in low-permeability reservoirs. Specially engineered fluids are pumped at high pressure and rate into the
reservoir interval to be treated, causing a vertical fracture to open. The wings of the fracture extend
away from the wellbore in opposing directions according to the natural stresses within the formation.
Proppant, such as grains of sand of a particular size, is mixed with the treatment fluid to keep the
fracture open when the treatment is complete. Hydraulic fracturing creates high-conductivity
communication with a large area of formation and bypasses any damage that may exist in the near-
wellbore area.
fracture
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1. n. [Shale Gas, Geology]
A crack or surface of breakage within rock not related to foliation or cleavage in metamorphic rock along
which there has been no movement. A fracture along which there has been displacement is a fault.
When walls of a fracture have moved only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint. Fractures
can enhance permeability of rocks greatly by connecting pores together, and for that reason, fractures
are induced mechanically in some reservoirs in order to boost hydrocarbon flow. Fractures may also be
referred to as natural fractures to distinguish them from fractures induced as part of a reservoir
stimulation or drilling operation. In some shale reservoirs, natural fractures improve production by
enhancing effective permeability. In other cases, natural fractures can complicate reservoir stimulation.
See: competent, dilatancy, en echelon, fracture gradient, halite, incompetent, permeability, pore, S-
wave, strain, structure
2. vb. [Shale Gas, Well Completions]
To perform aÂ stimulationÂ treatment, which is routine for oil and gas wells in low-
permeabilityÂ reservoirs. Specially engineered fluids are pumped at highÂ pressureÂ and rate into
theÂ reservoirÂ interval to be treated, causing a verticalÂ fractureÂ to open. The wings of the fracture
extend away from the wellbore in opposing directions according to the natural stresses within
theÂ formation.Â Proppant, such as grains ofÂ sandÂ of a particular size, is mixed with the treatment
fluid to keep the fracture open when the treatment is complete. Hydraulic fracturing creates high-
conductivityÂ communication with a large area of formation and bypasses any damageÂ that may exist
in the near-wellbore area.
See: hydraulic fracturing, treatment fluid
fracturing fluid
A fluid injected into a well as part of a stimulation operation. Fracturing fluids for shale
reservoirs usually contain water, proppant, and a small amount of nonaqueous fluids designed to
reduce friction pressure while pumping the fluid into the wellbore. These fluids typically include
gels, friction reducers, crosslinkers, breakers and surfactants similar to household cosmetics and
cleaning products; these additives are selected for their capability to improve the results of the
stimulation operation and the productivity of the well.
Alternate Form: frac fluid
More Details:
• Advanced Fracturing Fluids Improve Well Economics
free water
1. n. [Geology]
Water that is mobile, available to flow, and not bound to surfaces of grains or minerals in rock.
2. n. [Drilling]
In cementing, any water in the slurry that is in excess of what is required to fully hydrate the Portland
cement and other additives. Free water can physically separate as a cement slurry sets. This separation
tendency, especially in the presence of a high-pressure gas-bearing formation, can impair zonal
isolation, the primary job of the cement. For that reason, the well designer usually specifies a maximum
free-water content for the slurry.
See: cementing, portland cement
The aqueous phase that separates from a slurry or mixture of fluids. In cementing operations, free water
is undesirable since channels tend to form through the set cement, providing potential gas migration
paths. When processing reservoir fluids, the water that separates easily under gravity separation is
known as free water. In some cases, additional water may be locked in an emulsion, contributing to the
aqueous phase but not available as free water.
See: gas migration
Water in the pore space that can flow under normal reservoir conditions. When used in connection with
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements, free water is all the water that is not clay bound,
capillary bound or in mineral hydrates. The latter is in any case excluded as it relaxes too fast to be
measured by NMR. When used in connection with the dual-water model, the term means the far water.
Alternate Form: far water
See: bound water, clay-bound water, dual water, effective porosity, free fluid, magnetic resonance, total
porosity
froth flow
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1. n. [Well Completions, Production Logging]
up along the pipe walls. The flow is relatively chaotic, producing a frothy mixture. Unlike slug flow,
neither phase is continuous. The gas slugs are relatively unstable, and take on large, elongated shapes.
Also known as transition flow, this flow is an intermediate flow condition between slug flow and mist
flow, and occurs at relatively high gas velocity. As the gas velocity increases, it changes into annular
flow.
See: annular flow, bubble flow, churn flow, flow regime, flow structure, mist flow, slug, slug flow
fullbore

A description of the internal area and surfaces of a tool or tubular assembly through which there is an
unimpeded internal diameter. In some cases, fullbore is used to describe the form of a nominal internal
diameter that extends over the length of the tool or interval without any variation. In other applications,
the term simply implies an ability to pass a ball or similar item of a stated drift diameter through the
assembly.
gas bearing
Relating to a formation or interval containing gas, either dissolved in the formation fluid or as free gas.
The term is occasionally used to describe wellbore fluids containing dissolved gas.
See: formation fluid, free gas, gas-lift mandrel
gas cap
The gas that accumulates in the upper portions of a reservoir where the pressure, temperature and fluid
characteristics are conducive to free gas. The energy provided by the expansion of the gas cap provides
the primary drive mechanism for oil recovery in such circumstances.
See: free gas, gas drive
gas coning
Â Change in theÂ gas-oil contactÂ profile as a result of drawdownÂ pressures duringÂ production.
Coning occurs in vertical or slightly deviated wells and is affected by the characteristics of the fluids
involved and the ratio of horizontal to verticalÂ permeability.
See: coning
gas drive
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A primary recovery mechanism for oil wells containing dissolved and free gas, whereby the energy of the
expanding gas is used to drive the oil from the reservoir formation into the wellbore.
Alternate Form: gasdrive
See: free gas, gas cap, gas-cap drive, solution gas, solution gas drive, waterdrive
gas injection
A reservoir maintenance or secondary recovery method that uses injected gas to supplement the
pressure in an oil reservoir or field. In most cases, a field will incorporate a planned distribution of gas-
injection wells to maintain reservoir pressure and effect an efficient sweep of recoverable liquids.
See: gas injection, injection well, secondary recovery, sweep efficiency
gas lift
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An artificial-lift method in which gas is injected into the production tubing to reduce the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column. The resulting reduction in bottomhole pressure allows
the reservoir liquids to enter the wellbore at a higher flow rate. The injection gas is typically
conveyed down the tubing-casing annulus and enters the production train through a series of gas-
lift valves. The gas-lift valve position, operating pressures and gas injection rate are determined
by specific well conditions.
See: artificial lift, bottomhole pressure, gas injection, hydrostatic pressure
More Details:
gas lift mandrel

A gas-lift system component that is assembled with the production tubing string to provide a means of
locating gas-lift valves. The position or depth of the gas lift valves is crucial to the efficient operation of
the entire system. Consequently, proper assembly of the gas lift mandrels within the completion
tubulars is essential. A port in the gas-lift mandrel provides communication between the lift-gas supply
in the tubing annulus and the production-tubing conduit.
See: gas lift, gas-lift valve, production tubing
gas lift valve

A valve used in a gas-lift system to control the flow of lift gas into the production tubing conduit. The
gas-lift valve is located in the gas-lift mandrel, which also provides communication with the lift gas
supply in the tubing annulus. Operation of the gas lift valve is determined by preset opening and closing
pressures in the tubing or annulus, depending on the specific application.
See: gas lift, gas-lift mandrel
gas lock
A condition in pumping and processing equipment caused by the induction of free gas. The compressible
gas interferes with the proper operation of valves and other pump components, preventing the intake
of fluid.
See: free gas
2. n. [Production Testing]
A condition sometimes encountered in a pumping well when dissolved gas, released from solution
during the upstroke of the plunger, appears as free gas between the valves. On the downstroke,
pressure inside a barrel completely filled with gas may never reach the pressure needed to open the
traveling valve. In the upstroke, the pressure inside the barrel never decreases enough for the standing
valve to open and allow liquid to enter the pump. Thus no fluid enters or leaves the pump, and the
pump is locked. It does not cause equipment failure, but with a nonfunctional pump, the pumping
system is useless. A decrease in pumping rate is accompanied by an increase of bottomhole pressure (or
fluid level in the annulus). In many cases of gas lock, this increase in bottomhole pressure can exceed
the pressure in the barrel and liquid can enter through the standing valve. After a few strokes, enough
liquid enters the pump that the gas lock in broken, and the pump functions normally.
See: bottomhole pressure, free gas, pumping well, standing valve, traveling valve
gas oil contact

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1. n. [Geology]
A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly gas occurs and below which
predominantly oil occurs. Gas and oil are miscible, so the contact between gas and oil is transitional,
forming a zone containing a mix of gas and oil.
Alternate Form: GOC
See: downdip, fluid contact, gas-water contact, immiscible, oil-water contact, updip
The interface between the gas and oil phases present in a reservoir formation. During the production of
a well, the GOC may move, resulting in undesirable production conditions such as a high proportion of
gas that may be too much for surface processing facilities. Monitoring the gas-oil and oil-water contacts
is a key element of good reservoir management practices.
Alternate Form: GOC
See: gas-water contact

gas separator
A device used to separate entrained gas from production liquids. Surface processing facilities generally
use gas separators to render the liquids safe for further processing or disposal. Gas-separation
equipment is also used in downhole applications, such as the protection of pumping equipment against
gas lock by separating and redirecting free gas at the pump suction or inlet.
See: entrained gas, free gas, gas lock
gas well
A well that primarily produces natural gas.
See: natural gas
A producing well with natural gas as the primary commercial product. Most gas wells frequently
produce some condensate (natural gas liquids such as propane and butane) and occasionally produce
some water.
See: natural gas, natural gas liquids
gas-bearing
Relating to a formation or interval containing gas, either dissolved in the formation fluid or as free gas.
The term is occasionally used to describe wellbore fluids containing dissolved gas.
See: formation fluid, free gas, gas-lift mandrel
gasdrive
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A primary recovery mechanism for oil wells containing dissolved and free gas, whereby the energy of the
expanding gas is used to drive the oil from the reservoir formation into the wellbore.
See: free gas, gas cap, gas-cap drive, solution gas, solution gas drive, waterdrive
gas-lift mandrel
A gas-lift system component that is assembled with the production tubing string to provide a means of
locating gas-lift valves. The position or depth of the gas lift valves is crucial to the efficient operation of
the entire system. Consequently, proper assembly of the gas lift mandrels within the completion
tubulars is essential. A port in the gas-lift mandrel provides communication between the lift-gas supply
in the tubing annulus and the production-tubing conduit.
See: gas lift, gas-lift valve, production tubing
gas-lift valve
A valve used in a gas-lift system to control the flow of lift gas into the production tubing conduit. The
gas-lift valve is located in the gas-lift mandrel, which also provides communication with the lift gas
supply in the tubing annulus. Operation of the gas lift valve is determined by preset opening and closing
pressures in the tubing or annulus, depending on the specific application.
See: gas lift, gas-lift mandrel
gas-oil contact
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1. n. [Geology]
A bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly gas occurs and below which
predominantly oil occurs. Gas and oil are miscible, so the contact between gas and oil is transitional,
forming a zone containing a mix of gas and oil.
Alternate Form: GOC
The interface between the gas and oil phases present in a reservoir formation. During the production of
a well, the GOC may move, resulting in undesirable production conditions such as a high proportion of
gas that may be too much for surface processing facilities. Monitoring the gas-oil and oil-water contacts
is a key element of good reservoir management practices.
Alternate Form: GOC
gauge pressure
The measured pressure within a system in which the pressure gauge reads 0 psi at nominal atmospheric
pressure.
See: pressure gauge
gauge ring
A precisely machined test device, typically fabricated from steel or similar durable material, having a
specified internal or external diameter. The gauge ring is used to confirm the dimensional compatibility
of tools and equipment that must pass through restrictions of a certain diameter.
See: inside diameter, outside diameter
GOC
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1. n. [Geology]
Abbreviation for gas-oil contact, a bounding surface in a reservoir above which predominantly gas
occurs and below which predominantly oil occurs. Gas and oil are miscible, so the contact between gas
and oil is transitional, forming a zone containing a mix of gas and oil.
Alternate Form: gas-oil contact
Abbreviation for gas-oil contact, the interface between the gas and oil phases present in a reservoir
formation. During the production of a well, the GOC may move, resulting in undesirable production
conditions such as a high proportion of gas that may be too much for surface processing facilities.
Monitoring the gas-oil and oil-water contacts is a key element of good reservoir management practices.
Alternate Form: gas-oil contact
gravel pack
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A sand-control method used to prevent production of formation sand. In gravel pack operations,
a steel screen is placed in the wellbore and the surrounding annulus packed with prepared gravel
of a specific size designed to prevent the passage of formation sand. The primary objective is to
stabilize the formation while causing minimal impairment to well productivity.
See: sand control
More Details:
• Sand Control: Why and How?
gravel pack screen

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A metal filter assembly used to support and retain the sand placed during gravel pack operations. A
range of sizes and screen configurations is available to suit the characteristics of the wellbore,
production fluid and the formation sand.
See: gravel pack
gravel-pack screen
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A metal filter assembly used to support and retain the sand placed during gravel pack operations. A
range of sizes and screen configurations is available to suit the characteristics of the wellbore,
production fluid and the formation sand.
See: gravel pack
HF
A poisonous liquid acid composed of hydrogen and fluorine. Hydrofluoric acid [HF] is used primarily
because it is the only common, inexpensive mineral acid that can dissolve siliceous minerals. HF is
typically mixed with hydrochloric acid [HCl] or organic acid to keep the pH low when it spends, thereby
preventing detrimental precipitates. These mixtures, also called mud acids, are considered the main
fluid in a sandstone acid treatment because they remove formation damage. Hydrofluoric acid should
not be used in sandstone formations with high carbonate content because of the high risk of calcium
fluoride precipitation [CaF2].
See: fluoboric acid, matrix stimulation, precipitate
holdup depth
The point or depth at which a tool or drift of a specific size can no longer pass through the wellbore. A
higher than expected holdup depth may result from scale, fill, distortion of the wellbore tubulars or
formation movement in an openhole completion.
Alternate Form: HUD
hookwall packer
A type of packer than utilizes an assembly of friction blocks and slips to set and anchor the packer on the
casing or liner wall. Hookwall packers generally are run on tubing or drillpipe and typically require some
rotation of the packer assembly to activate or set the packer slips. Subsequent application of tension or
compression, depending on packer design, will set the packer elements.
See: block, packer
horizontal tree
A Christmas tree design for subsea applications, configured with the master valves and flow-control
equipment on a horizontal axis to minimize the assembly height.
See: Christmas tree, master valve

hot oiling
Circulation of heated fluid, typically oil, to dissolve or dislodge paraffin deposits from the production
tubing. Such deposits tend to occur where a large variation in temperature exists across the producing
system.
hot tapping
The process of drilling a hole through a pressure barrier using special equipment and procedures to
ensure that the pressure and fluids are safely contained when access is made. Hot tapping is often used
to enable access to the wellbore when wellhead valves jam closed.
HUD
The point or depth at which a tool or drift of a specific size can no longer pass through the wellbore. A
higher than expected holdup depth may result from scale, fill, distortion of the wellbore tubulars or
formation movement in an openhole completion.
Alternate Form: holdup depth
hydraulic fracture monitoring

1. n. [Shale Gas, Well Completions]
A technique to track the propagation of a hydraulic fracture as it advances through a formation.
Microseisms are detected, located, and displayed in time for scientists and engineers to
approximate the location and propagation of the hydraulic fracture. Software provides modeling,
survey design, microseismic detection and location, uncertainty analysis, data integration, and
visualization for interpretation. Computer imagery is used to monitor the activity in 3D space
relative to the location of the fracturing treatment. The monitored activities are animated to show
progressive fracture growth and the subsurface response to pumping variations. When displayed
in real time, the microseismic activity allows one to make changes to the stimulation design to
ensure optimal reservoir contact. Also known as microseismic monitoring, this technique
delivers information about the effectiveness of the stimulation of a reservoir that can be used to
enhance reservoir development in shale gas completions.
More Details:
• Live Hydraulic Fracture Monitoring and Diversion
hydraulic fracturing
1. n. [Shale Gas, Well Completions, Well Workover and Intervention]
A stimulation treatment routinely performed on oil and gas wells in low-permeability reservoirs.
Specially engineered fluids are pumped at high pressure and rate into the reservoir interval to be
treated, causing a vertical fracture to open. The wings of the fracture extend away from the
wellbore in opposing directions according to the natural stresses within the formation. Proppant,
such as grains of sand of a particular size, is mixed with the treatment fluid to keep the fracture
open when the treatment is complete. Hydraulic fracturing creates high-conductivity
communication with a large area of formation and bypasses any damage that may exist in the
near-wellbore area.
More Details:
• Elements of Hydraulic Fracturing
hydraulic packer
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A type of packer used predominantly in production applications. A hydraulic packer typically is set using
hydraulic pressure applied through the tubing string rather than mechanical force applied by
manipulating the tubing string.
See: packer, production packer
hydraulic set
A setting or operating method that uses hydraulic force applied through the tubing or running string to
activate a downhole tool. In many cases a drop ball, which lands in a profiled seat, will be used to shift
the setting or activation mechanism at predetermined pressures.
See: drop ball
hydraulic-set
A setting or operating method that uses hydraulic force applied through the tubing or running string to
activate a downhole tool. In many cases a drop ball, which lands in a profiled seat, will be used to shift
the setting or activation mechanism at predetermined pressures.
See: drop ball
hydrofluoric hydrochloric acid

A mixture of hydrofluoric acid [HF] and hydrochloric acid [HCl] or organic acid used as the main fluid in a
sandstone matrix treatment. Hydrochloric acid or organic acid is mixed with HF to keep the pH low when
it spends, thereby preventing detrimental precipitates. The name mud acid was given to these mixtures
because they were originally developed to treat damage from siliceous drilling muds.
See: fluoboric acid, hydrofluoric acid, organic acid
hydrofluoric-hydrochloric acid
A mixture of hydrofluoric acid [HF] and hydrochloric acid [HCl] or organic acid used as the main fluid in a
sandstone matrix treatment. Hydrochloric acid or organic acid is mixed with HF to keep the pH low when
it spends, thereby preventing detrimental precipitates. The name mud acid was given to these mixtures
because they were originally developed to treat damage from siliceous drilling muds.
See: fluoboric acid, hydrofluoric acid, organic acid
hydrogen sulfide
1. n. [Drilling, Drilling Fluids, Production Facilities, Well Testing, Well Workover and Intervention, Well
Completions]
[H2S] An extraordinarily poisonous gas with a molecular formula of H2S. At low concentrations, H2S has
the odor of rotten eggs, but at higher, lethal concentrations, it is odorless. H2S is hazardous to workers
and a few seconds of exposure at relatively low concentrations can be lethal, but exposure to lower
concentrations can also be harmful. The effect of H2S depends on duration, frequency and intensity of
exposure as well as the susceptibility of the individual. Hydrogen sulfide is a serious and potentially
lethal hazard, so awareness, detection and monitoring of H2S is essential. Since hydrogen sulfide gas is
present in some subsurface formations, drilling and other operational crews must be prepared to use
detection equipment, personal protective equipment, proper training and contingency procedures in
H2S-prone areas. Hydrogen sulfide is produced during the decomposition of organic matter and occurs
with hydrocarbons in some areas. It enters drilling mud from subsurface formations and can also be
generated by sulfate-reducing bacteria in stored muds. H2S can cause sulfide-stress-corrosion cracking of
metals. Because it is corrosive, H2S production may require costly special production equipment such as
stainless steel tubing. Sulfides can be precipitated harmlessly from water muds or oil muds by
treatments with the proper sulfide scavenger. H2S is a weak acid, donating two hydrogen ions in
neutralization reactions, forming HS- and S-2 ions. In water or water-base muds, the three sulfide species,
H2S and HS- and S-2 ions, are in dynamic equilibrium with water and H+ and OH- ions. The percent
distribution among the three sulfide species depends on pH. H2S is dominant at low pH, the HS- ion is
dominant at mid-range pH and S2 ions dominate at high pH. In this equilibrium situation, sulfide ions
revert to H2S if pH falls. Sulfides in water mud and oil mud can be quantitatively measured with the
Garrett Gas Train according to procedures set by API.
Alternate Form: H2S
See: corrosion coupon, Garrett Gas Train, hydrocarbon, natural gas, sour, sweet
ICD
Abbreviation for inflow control device, a passive component installed as part of a well
completion to help optimize production by equalizing reservoir inflow along the length of the
wellbore. Multiple inflow control devices can be installed along the reservoir section of the
completion, with each device employing a specific setting to partially choke flow. The resulting
arrangement can be used to delay water or gas breakthrough by reducing annular velocity across
a selected interval such as the heel of a horizontal well. ICDs are frequently used with sand
screens on openhole completions.
ICV
Abbreviation for inflow control valve, an active component installed as part of a well completion
to partially or completely choke flow into a well. Inflow control valves can be installed along the
reservoir section of the completion, with each device typically separated from the next via a
packer. Each ICV can be controlled from the surface to maintain flow conformance and, as the
reservoir depletes, to stop unwanted fluids from entering the wellbore. A permanent downhole
cable provides electric and hydraulic conduits to relay commands from the surface to the ICV.
inflatable packer
A type of packer that uses an inflatable bladder to expand the packer element against the casing or
wellbore. In preparation for setting the packer, a drop ball or series of tubing movements are generally
required, with the hydraulic pressure required to inflate the packer provided by carefully applying
surface pump pressure. Inflatable packers are capable of relatively large expansion ratios, an important
factor in through-tubing work where the tubing size or completion components can impose a significant
size restriction on devices designed to set in the casing or liner below the tubing.
See: drop ball
inflow control device

A passive component installed as part of a well completion to help optimize production by

equalizing reservoir inflow along the length of the wellbore. Multiple inflow control devices can
be installed along the reservoir section of the completion, with each device employing a
specific setting to partially choke flow. The resulting arrangement can be used to delay water or
gas breakthrough by reducing annular velocity across a selected interval such as the heel of a
horizontal well. Inflow control devices are frequently used with sand screens on openhole
completions.
Alternate Form: ICD

inflow control valve

An active component installed as part of a well completion to partially or completely choke flow
into a well. Inflow control valves can be installed along the reservoir section of the completion,
with each device typically separated from the next via a packer. Each valve can be controlled
from the surface to maintain flow conformance and, as the reservoir depletes, to stop unwanted
fluids from entering the wellbore. A permanent downhole cable provides electric and hydraulic
conduits to relay commands from the surface to each valve.
Alternate Form: ICV
inflow performance relationship

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A mathematical tool used in production engineering to assess well performance by plotting the well
production rate against the flowing bottomhole pressure (BHP). The data required to create the IPR are
obtained by measuring the production rates under various drawdown pressures. The reservoir fluid
composition and behavior of the fluid phases under flowing conditions determine the shape of the
curve.
Alternate Form: IPR
See: well production rate

inhibitor
A chemical agent added to a fluid system to retard or prevent an undesirable reaction that occurs within
the fluid or with the materials present in the surrounding environment. A range of inhibitors is
commonly used in the production and servicing of oil and gas wells, such as corrosion inhibitors used in
acidizing treatments to prevent damage to wellbore components and inhibitors used during production
to control the effect of hydrogen sulfide [H2S].
injection line
A small-diameter conduit that is run alongside production tubulars to enable injection of inhibitors or
similar treatments during production. Conditions such as high hydrogen sulfide [H2S] concentrations or
severe scale deposition can be counteracted by injection of treatment chemicals and inhibitors during
production.
See: inhibitor
injection mandrel
A downhole completion component that enables injection of treatment chemicals or inhibitors into the
production conduit. The injection mandrel is equipped with a port- and check-valve system to direct
fluid pumped down the annulus or injection line into the production conduit.
See: check valve, inhibitor, injection line
injection pressure
The pressure at which a treatment or test fluid can be injected into the formation matrix without
causing a breakdown, or fracture, of the rock matrix. The injection pressure is commonly described as
the surface pump pressure required to achieve injection. However, since the hydrostatic pressure of the
fluid column also contributes to the downhole pressure value, the downhole pressure should also be
considered.
See: hydrostatic pressure
The pressure needed to inject fluid into the formation to pressurize or displace hydrocarbons.
See: hydrocarbon
injection pump
Any pump used to inject fluid into the reservoir or production system. Injection pumps vary in volume
and pressure capacity, from the large injection pumps used in water-injection wells, to much smaller
low-volume injection pumps used in continuous scale-inhibitor treatments.
See: scale inhibitor
injection well
A well in which fluids are injected rather than produced, the primary objective typically being to
maintain reservoir pressure. Two main types of injection are common: gas and water. Separated gas
from production wells or possibly imported gas may be reinjected into the upper gas section of the
reservoir. Water-injection wells are common offshore, where filtered and treated seawater is injected
into a lower water-bearing section of the reservoir.
See: gas injection, reservoir pressure
instrument hanger
A downhole tool on which downhole gauges or instruments that are to be temporarily left in the
wellbore are attached. The instrument hanger is run into the wellbore on slickline and set in a
completion nipple at the required depth.
See: nipple
intelligent well
A well equipped with monitoring equipment and completion components that can be adjusted to
optimize production, either automatically or with some operator intervention.
More Details:
• Intelligent Completionsâ€”A Hands-Off Management Style
intermediate casing
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A casing string that is generally set in place after the surface casing and before the production casing.
The intermediate casing string provides protection against caving of weak or abnormally pressured
formations and enables the use of drilling fluids of different density necessary for the control of lower
formations.
See: casing string, drilling fluid, intermediate casing string, surface casing
intermittent gas lift
An artificial-lift method, used in relatively low-productivity wells, in which the gas-lift system is
operated on an intermittent basis to enable the buildup of liquids in the wellbore.
See: artificial lift, gas lift
More Details:
internal pulling tool

A downhole tool used to pull or retrieve temporary plugs or similar equipment. The internal pulling tool
engages on the internal surfaces of the item to be retrieved.
iron stabilizer
Also known as a chelating agent, a chemical added to an acid to stabilize iron. In the oil field, acid is used
in stimulation treatments and to treat or remove scale or weighting material in reservoir drilling
fluids.The injected acid dissolves iron from rust, millscale, iron scales or iron-containing minerals in
the formation. Iron can exist as ferric iron [Fe+3] or ferrous iron [Fe+2]. If the iron is not controlled, it
will precipitate insoluble products such as ferric hydroxide and, in sour environments, ferrous
sulfide [FeS], which will damage the formation. Chelating agents associate with iron [Fe+3 or Fe+2] to
form soluble complexes. Citric acid, acetic acid and EDTA are effective chelating agents and can be used
at temperatures up to 400oF [204oC].
See: reducing agent
J slot
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A type of mechanism commonly used in the setting and unsetting of downhole tools and equipment
such as packers. Most conventional downhole tools operate by upward or downward movement,
rotation, or a combination of both. The J-slot profile creates the track for an actuating cam or pin that
combines rotation and up or down movement to provide a simple yet reliable means of tool activation.
Alternate Form: J-slot
jar
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1. n. [Drilling]
A mechanical device used downhole to deliver an impact load to another downhole component,
especially when that component is stuck. There are two primary types, hydraulic and mechanical jars.
While their respective designs are quite different, their operation is similar. Energy is stored in the
drillstring and suddenly released by the jar when it fires. The principle is similar to that of a carpenter
using a hammer. Kinetic energy is stored in the hammer as it is swung, and suddenly released to the nail
and board when the hammer strikes the nail. Jars can be designed to strike up, down, or both. In the
case of jarring up above a stuck bottomhole assembly, the driller slowly pulls up on the drillstring but
the BHA does not move. Since the top of the drillstring is moving up, this means that the drillstring itself
is stretching and storing energy. When the jars reach their firing point, they suddenly allow one section
of the jar to move axially relative to a second, being pulled up rapidly in much the same way that one
end of a stretched spring moves when released. After a few inches of movement, this moving section
slams into a steel shoulder, imparting an impact load. In addition to the mechanical and hydraulic
versions, jars are classified as drilling jars or fishing jars. The operation of the two types is similar, and
both deliver approximately the same impact blow, but the drilling jar is built such that it can better
withstand the rotary and vibrational loading associated with drilling.
See: bottomhole assembly, fishing tool
A downhole tool that is used to impart a heavy blow or impact load to a downhole tool assembly.
Commonly used in fishing operations to free stuck objects, jars are available in a range of sizes and
capacities to deliver upward or downward impact loads. Some slickline tool assemblies use jars to
operate tools that contain shear pins or spring profiles in their operating method.
A downhole tool used to deliver an impact force to the tool string, usually to operate downhole tools or
to dislodge a stuck tool string. Jars of different designs and operating principles are commonly included
on slickline, coiled tubing and workover tool strings. Simple slickline jars incorporate an assembly that
allows some free travel within the tool to gain momentum for the impact that occurs at the end of the
stroke. Larger, more complex jars for coiled tubing or workover strings incorporate a trip or firing
mechanism that prevents the jar from operating until the desired tension is applied to the string, thus
optimizing the impact delivered. Jars are designed to be reset by simple string manipulation and are
capable of repeated operation or firing before being recovered from the well.
jet pump
A type of pump that operates on the principle of a high-pressure fluid jet and the venturi effect it
creates. Jet pumps are relatively inefficient but can tolerate a wide range of operating conditions,
including easily handling sand-laden or abrasive fluids.
J-slot
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A type of mechanism commonly used in the setting and unsetting of downhole tools and equipment
such as packers. Most conventional downhole tools operate by upward or downward movement,
rotation, or a combination of both. The J-slot profile creates the track for an actuating cam or pin that
combines rotation and up or down movement to provide a simple yet reliable means of tool activation.
landing collar
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A component installed near the bottom of the casing string on which the cement plugs land during the
primary cementing operation. The internal components of the landing collar are generally fabricated
from plastics, cement and other drillable materials.
See: casing string, cement plug, float collar, primary cementing
landing nipple
A completion component fabricated as a short section of heavy wall tubular with a machined internal
surface that provides a seal area and a locking profile. Landing nipples are included in most completions
at predetermined intervals to enable the installation of flow-control devices, such as plugs and chokes.
Three basic types of landing nipple are commonly used: no-go nipples, selective-landing nipples and
ported or safety-valve nipples.
See: no-go landing nipple, selective nipple
life of the well

The period of time during which economically sustainable production levels may be expected from a
well. The anticipated well life and the characteristics of the reservoir fluid are the two main factors in
specifying the completion system components.
lifting sub
A short drillstring component that is temporarily connected to the top of a tool assembly that is to be
lifted vertically, such as when running or retrieving a tool string. The external profile on the upper
section of the lifting sub is similar to that of the completion tubing, enabling the rig elevators to lift the
assembled tool string safely.
liner
1. n. [Drilling]
A casing string that does not extend to the top of the wellbore, but instead is anchored or suspended
from inside the bottom of the previous casing string. There is no difference between the casing joints
themselves. The advantage to the well designer of a liner is a substantial savings in steel, and therefore
capital costs. To save casing, however, additional tools and risk are involved. The well designer must
trade off the additional tools, complexities and risks against the potential capital savings when deciding
whether to design for a liner or a casing string that goes all the way to the top of the well (a "long
string"). The liner can be fitted with special components so that it can be connected to the surface at a
later time if need be.
See: casing joint, casing string, reciprocate, underream
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Any string of casing in which the top does not extend to the surface but instead is suspended from inside
the previous casing string. Many conventional well designs include a production liner set across the
reservoir interval. This reduces the cost of completing the well and allows some flexibility in the design
of the completion in the upper wellbore, such as when the fluid characteristics make it beneficial to
increase the diameter of the conduit and components.
liner hanger
A device used to attach or hang liners from the internal wall of a previous casing string. Liner hangers
are available in a range of sizes and specifications to suit a variety of completion conditions.
See: casing string, liner
live oil
Oil containing dissolved gas in solution that may be released from solution at surface conditions. Live oil
must be handled and pumped under closely controlled conditions to avoid the risk of explosion or fire.
Antonyms: dead oil
lock
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A downhole device, run and retrieved on slickline, that is placed and anchored within the tubing string
to provide a setting point for flow-control equipment such as valves, chokes and plugs. The three main
types of lock use different means of locating and securing: a slip lock locates and anchors anywhere
within the correct size of tubing; the collar lock locates in the space within tubing collars; and the nipple
lock locates within completion nipple profiles.
See: nipple
lubricator valve
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See: Christmas tree
make up
1. vb. [Drilling]
To tighten threaded connections.
To connect tools or tubulars by assembling the threaded connections incorporated at either end of
every tool and tubular. The threaded tool joints must be correctly identified and then torqued to the
correct value to ensure a secure tool string without damaging the tool or tubular body.
mandrel
A bar, shaft or spindle around which other components are arranged or assembled. The term has been
extended in oil and gas well terminology to include specialized tubular components that are key parts of
an assembly or system, such as gas-lift mandrel or packer mandrel.
manifold
An arrangement of piping or valves designed to control, distribute and often monitor fluid flow.
Manifolds are often configured for specific functions, such as a choke manifold used in well-control
operations and a squeeze manifold used in squeeze-cementing work. In each case, the functional
requirements of the operation have been addressed in the configuration of the manifold and the degree
of control and instrumentation required.
marginal well
A well that, for reasons of depletion or natural low productivity, is nearing the limits of viable production
and profitability.
master valve
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A valve located on the Christmas tree that controls all flow from the wellbore. A correctly functioning
master valve is so important that two master valves are fitted to most Christmas trees. The upper
master valve is used on a routine basis, with the lower master valve providing backup or contingency
function in the event that the normal service valve is leaking and needs replacement.
matrix acidizing

The treatment of a reservoir formation with a stimulation fluid containing a reactive acid. In sandstone
formations, the acid reacts with the soluble substances in the formation matrix to enlarge the pore
spaces. In carbonate formations, the acid dissolves the entire formation matrix. In each case, the matrix
acidizing treatment improves the formation permeability to enable enhanced production of reservoir
fluids. Matrix acidizing operations are ideally performed at high rate, but at treatment pressures below
the fracture pressure of the formation. This enables the acid to penetrate the formation and extend the
depth of treatment while avoiding damage to the reservoir formation.
Synonyms: acid job, acid stimulation, acidize, acidizing, matrix stimulation
matrix stimulation
A treatment designed to treat the near-wellbore reservoir formation rather than other areas of the
production conduit, such as the casing across the production interval, production tubulars or the
perforations. Matrix stimulation treatments include acid, solvent and chemical treatments to improve
the permeability of the near-wellbore formation, enhancing the productivity of a well. Matrix
stimulation is a process of injecting a fluid into the formation, either an acid or solvent at pressures
below the fracturing pressure, to improve the production or injection flow capacity of a well. The goal of
a matrix treatment is different in sandstones than in carbonates. In sandstones, matrix treatments
restore or improve the natural formation permeability around the wellbore by removing formation
damage, by dissolving material plugging the pores or by enlarging the pore spaces. In carbonates, matrix
stimulation creates new, highly conductive channels (wormholes) that bypass damage. Because of these
differences, the selection criteria for the treating fluid are also distinct. For sandstone treatments,
knowledge of the extent, type of damage, location, origin, reservoir mineralogy (petrographic study) and
compatibility of the treating fluid with the formation are especially important. In carbonate treatments,
reservoir temperature, pumping rate and fluid type become more significant because these parameters
directly affect the reactivity of the treating fluid with the reservoir rock. A sandstone matrix stimulation
treatment is generally composed of a hydrochloric acid [HCl] preflush, a main treating fluid (HCl-HF
mixtures) and an overflush (weak acid solution or brine). The treating fluid is maintained under pressure
inside the reservoir for a period of time, after which the well is swabbed and returned to production. In
carbonate reservoirs, HCl is the most common fluid used. Organic acids such as formic and acetic acid
are used in either sandstone or carbonate acidizing, mainly in retarded-acid systems or in high-
temperature applications. Matrix stimulation is also called matrix treatment or matrix acidizing.
See: acid job, acid stimulation, acidize, acidizing, critical matrix, fracture acidizing, matrix, matrix
acidizing
mechanical skin
The reduction in permeability in the near-wellbore area resulting from mechanical factors such as the
displacement of debris that plugs the perforations or formation matrix. Such damage in the near-
wellbore area can have a significant effect on the productivity of a well.
See: skin
microannulus
A small gap that can form between the casing or liner and the surrounding cement sheath, most
commonly formed by variations in temperature or pressure during or after the cementing process. Such
variations cause small movement of the steel casing, breaking the cement bond and creating a
microannulus that is typically partial. However, in severe cases the microannulus may encircle the entire
casing circumference. A microannulus can jeopardize the hydraulic efficiency of a primary cementing
operation, allowing communication between zones if it is severe and connected.
microseismic monitoring
A technique to track the propagation of a hydraulic fracture as it advances through a formation.
Microseisms are detected, located, and displayed in time for scientists and engineers to
approximate the location and propagation of the hydraulic fracture. Software provides modeling,
survey design, microseismic detection and location, uncertainty analysis, data integration, and
visualization for interpretation. Computer imagery is used to monitor the activity in 3D space
relative to the location of the fracturing treatment. The monitored activities are animated to show
progressive fracture growth and the subsurface response to pumping variations. When displayed
in real time, the microseismic activity allows one to make changes to the stimulation design to
ensure optimal reservoir contact. Also known as hydraulic fracture monitoring, this technique
delivers information about the effectiveness of the stimulation of a reservoir that can be used to
enhance reservoirÂ developmentÂ inÂ shaleÂ gas completions.
More Details:
• Live Hydraulic Fracture Monitoring and Diversion
minimum restriction
The smallest diameter present in a wellbore through which a tool string must pass to enable access to
the operating depth or zone of interest. The minimum restriction determines the maximum tool string
outside diameter and may influence the configuration of the assembled tools or equipment. The
minimum restriction should be considered in both running and retrieving modes if any increase in tool
string outside diameter is likely, such as when perforating or when using inflatable packers.
mist flow
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A multiphase fluid-flow regime characterized by the gas phase being distributed as bubbles through the
liquid phase. In a producing wellbore where the bubbles are uniformly distributed, there is little relative
motion between the phases. Where the bubbles congregate and combine to form a less uniform
distribution of the gas phase, some slippage will occur between the phases with the gas tending to cut
through the liquid phase.
See: multiphase fluid, slip
A multiphase-flow regime, with gas as the continuous phase, in which oil or water exists as very small,
approximately homogeneously distributed droplets. Mist flow occurs at high gas velocities. Unless the
velocity is very high, there may be a thin film of liquid on the pipe wall, in which case the term annular
flow or annular mist flow is also used.
See: bubble flow, churn flow, flow structure, froth flow, mist
multiphase fluid
A fluid, generally a liquid, comprising more than one phase, such as water- or oil-based liquids,
solid material or gas. Multiphase fluids and their behavior are of concern in two main areas, the
flow of multiphase fluids and the separation of the various phases at surface.
See: multiphase fluid flow
More Details:
• Multiphase Fluid Samples: A Critical Piece of the Puzzle
multiphase fluid flow
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The commingled flow of different phase fluids, such as water, oil and gas. Multiphase fluid flow
is a complex factor, important in understanding and optimizing production hydraulics in both oil
and gas wells. Four multiphase fluid flow regimes are recognized when describing flow in oil
and gas wells, bubble flow, slug flow, transition flow and mist flow.
See: bubble flow, mist flow, slug flow, transition flow
More Details:
• Multiphase Fluid Samples: A Critical Piece of the Puzzle
multiple completion
A single wellbore having tubulars and equipment that enable production from two or more reservoir
zones. In most cases, at least two tubing strings will be used to provide the necessary level of control
and safety for production fluids. However, in some simple dual completions, the second or upper zone is
produced up the tubing-casing annulus. The wellhead and surface flow-control facilities required for
multiple completions can be complex and costly; hence, multiple completions are relatively uncommon.
natural completion
A completion system designed to utilize the natural flow capability of the reservoir.
naturally occurring radioactive materials

(NORM)
Materials typically found in certain types of barium or strontium scales that may be deposited in the
wellbore or production tubulars. Any attempt to remove and dispose of NORM materials should be
performed according to the legislation and policies associated with such potentially hazardous materials.
neutral point
The point on a string of tubulars at which there are neither tension nor compression forces present.
Below the neutral point, there will be compression forces that build toward the bottom of the wellbore.
Above the neutral point, tensile forces build to a maximum applied at the hanger or as hook load.
See: hook load

nipple
1. n. [Drilling]
Any short piece of pipe, especially if threaded at both ends with male threads.
nipple down
1. vb. [Drilling]
To take apart, disassemble and otherwise prepare to move the rig or blowout preventers.
See: blowout preventer, rig
The process of disassembling well-control or pressure-control equipment on the wellhead. Depending

on the configuration of the wellhead and casing strings, it may be necessary to nipple-down and nipple-
up the blowout preventer (BOP) system as each casing string is run.
Antonyms: nipple up, nipple-up
See: blowout preventer, casing string

nipple up
1. vb. [Drilling]
To put together, connect parts and plumbing, or otherwise make ready for use. This term is usually
reserved for the installation of a blowout preventer stack.
See: BOP stack
The process of assembling well-control or pressure-control equipment on the wellhead.
Antonyms: nipple down, nipple-down
nipple-down
The process of disassembling well-control or pressure-control equipment on the wellhead. Depending

on the configuration of the wellhead and casing strings, it may be necessary to nipple-down and nipple-
up the blowout preventer (BOP) system as each casing string is run.
Antonyms: nipple up, nipple-up
Alternate Form: nipple down
See: blowout preventer, casing string
nipple-up
The process of assembling well-control or pressure-control equipment on the wellhead.
Antonyms: nipple down, nipple-down
Alternate Form: nipple up
nitrogen cushion
A column of high-pressure nitrogen typically applied to a tubing string in preparation for drillstem
testing or perforating operations in which the reservoir formation is to be opened to the tubing string.
The nitrogen cushion allows a precise pressure differential to be applied before opening flow from the
reservoir. Once flow begins, the nitrogen cushion pressure can be easily and safely bled down to flow
formation fluids under a high degree of control.
See: drillstem test, formation fluid
nitrogen kickoff
Another term for nitrogen lift, the use of nitrogen gas circulated into the production conduit to displace
liquids and reduce the hydrostatic pressure created by the fluid column. Nitrogen lifting is a common
technique used to initiate production on a well following workover or overbalanced completion. A coiled
tubing string is generally used to apply the treatment, which involves running to depth while pumping
high-pressure nitrogen gas. Once the kill-fluid column is unloaded and the well is capable of natural
flow, the coiled tubing string is removed and the well is prepared for production.
See: coiled tubing string, hydrostatic pressure
nitrogen lift
The use of nitrogen gas circulated into the production conduit to displace liquids and reduce the
hydrostatic pressure created by the fluid column. Nitrogen lifting is a common technique used to initiate
production on a well following workover or overbalanced completion. A coiled tubing string is generally
used to apply the treatment, which involves running to depth while pumping high-pressure nitrogen gas.
Once the kill-fluid column is unloaded and the well is capable of natural flow, the coiled tubing string is
removed and the well is prepared for production.
Alternate Form: nitrogen kickoff
See: coiled tubing string, hydrostatic pressure
nitrogen unit
A high-pressure pump or compressor unit capable of delivering high-purity nitrogen gas for use in oil or
gas wells. Two basic types of unit are commonly available: a nitrogen converter unit that pumps liquid
nitrogen at high pressure through a heat exchanger or converter to deliver high-pressure gas at ambient
temperature, and a nitrogen generator unit that compresses and separates air to provide a supply of
high-pressure nitrogen gas.
See: ambient temperature
no go landing nipple
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A nipple that incorporates a reduced diameter internal profile that provides a positive indication of
seating by preventing the tool or device to be set from passing through the nipple. In many completions,
a no-go landing nipple is preferred for the deepest nipple location, providing a no-go barrier to protect
against a tool string being run or dropped below the tubing string.
See: nipple
NODAL* analysis
An analytical tool used in forecasting the performance of the various elements comprising the
completion and production system. NODAL* analysis is used to optimize the completion design to suit
the reservoir deliverability, identify restrictions or limits present in the production system and identify
any means of improving production efficiency. *NODAL (production system analysis) is a mark of
Schlumberger.
no-go landing nipple

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A nipple that incorporates a reduced diameter internal profile that provides a positive indication of
seating by preventing the tool or device to be set from passing through the nipple. In many completions,
a no-go landing nipple is preferred for the deepest nipple location, providing a no-go barrier to protect
against a tool string being run or dropped below the tubing string.
See: nipple
O ring
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A type of circular seal commonly found in downhole tools and a wide range of surface equipment
applications. The specification of O-ring material depends on the conditions for which the seal is
intended, such as system operating temperature and pressure. Various backup systems are used to
support the O-ring seal in either dynamic or static sealing applications.
open flow potential

The calculated maximum flow rate that a system may provide in the absence of restrictions. The term
may be qualified as relating to a specific zone, such as a perforated interval or be used in referring to the
production capability of the well.
The theoretical flow capacity of gas wells if the bottomhole pressure could be reduced to atmospheric
pressure. Test procedures to determine the AOF (Atmospheric Open-Flow) potential were often
prescribed by law and enforced by state agencies. The open-flow potential capacity of the well was then
used to determine the maximum rate that the gas well would be allowed to produce into a pipeline.
During that period when there was an excessive amount of gas available for sale, this approach allowed
an orderly method of allocating production rights to operators. The methodology is still used in some
areas. The test required use of multiple rates, usually three or four, with measurement or calculation of
the bottomhole pressure at the end of each flow period. The values of the difference between the
square of the average reservoir pressure and the square of the bottomhole pressure were computed for
each flow rate. These values were then plotted on the y-axis of a log-log plot versus the rate on the x-
axis. The value of the open-flow potential is obtained by extrapolating the best straight line to the value
of the average reservoir pressure squared minus atmospheric pressure squared, and then reading the
corresponding rate off the x-axis.
See: gas-well deliverability, reservoir pressure
open-flow potential
The calculated maximum flow rate that a system may provide in the absence of restrictions. The term
may be qualified as relating to a specific zone, such as a perforated interval or be used in referring to the
production capability of the well.
The theoretical flow capacity of gas wells if the bottomhole pressure could be reduced to atmospheric
pressure. Test procedures to determine the AOF (Atmospheric Open-Flow) potential were often
prescribed by law and enforced by state agencies. The open-flow potential capacity of the well was then
used to determine the maximum rate that the gas well would be allowed to produce into a pipeline.
During that period when there was an excessive amount of gas available for sale, this approach allowed
an orderly method of allocating production rights to operators. The methodology is still used in some
areas. The test required use of multiple rates, usually three or four, with measurement or calculation of
the bottomhole pressure at the end of each flow period. The values of the difference between the
square of the average reservoir pressure and the square of the bottomhole pressure were computed for
each flow rate. These values were then plotted on the y-axis of a log-log plot versus the rate on the x-
axis. The value of the open-flow potential is obtained by extrapolating the best straight line to the value
of the average reservoir pressure squared minus atmospheric pressure squared, and then reading the
corresponding rate off the x-axis.
See: gas-well deliverability, reservoir pressure
openhole completion
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A well completion that has no casing or liner set across the reservoir formation, allowing the produced
fluids to flow directly into the wellbore. This type of completion suffers the major disadvantage that the
sandface is unsupported and may collapse. Also, without any casing or liner installed, selective
treatments or remedial work within the reservoir section are more difficult.
Synonyms: barefoot completion

openhole gravel pack

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A type of sand-control completion in which the gravel pack screen is packed off in an openhole section
with no casing or liner to support the producing formation. The openhole interval is often prepared by
underreaming a section of reservoir below the last casing shoe. When the treatment is to be applied on
an existing well, a section of casing may be milled out.
See: casing, casing shoe, gravel pack, gravel-pack screen, sand control
openhole packer
A type of packer designed for use in openhole applications such as drillstem testing. Openhole packers
are typically configured with one large element that can be deformed easily to contact the uneven
formation surface, yet retain strength and sufficient integrity to withstand the anticipated differential
pressures.
See: drillstem test, packer

openhole test
A drillstem test performed in an openhole section of the wellbore. The test once was a popular method
of assessing the productivity of exploration wells without the need to run casing or liner across the
reservoir interval. Openhole testing now is less common because of the risks and limits associated with
fluid flow from an unsupported formation.
See: drillstem test, openhole
opening bomb
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A device used in stage cementing to open the stage collar or diverting valve through which the second
or subsequent cement stage is placed. The opening bomb is dropped down the casing string to land in a
seat within the stage collar. Applying pump pressure then activates a sliding collar that opens access
ports, enabling circulation across the upper casing interval.
See: casing string
operating gas-lift valve (OGLV)

The lowermost gas-lift valve in a gas-lift completion through which the lift gas is injected during normal
production. During startup, the upper gas-lift valves open in sequence, from the top down, to enable the
tubing fluids to be displaced. At predetermined pressures, each of the upper valves closes to eventually
route all lift gas through the operating valve, which is placed at the optimal depth for the reservoir and
completion conditions.
See: gas lift
orifice valve
A type of valve, typically found on small-diameter pipework, that incorporates an orifice or flow-
restriction device to control fluid flow.
O-ring
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A type of circular seal commonly found in downhole tools and a wide range of surface equipment
applications. The specification of O-ring material depends on the conditions for which the seal is
intended, such as system operating temperature and pressure. Various backup systems are used to
support the O-ring seal in either dynamic or static sealing applications.
oxygen scavenger
A chemical that reacts with dissolved oxygen (O2) to reduce corrosion, such as sulfite (SO3-2) and bisulfite
(HSO3-) ions that combine with oxygen to form sulfate (SO4-2). This is a redox reaction and requires a
nickel or cobalt catalyst. Removal of air from a mud by defoaming and mechanical degassing is an
essential first step before a scavenger can lower the dissolved oxygen content.
See: precipitation, redox, scavenger, sequestering agent, sulfide scavenger
A chemical agent used in some brines and completion fluids to reduce corrosion resulting from, or
exacerbated by, dissolved oxygen. Oxygen scavengers capture the dissolved oxygen in a harmless
chemical reaction that renders the oxygen unavailable for corrosive reactions. The use of oxygen
scavengers is more critical in applications in which fluids are to be circulated in the wellbore. Additional
oxygen may be dissolved during agitation at surface.
pack off
1. vb. [Drilling]
To plug the wellbore around a drillstring. This can happen for a variety of reasons, the most common
being that either the drilling fluid is not properly transporting cuttings and cavings out of the annulus or
portions of the wellbore wall collapse around the drillstring. When the well packs off, there is a sudden
reduction or loss of the ability to circulate, and high pump pressures follow. If prompt remedial action is
not successful, an expensive episode of stuck pipe can result. The term is also used in gravel packing to
describe the act of placing all the sand or gravel in the annulus.
See: annulus, circulate, cuttings, stuck pipe
2. n. [Drilling]
A flexible, usually elastomeric sealing element and housing used to seal an irregular surface such as a
wireline.
To effect hydraulic isolation, either with a sealing device, such as a packer, or with a specialized plastic
or fluid, such as a sealing compound.
See: packer, seal assembly
packer
1. n. [Drilling]
A device that can be run into a wellbore with a smaller initial outside diameter that then expands
externally to seal the wellbore. Packers employ flexible, elastomeric elements that expand. The two
most common forms are the production or test packer and the inflatable packer. The expansion of the
former may be accomplished by squeezing the elastomeric elements (somewhat doughnut shaped)
between two plates, forcing the sides to bulge outward. The expansion of the latter is accomplished by
pumping a fluid into a bladder, in much the same fashion as a balloon, but having more robust
construction. Production or test packers may be set in cased holes and inflatable packers are used in
open or cased holes. They may be run on wireline, pipe or coiled tubing. Some packers are designed to
be removable, while others are permanent. Permanent packers are constructed of materials that are
easy to drill or mill out.
See: cased hole, coiled tubing, completion, differential pressure, drillstem test, milling, openhole,
production packer
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A downhole device used in almost every completion to isolate the annulus from the production conduit,
enabling controlled production, injection or treatment. A typical packer assembly incorporates a means
of securing the packer against the casing or liner wall, such as a slip arrangement, and a means of
creating a reliable hydraulic seal to isolate the annulus, typically by means of an expandable elastomeric
element. Packers are classified by application, setting method and possible retrievability.
packer fluid
A fluid that is left in the annular region of a well between tubing and outer casing above a packer. The
main functions of a packer fluid are: (1) to provide hydrostatic pressure in order to lower differential
pressure across the sealing element, (2) to lower differential pressure on the wellbore and casing to
prevent collapse and (3) to protect metals and elastomers from corrosion.
See: differential pressure, hydrostatic pressure
The fluid that remains in the tubing-casing annulus above the packer after the completion has been run
and all circulation devices have been isolated. Packer fluids are prepared for the requirements of the
given completion. Generally, they should be of sufficient density to control the producing formation, be
solids-free and resistant to viscosity changes over long periods of time, and be noncorrosive to the
wellbore and completion components.
packing gland
A device used to seal around a reciprocating or rotating shaft or spindle. A malleable packing compound
is forced into place by an adjustable packing nut, or similar arrangement. This enables the seal or
packing to be tightened to suit the operating conditions and allows subsequent adjustment to account
for wear.
paraffin
A hydrocarbon compound that often precipitates on production components as a result of the changing
temperatures and pressures within the production system. Heavy paraffins occur as wax-like substances
that may build up on the completion components and may, if severe, restrict production. Paraffin is
normally found in the tubing close to surface. Nevertheless, it can form at the perforations, or even
inside the formation, especially in depleted reservoirs or reservoirs under gas-cycling conditions.
See: organic deposit, paraffin, paraffin inhibitor, paraffin scratcher, paraffinic hydrocarbon
perforating acid
An acid treatment placed in the wellbore over the interval to be perforated. Because of the overbalance
conditions at the time of perforating, the perforating acid is forced into the newly formed perforation
tunnel to stimulate the crushed zone. Formulation of the perforating acid depends on the characteristics
of the formation and the downhole equipment used.
See: crushed zone

perforating fluid
A specially prepared fluid placed in the wellbore over the interval to be perforated. The ideal
fluid is clean and solids-free (filtered), and will not react to cause damaging by-products on
contact with the reservoir formation. Perforating in a dirty fluid may result in significant
permeability damage that is difficult to treat and remove.
More Details:
• or2007spr02optimalfluidsystems
pipe stretch
The increase in length resulting from the combination of forces acting on a string within the wellbore.
The principal factors resulting in an increase in string length are the weight of the string itself and the
effects of thermal expansion.
plug and abandon

1. vb. [Drilling]
To prepare a well to be closed permanently, usually after either logs determine there is insufficient
hydrocarbon potential to complete the well, or after production operations have drained the reservoir.
Different regulatory bodies have their own requirements for plugging operations. Most require that
cement plugs be placed and tested across any open hydrocarbon-bearing formations, across all casing
shoes, across freshwater aquifers, and perhaps several other areas near the surface, including the top 20
to 50 ft [6 to 15 m] of the wellbore. The well designer may choose to set bridge plugs in conjunction
with cement slurries to ensure that higher density cement does not fall in the wellbore. In that case, the
bridge plug would be set and cement pumped on top of the plug through drillpipe, and then the drillpipe
withdrawn before the slurry thickened.
Alternate Form: P&A
See: bridge plug, casing shoe, cement, cementing, operator
To prepare a wellbore to be shut in and permanently isolated. There are typically regulatory
requirements associated with the P&A process to ensure that strata, particularly freshwater aquifers,
are adequately isolated. In most cases, a series of cement plugs is set in the wellbore, with an inflow or
integrity test made at each stage to confirm hydraulic isolation.
Alternate Form: P&A
plunger lift
An artificial-lift method principally used in gas wells to unload relatively small volumes of liquid. An
automated system mounted on the wellhead controls the well on an intermittent flow regime. When
the well is shut-in, a plunger is dropped down the production string. When the control system opens the
well for production, the plunger and a column of fluid are carried up the tubing string. The surface
receiving mechanism detects the plunger when it arrives at surface and, through the control system,
prepares for the next cycle.
See: production string
A type of gas-lift method that uses a plunger that goes up and down inside the tubing. The plunger
provides an interface between the liquid phase and the lift gas, minimizing liquid fallback. The plunger
has a bypass valve that opens at the top of the tubing and closes when it reaches the bottom. Plunger-
lift methods are used to remove water and condensate from a well, but they can handle only a limited
column of liquid. Typically, these methods are applied on gas wells with high gas liquid ratio (GLR) to
operate only with formation gas.
polished joint
A generic term for a completion component that has been polished or prepared to enable an efficient
hydraulic seal. The polished joint may have an internal or external polished surface and is typically
configured in a length that enables some movement of the completion string or associated components
without compromising the hydraulic seal.
polished rod
The uppermost joint in the string of sucker rods used in a rod pump artificial-lift system. The polished
rod enables an efficient hydraulic seal to be made around the reciprocating rod string.
See: rod pump

pore pressure
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1. n. [Geology]
The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostatic pressure, or the
pressure exerted by a column of water from the formation's depth to sea level. When
impermeable rocks such as shales form as sediments are compacted, their pore fluids cannot
always escape and must then support the total overlying rock column, leading to anomalously
reservoir pressure.
See: abnormal pressure, compaction, geopressure, hydrostatic pressure, impermeable,
overpressure, permeability, pressure gradient, shale, underpressure, virgin pressure
More Details:
2. n. [Drilling]
The pressure of the subsurfaceÂ formationÂ fluids, commonly expressed as the density of fluid
9 lbm/galUSÂ [1.08 kg/m3], while an extremely high gradient may need 18 lbm/galUS [2.16
kg/m3] or higher.
Alternate Form: formation pressure, reservoir pressure
Alternate Form: formation pressure, reservoir pressure
positive-displacement pump
A type of fluid pump in which the displacement volume of the pump is fixed for each rotation of the
pump. Generally associated with high-pressure applications, positive-displacement pumps are
commonly used in drilling operations to circulate the drilling fluid and in a range of oil and gas well
treatments, such as cementing, matrix treatments and hydraulic fracturing.
premium thread
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A class of high-performance thread types that are commonly used in modern oilwell and gaswell
completions. Premium threads are available in a number of configurations and are typically designed to
provide superior hydraulic sealing, improved tensile capacity and ease of make-up. Unlike conventional
threads, the sealing areas in premium thread connections are independent of the thread profile and are
included as two or three areas within the tool joint, thereby providing some redundancy.
See: tool joint
pressure buildup analysis

An analysis of data obtained from measurements of the bottomhole pressure in a well that is shut-in
after a flow period. The profile created on a plot of pressure against time is used with mathematical
reservoir models to assess the extent and characteristics of the reservoir and the near-wellbore area.
pressure drawdown
The differential pressure that drives fluids from the reservoir into the wellbore. The drawdown, and
therefore the production rate, of a producing interval is typically controlled by surface chokes. Reservoir
conditions, such as the tendency to produce sand, may limit the drawdown that may be safely applied
during production before damage or unwanted sand production occurs.
A decline in well pressure with time due to production.
pressure transient test

A means of assessing reservoir performance by measuring flow rates and pressures under a range
of flowing conditions and applying the data to a mathematical model. Fundamental data relating
to the interval under test, such as reservoir height and details of the reservoir fluids, are also
input. The resulting outputs typically include an assessment of reservoir permeability, the flow
capacity of the reservoir and any damage that may be restricting productivity.
More Details:
• The MDT Tool: A Wireline Testing Breakthrough
primary cementing
The process of placing a cement sheath around a casing or liner string. The main objectives of primary
cementing operations include zonal isolation to prevent migration of fluids in the annulus, support for
the casing or liner string, and protection of the casing string from corrosive formation fluids.
See: casing string, formation fluid
The first cementing operation performed to place a cement sheath around a casing or liner. The main
objectives of primary cementing include zonal isolation to prevent fluid migration in the annulus,
support for the casing or liner, and protection of the casing from corrosive fluids.
primary completion components

The main elements of an oil or gas well, including the production tubing string, that enable a particular
type or design of completion to function as designed. The primary completion components depend
largely on the completion type, such as the pump and motor assemblies in an electrical submersible
pump completion.
primary recovery method

The means by which the initial reservoir production is achieved, such as natural production from a gas-
drive reservoir. In many cases, a secondary recovery method, such as waterflood, is required to maintain
a viable reservoir production rate.
See: gas drive, secondary recovery
produced fluid
A generic term used in a number of contexts but most commonly to describe any fluid produced from a
wellbore that is not a treatment fluid. The characteristics and phase composition of a produced fluid
vary and use of the term often implies an inexact or unknown composition.
production casing
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A casing string that is set across the reservoir interval and within which the primary completion
components are installed.
See: casing string, primary completion components

production packer
A device used to isolate the annulus and anchor or secure the bottom of the production tubing string. A
range of production packer designs is available to suit the wellbore geometry and production
characteristics of the reservoir fluids.
See: hydraulic packer, packer, sealbore packer
production string
The primary conduit through which reservoir fluids are produced to surface. The production string is
typically assembled with tubing and completion components in a configuration that suits the wellbore
conditions and the production method. An important function of the production string is to protect the
primary wellbore tubulars, including the casing and liner, from corrosion or erosion by the reservoir
fluid.
production tubing
A wellbore tubular used to produce reservoir fluids. Production tubing is assembled with other
completion components to make up the production string. The production tubing selected for any
completion should be compatible with the wellbore geometry, reservoir production characteristics and
the reservoir fluids.
See: production string
production wing
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The portion of a Christmas tree or surface production facility through which production fluids flow. The
production wing typically includes a wing valve and a choke to control or isolate flow from the wellbore.
See: Christmas tree
productivity index (PI)

A mathematical means of expressing the ability of a reservoir to deliver fluids to the wellbore. The PI is
usually stated as the volume delivered per psi of drawdown at the sandface (bbl/d/psi).
Alternate Form: PI
profile modification
The process of controlling undesirable water production from a well by conducting treatments to
prevent coning or cresting. A range of treatment options is available for profile modification
applications, most of which are designed to reduce the permeability of the water-bearing zones to
encourage preferential flow from the oil-bearing formation. The injection of polymers, or similar
chemicals, that form a rigid gel within the formation matrix is a common treatment.
rabbit
A slang term for an internal drift diameter gauge typically used to check casing or tubing joints before
they are picked up and run into the wellbore. The drift diameter used depends on the size and weight of
the tubular being checked.
See: drift
recorder carrier
A downhole tool used to locate or convey a downhole gauge. Recorder carriers may be incorporated
into temporary completions, such as for testing purposes, or run on slickline for temporary placement
within the wellbore. In some cases, permanent gauges may be installed in recorder carriers run as
completion components.
relative permeability
1. n. [Geology]
A dimensionless term devised to adapt the Darcy equation to multiphase flow conditions.
Relative permeability is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular
saturation to absolute permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a
rock, its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative permeability allows comparison of
the different abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each other, since the presence of more
than one fluid generally inhibits flow.
See: absolute permeability, effective permeability, permeability, saturation
More Details:
• Characterizing Permeability with Formation Testers
A measurement of the ability of two or more fluid phases to pass through a formation matrix.
The relative permeability reflects the capability of a specific formation to produce a combination
of oil, water or gas more accurately than the absolute permeability of a formation sample, which
is measured with a single-phase fluid, usually water.
release joint
A downhole tool that is designed to part under controlled conditions. A release joint enables part of the
tool string to be left in the wellbore while the running string is retrieved.
Synonyms: safety joint
See: tool string
reservoir height
A measurement of the vertical thickness of reservoir formation that is open to flow. The reservoir height
is used in calculations and mathematical models to assess reservoir performance or potential
productivity.
reservoir pressure
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1. n. [Geology]
The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostatic pressure, or the
pressure exerted by a column of water from the formation's depth to sea level. When
impermeable rocks such as shales form as sediments are compacted, their pore fluids cannot
always escape and must then support the total overlying rock column, leading to anomalously
reservoir pressure.
Synonyms: hydrostatic pressure
See: hydrostatic pressure, lithostatic pressure, retrograde condensation, virgin pressure
More Details:
2. n. [Drilling]
The pressure of the subsurface formation fluids, commonly expressed as the density of fluid
9 lbm/galUS [1.08 kg/m3], while an extremely high gradient may need 18 lbm/galUS [2.16
kg/m3] or higher.
Alternate Form: formation pressure, pore pressure
Alternate Form: formation pressure, pore pressure
retrievable bridge plug

A type of downhole isolation tool that may be unset and retrieved from the wellbore after use, such as
may be required following treatment of an isolated zone. A retrievable bridge plug is frequently used in
combination with a packer to enable accurate placement and injection of stimulation or treatment
fluids.
retrievable packer
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A type of packer that is run and retrieved on a running string or production string, unlike a permanent
production packer that is set in the casing or liner before the production string is run. Retrievable
packers are most commonly used in well intervention activities, although some completion designs are
more suited to retrievable packers than permanent packers.
See: packer
reverse circulating valve

A downhole tool that is designed to enable communication between the tubing internal diameter and
the annulus, typically for reverse circulation purposes, although conventional circulation often can also
be undertaken. The valve design may be simple, enabling circulation without the ability to reset the tool
until it is retrieved to surface, or be of a more complex design allowing several cycles between open and
closed positions.
reverse circulation
1. n. [Drilling]
The intentional pumping of wellbore fluids down the annulus and back up through the drillpipe. This is
the opposite of the normal direction of fluid circulation in a wellbore. Since the inside volume of the
drillpipe is considerably less than the volume of the annulus outside of the drillpipe, reverse circulation
can bring bottomhole fluids to the surface faster than normal circulation for a given flow rate. Two
potential hazards of reverse circulation include lifting cuttings and other junk into the drillstring and the
rapid flow of reservoir fluids to the surface in a kick situation.
Synonyms: back wash, reversing out
To circulate fluid down the wellbore annulus, with returns being made up the tubing string. Reverse
circulation is often used to remove debris from the wellbore since the high fluid flow rate inside the
tubing string enables the recovery of large or dense debris particles that are difficult or impossible to
remove with conventional circulation.
Synonyms: back wash, reversing out
reverse-circulating valve
A downhole tool that is designed to enable communication between the tubing internal diameter and
the annulus, typically for reverse circulation purposes, although conventional circulation often can also
be undertaken. The valve design may be simple, enabling circulation without the ability to reset the tool
until it is retrieved to surface, or be of a more complex design allowing several cycles between open and
closed positions.
reversing out
1. n. [Drilling]
Another term for reverse circulation, the intentional pumping of wellbore fluids down the annulus and
back up through the drillpipe. This is the opposite of the normal direction of fluid circulation in a
wellbore. Since the inside volume of the drillpipe is considerably less than the volume of the annulus
outside of the drillpipe, reverse circulation can bring bottomhole fluids to the surface faster than normal
circulation for a given flow rate. Two potential hazards of reverse circulation include lifting cuttings and
other junk into the drillstring and the rapid flow of reservoir fluids to the surface in a kick situation.
Synonyms: back wash, reverse circulation
Conducting reverse circulation, that is, circulating fluid down the wellbore annulus, with returns being
made up the tubing string. Reverse circulation is often used to remove debris from the wellbore since
the high fluid flow rate inside the tubing string enables the recovery of large or dense debris particles
that are difficult or impossible to remove with conventional circulation.
Alternate Form: reverse circulation, back wash, backwash
See: circulate
rigless operation
A well-intervention operation conducted with equipment and support facilities that precludes the
requirement for a rig over the wellbore. Coiled tubing, slickline and snubbing activities are commonly
conducted as rigless operations.
rod pump
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See: sucker rod
round thread
A basic threadform commonly found in oilfield applications. The thread profile of a round thread is
designed to provide both mechanical strength and a hydraulic seal when made up to the correct torque.
running tool
A generic name for a tool or device that is used in the placement or setting of downhole equipment such
as permanent packers or plugs. The running tool can be retrieved after the operation or setting process.
In some cases, the running tool also is used to retrieve the equipment or tool that has been set in the
wellbore.
Synonyms: setting tool
A downhole tool used to run and set downhole plugs or similar equipment. The term applies to a range
of tools used in workover activities, such as coiled tubing, snubbing or rig-based applications. However,
the term is most commonly associated with slickline operations, referring to the tools used to run and
set slickline locks, plugs and similar downhole equipment.
Synonyms: setting tool
rupture disk
A high-precision component designed to rupture with the application of a predetermined hydraulic

pressure. Rupture disks are commonly used in downhole applications in which the controlled application
of pump pressure is used to set or operate downhole equipment, such as packers or plugs. In some
applications, a rupture disk may be used as a protection device to prevent overpressurizing a vessel or
component.
safety joint
1. n. [Drilling]
A weak spot in the drillstring. Such a weak spot sometimes is intentionally put into the drillstring so that
if tension in the drillstring exceeds a predetermined amount, the safety joint will part and the rest of the
drillstring will be salvageable. A safety joint is commonly included in fishing strings and drillstem testing
equipment, where the fish may be successfully caught by the fishing assembly, but tension to free the
fish may prove insurmountable. By having the safety joint in the hole, the fishing company
representative knows where the fishing string will part and what will be needed to latch onto the top of
this additional fish.
See: drillstem test, fishing tool
Another term for release joint, a downhole tool that is designed to part under controlled conditions. A
release joint enables part of the tool string to be left in the wellbore while the running string is
retrieved.
Synonyms: release joint
salt plug
A temporary plugging agent comprising graded granules of salt that form a physical or hydraulic barrier.
The different grain sizes are prepared as a slurry for placement, then allowed to settle into a plug. The
resulting plug typically provides good mechanical and hydraulic strength to enable safe treatment of an
adjacent zone. On completion of the treatment, the temporary salt plug is easily removed by circulating
a water-base fluid to dissolve the plug.
sand
1. n. [Geology]
A detrital grain between 0.0625 mm and 2 mm in diameter. Sand is larger than silt but smaller than a
granule according to the Udden-Wentworth scale. Sand is also a term used for quartz grains or for
sandstone.
See: arenaceous, detrital, fairway, pay, point bar, quartz, sandstone, tar sand, Udden-Wentworth scale
A category of size used to describe particles in a mud that will not pass through a 200-mesh screen (74
micrometers and larger).
See: fines, sand test, silt
A generic term used to describe small formation particles known as fines that may be produced with the
reservoir fluid. Sand production generally is undesirable and, if severe, may require some remedial
action to control or prevent production, such a gravel packing or sand consolidation.
sand bailer
A downhole device, usually run on slickline, used to remove sand or debris from the bottom of the
wellbore. In operation, an atmospheric chamber within the tool is opened to create a surge of fluids into
the chamber. Debris is then held within the chamber for recovery at surface.
See: sand
Another term for a hydrostatic bailer, a slickline tool generally used for the removal of sand or similar
small particles around the fishing necks of downhole tools or equipment. The hydrostatic bailer
incorporates a sealed atmospheric chamber and a shear pin, or similar activation mechanism, to allow
communication with the wellbore. When the tool is activated, there is a fluid surge into the atmosphere
as the pressure is equalized. A shroud arrangement at the base of the tool contains and directs the fluid
surge to dislodge and capture any debris in the area.
Synonyms: hydrostatic bailer
See: fishing neck, shear pin

A swabbing device used to clean up sand that has accumulated in the wellbore. Because sands
abrasiveness is detrimental to the normal operation of production equipment, its production should be
minimized. A sand bailer operates by creating a partial vacuum that sucks up the sand.
sand consolidation
A means of controlling the undesirable production of sand from weak sandstone formations. Sand
consolidation chemically binds the grains of sand that make up the formation matrix while maintaining
sufficient permeability to achieve viable production rates.
See: sand control
sand control
The installation of equipment or application of techniques to prevent migration of reservoir sand
into the wellbore or near-wellbore area. In weak formations, sand control may be necessary to
maintain the structure of the reservoir around the wellbore. In other formation types, the
migration of sand and fines into the near wellbore area may severely restrict production. Each of
these conditions requires different treatments. The principal sand-control techniques include
gravel packing and sand consolidation.
More Details:
• Sand Control: Why and How?

sand production
The migration of formation sand caused by the flow of reservoir fluids. The production of sand is
generally undesirable since it can restrict productivity, erode completion components, impede wellbore
access, interfere with the operation of downhole equipment, and present significant disposal difficulties.
sandface
The physical interface between the formation and the wellbore. The diameter of the wellbore at the
sandface is one of the dimensions used in production models to assess potential productivity.
scale
A deposit or coating formed on the surface of metal, rock or other material. Scale is caused by a
precipitation due to a chemical reaction with the surface, precipitation caused by chemical reactions, a
change in pressure or temperature, or a change in the composition of a solution. The term is also
applied to a corrosion product. Typical scales are calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, barium sulfate,
strontium sulfate, iron sulfide, iron oxides, iron carbonate, the various silicates and phosphates and
oxides, or any of a number of compounds insoluble or slightly soluble in water.
See: calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, carbonate ion, formation damage, gypsum, iron sulfide,
precipitation, saturated solution
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A mineral salt deposit that may occur on wellbore tubulars and components as the saturation of
produced water is affected by changing temperature and pressure conditions in the production conduit.
In severe conditions, scale creates a significant restriction, or even a plug, in the production tubing. Scale
removal is a common well-intervention operation, with a wide range of mechanical, chemical and scale
inhibitor treatment options available.
3. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery]
A mineral deposit that can occur in the tubing, the gravel pack, the perforations or the formation. Scale
deposition occurs when the solution equilibrium of the water is disturbed by pressure and temperature
changes, dissolved gases or incompatibility between mixing waters. Scale deposits are the most
common and most troublesome damage problems in the oil field and can occur in both production and
injection wells. All waters used in well operations can be potential sources of scale, including water used
in waterflood operations and filtrate from completion, workover or treating fluids. Therefore, reduction
of scale deposition is directly related to reduction of bad water production.
See: acid wash, scale removal, water control
scale inhibitor
A chemical treatment used to control or prevent scale deposition in the production conduit or
completion system. Scale-inhibitor chemicals may be continuously injected through a downhole
injection point in the completion, or periodic squeeze treatments may be undertaken to place the
inhibitor in the reservoir matrix for subsequent commingling with produced fluids. Some scale-inhibitor
systems integrate scale inhibitors and fracture treatments into one step, which guarantees that the
entire well is treated with scale inhibitor. In this type of treatment, a high-efficiency scale inhibitor is
pumped into the matrix surrounding the fracture face during leakoff. It adsorbs to the matrix during
pumping until the fracture begins to produce water. As water passes through the inhibitor-adsorbed
zone, it dissolves sufficient inhibitor to prevent scale deposition. The inhibitor is better placed than in a
conventional scale-inhibitor squeeze, which reduces the retreatment cost and improves production.
See: scale removal
screen
A device used inÂ sand controlÂ applications to support theÂ gravel pack. To form a screen, a profiled
wire is wrapped and welded in place on aÂ perforated liner. Screens are available in a range of sizes and
specifications, includingÂ outside diameter, material type and the geometry and dimension of the
screen slots. The space between each wire wrap must be small enough to retain the gravel placed
behind the screen, yet minimize any restriction toÂ production.
Synonyms: wire-wrapped screen
screen out
A condition that occurs when the solids carried in a treatment fluid, such as proppant in a fracture fluid,
create a bridge across the perforations or similar restricted flow area. This creates a sudden and
significant restriction to fluid flow that causes a rapid rise in pump pressure.
A condition encountered during some gravel-pack operations whereby the treatment area cannot
accept further pack sand and a sudden increase in treatment pressure occurs. Under ideal conditions,
this should signify that the entire void area has been successfully packed with sand. However, if
screenout occurs early in the treatment, it may indicate an incomplete treatment and the presence of
undesirable voids within the pack zone.
Alternate Form: screenout
screenout
A condition that occurs when the solids carried in a treatment fluid, such as proppant in a fracture fluid,
create a bridge across the perforations or similar restricted flow area. This creates a sudden and
significant restriction to fluid flow that causes a rapid rise in pump pressure.
A condition encountered during some gravel-pack operations whereby the treatment area cannot
accept further pack sand and a sudden increase in treatment pressure occurs. Under ideal conditions,
this should signify that the entire void area has been successfully packed with sand. However, if
screenout occurs early in the treatment, it may indicate an incomplete treatment and the presence of
undesirable voids within the pack zone.
seal assembly
A system of seals arranged on the component that engages in a sealbore to isolate the production-
tubing conduit from the annulus. The seal assembly is typically longer than the sealbore to enable some
movement of the components while maintaining an efficient seal.
seal receptacle
A profiled completion component designed to accept a mating component equipped with a seal
assembly. Completions are designed with seal receptacles to enable the production string to be
removed without removing the packer or permanent completion components.
See: packer, production string, seal assembly
sealbore
A polished bore designed to accept a seal assembly, such as may be used in a permanent production
packer.
See: production packer, seal assembly
sealbore packer
A type of production packer that incorporates a sealbore that accepts a seal assembly fitted to the
bottom of the production tubing. The sealbore packer is often set on wireline to enable accurate depth
correlation. For applications in which a large tubing movement is anticipated, as may be due to thermal
expansion, the sealbore packer and seal assembly function as a slip joint.
See: packer, production packer, production tubing, seal assembly, slip joint
seating nipple
secondary production
The method used to sustain production levels at viable rates following a fall in flow rate as the efficiency
of the primary production methods declines. Secondary production methods frequently involve an
artificial-lift system or reservoir injection for pressure maintenance.
selective nipple
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A type of landing nipple designed to be run in a series throughout the wellbore. Two basic types of
selective nipple system may be encountered, a nipple series in which the nipple design or profile
determines the selectivity and one in which the running tool is used to find the target nipple.
selective running tool

A wireline tool to set and retrieve selectively set downhole equipment such as plugs and similar flow-
control devices. The selective running tool enables equipment to be set in a target nipple that may be
one of a series placed throughout the wellbore.
See: selective nipple

sequestering agent
A chemical whose molecular structure can envelop and hold a certain type of ion in a stable and soluble
complex. Divalent cations, such as hardness ions, form stable and soluble complex structures with
several types of sequestering chemicals. When held inside the complex, the ions have a limited ability to
react with other ions, clays or polymers. Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) is a well-known
sequestering agent for the hardness ions, such as Ca+2, and is the reagent solution used in the hardness
test protocol published by API. Polyphosphates can also sequester hardness ions. The addition of
sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) to a cement-contaminated mud renders the calcium ions essentially
nonreactive with clays in the mud. As a side benefit, SAPP also lowers mud pH. Sequestering is not the
same as precipitation because sequestering does not form a solid.
See: EDTA, hardness ion, oxygen scavenger, precipitation, SAPP, scavenger, sulfide scavenger
2. n. [Well Completions, Drilling Fluids, Well Workover and Intervention]
Another term for chelating agent, a chemical used to bind metal ions to form a ring structure. Chelating
agents stabilize or prevent the precipitation of damaging compounds. In the oil field, chelating agents
are used in stimulation treatments and for cleaning surface facilities. They are also used to treat or
remove scale or weighting agents in reservoir drilling fluids. During acid or scale-removal treatments,
various compounds may be dissolved in the treatment fluid. As the acid reacts and the pH increases,
reaction products may precipitate as a gelatinous, insoluble mass. Should this occur within the
formation matrix, it is almost impossible to remove and permanent permeability damage may occur.
Chelating agents prevent precipitation by keeping ions in a soluble form until the treatment fluid can be
flowed back from the formation during cleanup. Typical oilfield chelating agents include EDTA
(ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid), HEDTA (hydroxyethylenediamine triacetic acid), NTA (nitriolotriacetic
acid) and citric acid.
Synonyms: chelating agent
See: acetic acid, chelation, reducing agent
Another term for chelating agent, a chemical added to an acid to stabilize iron. The injected acid
dissolves iron from rust, millscale, iron scales or iron-containing minerals in the formation. Iron can exist
as ferric iron [Fe+3] or ferrous iron [Fe+2]. If the iron is not controlled, it will precipitate insoluble products
such as ferric hydroxide and, in sour environments, ferrous sulfide [FeS], which will damage the
formation. Chelating agents associate with iron [Fe+3 or Fe+2] to form soluble complexes. Citric acid,
acetic acid and EDTA are effective chelating agents and can be used at temperatures up to 400oF
[204oC].
Alternate Form: chelating agent
See: reducing agent
setting tool
Another term for running tool, a generic name for a tool or device that is used in the placement or
setting of downhole equipment such as permanent packers or plugs. The running tool can be retrieved
after the operation or setting process. In some cases, the running tool also is used to retrieve the
equipment or tool that has been set in the wellbore.
Synonyms: running tool
A downhole tool used to run and set downhole plugs or similar equipment. The term applies to a range
of tools used in workover activities, such as coiled tubing, snubbing or rig-based applications. However,
the term is most commonly associated with slickline operations, referring to the tools used to run and
set slickline locks, plugs and similar downhole equipment.
Alternate Form: running tool
shear pin
A short piece of brass or steel that is used to retain sliding components in a fixed position until sufficient
force is applied to break the pin. Once the pin is sheared, the components can then move to operate or
function the tool.
See: shear stock
shear stock
The material from which shear pins are typically cut. Shear stock is precision-manufactured in a range of
sizes and material characteristics to provide predictable performance from the shear pin and the tool in
which it is installed.
See: shear pin
The bar or rod from which shear pins are cut for use in downhole slickline tools. Shear stock is prepared
from carefully monitored materials to precise dimensions to ensure predictable and repeatable
performance of shear pins.
shifting tool
A downhole tool, most commonly associated with slickline operations, that is used to open, close or
shift the position of downhole flow control or circulation devices, such as sliding sleeves. The shifting
tool generally features some means of engaging the components to be shifted and is typically run with
upward or downward operating jars to deliver the necessary force or impact.
A downhole tool used to adjust the position of sliding sleeves or similar production and completion
equipment. Shifting tools are typically run on slickline, although they may be used with coiled tubing in
deviated or horizontal wellbores. Shifting tools are generally prepared or dressed for use with a specific
model and size of sliding sleeve, requiring careful selection of the appropriate shifting tool.
shoe track
1. n. [Drilling]
Another term for float joint, a full-sized length of casing placed at the bottom of the casing string that is
usually left full of cement on the inside to ensure that good cement remains on the outside of the
bottom of the casing. If cement were not left inside the casing in this manner, the risk of overdisplacing
the cement (due to improper casing volume calculations, displacement mud volume measurements, or
both) would be significantly higher. Hence, the well designer plans on a safety margin of cement left
inside the casing to guarantee that the fluid left outside the casing is good-quality cement. A float collar
is placed at the top of the float joint and a float shoe placed at the bottom to prevent reverse flow of
cement back into the casing after placement. There can be one, two or three joints of casing used for
this purpose.
Synonyms: float joint
See: casing string, displacement fluid, float collar, float shoe
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Another term for float joint, a full-sized length of casing placed at the bottom of the casing string that is
usually left full of cement on the inside to ensure that good cement remains on the outside of the
bottom of the casing. If cement were not left inside the casing in this manner, the risk of overdisplacing
the cement (due to improper casing volume calculations, displacement mud volume measurements, or
both) would be significantly higher. Hence, the well designer plans on a safety margin of cement left
inside the casing to guarantee that the fluid left outside the casing is good-quality cement. A float collar
is placed at the top of the float joint and a float shoe placed at the bottom to prevent reverse flow of
cement back into the casing after placement. There can be one, two or three joints of casing used for
this purpose.
See: float collar, guide shoe

side pocket mandrel

A completion component that is used to house gas-lift valves and similar devices that require
communication with the annulus. The design of a side-pocket mandrel is such that the installed
components do not obstruct the production flow path, enabling access to the wellbore and completion
components below.
See: gas lift
side-pocket mandrel
A completion component that is used to house gas-lift valves and similar devices that require
communication with the annulus. The design of a side-pocket mandrel is such that the installed
components do not obstruct the production flow path, enabling access to the wellbore and completion
components below.
See: gas lift
sieve analysis
The process of analyzing the size distribution of a sand or gravel sample. In sand-control applications, a
sample of formation sand is shaken through a series of sieves of known size. The resulting distribution is
then used to design an appropriate treatment that will retain the sand, while causing a minimal
restriction to production.
A technique for analyzing the grain-size distribution of a core sample. A cleaned, weighed core sample is
disaggregated and agitated through a series of stacked screens with progressively smaller openings. The
material left on each screen is weighed in order to give a distribution of quantity versus sieve size. Sieve
analysis may be done dry, wet or a combination of both. Wet analysis is necessary for analyzing any clay
fraction.
See: laser diffraction
simultaneous operation (SIMOP)

A term used mainly on offshore platforms, or installations with multiple wellheads, where more than
one wellbore is being accessed, such as where a drilling rig, slickline unit or coiled tubing unit may be
operating at the same time. Simultaneous operations generally have an impact on the installation safety
procedures and contingency planning processes.
skin
A dimensionless factor calculated to determine the production efficiency of a well by comparing actual
conditions with theoretical or ideal conditions. A positive skin value indicates some damage or
influences that are impairing well productivity. A negative skin value indicates enhanced productivity,
typically resulting from stimulation.
The zone of reduced or enhanced permeability around a wellbore, often explained by formation damage
and mud-filtrate invasion during drilling or perforating, or by well stimulation.
slickline
A thin nonelectric cable used for selective placement and retrieval of wellbore hardware, such as plugs,
gauges and valves located in sidepocket mandrels. Valves and sleeves can also be adjusted using slickline
tools. Partially collapsed tubing can be repaired using a tubing swage on slickline.
See: side-pocket mandrel
A single-strand wireline used to run and retrieve tools and flow-control equipment in oil and gas wells.
The single round strand of wire passes through a stuffing box and pressure-control equipment mounted
on the wellhead to enable slickline operations to be conducted safely on live wellbores.
sliding sleeve
A completion device that can be operated to provide a flow path between the production conduit and
the annulus. Sliding sleeves incorporate a system of ports that can be opened or closed by a sliding
component that is generally controlled and operated by slickline tool string.
slip joint
1. n. [Drilling]
A telescoping joint at the surface in floating offshore operations that permits vessel heave (vertical
motion) while maintaining a riser pipe to the seafloor. As the vessel heaves, the slip joint telescopes in
or out by the same amount so that the riser below the slip joint is relatively unaffected by vessel motion.
Synonyms: travel joint
See: drilling riser
A completion component designed to accommodate tubing movement or length changes while

maintaining a hydraulic seal between the production conduit and the annulus. The size or length of the
slip joint depends on the wellbore conditions and completion characteristics.
slip lock
A downhole lock device, run on slickline, that incorporates a slip mechanism that engages on the tubing
wall to anchor the lock at the desired setting depth. Slip locks are not depth-dependent and do not
require special completion equipment. However, the slip lock has limited function and pressure capacity
and is generally less desirable than nipple or collar locks.
See: collar lock, lock
slug flow
A multiphase-fluid flow regime characterized by a series of liquid plugs (slugs) separated by a relatively
large gas pockets. In vertical flow, the bubble is an axially symmetrical bullet shape that occupies almost
the entire cross-sectional area of the tubing. The resulting flow alternates between high-liquid and high-
gas composition.
See: multiphase fluid flow
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A multiphase-flow regime in pipes in which most of the lighter fluid is contained in large bubbles
dispersed within, and pushing along, the heavier fluid. The word slug normally refers to the heavier,
slower moving fluid, but sometimes to the bubbles of lighter fluid. There are also small bubbles within
the liquid, but many of these have coalesced to form the large bubbles until they span much of the pipe.
In gas-liquid mixtures, slug flow is similar to plug flow, but the bubbles are generally larger and move
faster. As flow rates increase, slug flow becomes churn flow.
See: bubble flow, churn flow, flow structure, froth flow, multiphase flow, plug flow
A type of flow in which surface equipment may be damaged by the sudden impact of a liquid slug in a
phenomenon called water hammer.
solution gas
Dissolved gas in wellbore or reservoir fluids. The gas will remain in solution until the pressure or
temperature conditions change, at which time it may break out of solution to become free gas.
See: free gas
solution gas drive

A type of reservoir-drive system in which the energy for the transport and production of reservoir fluids
is derived from the gas dissolved in the fluid. As reservoir fluids enter the wellbore, changing pressure
conditions cause the gas to break from solution to create a commingled flow of gas and liquid that aids
production.
sour corrosion
Corrosion associated with the presence of hydrogen sulfide [H2S]. Sour corrosion occurs in
several forms of hydrogen embrittlement that cause materials to fail at stress levels below their
normal yield strength. This can be problematic in applications where higher strength steels are
used. Selection of materials resistant to the effects of H2S is the primary means of controlling
sour corrosion.
More Details:

The corrosion caused by contact with hydrogen sulfide [H2S] dissolved in water. Sour corrosion
takes the form of sulfide stress cracking or hydrogen embrittlement.
See: acid gas, hydrogen embrittlement, sour gas, stress-corrosion cracking, sulfide stress
cracking
More Details:
space out
To assemble components to ensure that all critical length dimensions are met, as is required to ensure
that the production tubing can be landed in the wellhead and production packer with the desired weight
distribution. The term also may apply to surface pressure-control equipment offshore, where well
intervention equipment may be required at certain deck levels.
See: production packer, production tubing
spacer
A viscous fluid used to aid removal of drilling fluids before a primary cementing operation. The spacer is
prepared with specific fluid characteristics, such as viscosity and density, that are engineered to displace
the drilling fluid while enabling placement of a complete cement sheath.
stab in
To guide and engage components that are designed to couple, such as a seal assembly in a sealbore
packer.
See: seal assembly, sealbore packer
stab-in
To guide and engage components that are designed to couple, such as a seal assembly in a sealbore
packer.
Alternate Form: stab in
See: seal assembly, sealbore packer
standing valve
A downhole valve assembly that is designed to hold pressure from above while allowing fluids to flow
from below. Standing valves generally are run and retrieved on slickline with the valve assembly located
in an appropriate nipple. Applications for standing valves include testing the tubing string, setting
packers, or other applications in which it is desirable to maintain fluid in the tubing string.
See: packer
In a subsurface sucker-rod pump, a valve that permits flow up the tubing to fill the pump-barrel
chamber while preventing downward flow.
See: pump barrel, rod pump
steam flood
1. n. [Heavy Oil, Enhanced Oil Recovery, Well Completions]
A method of thermal recovery in which steam generated at surface is injected into the reservoir through
specially distributed injection wells. When steam enters the reservoir, it heats up the crude oil and
reduces its viscosity. The heat also distills light components of the crude oil, which condense in the oil
bank ahead of the steam front, further reducing the oil viscosity. The hot water that condenses from the
steam and the steam itself generate an artificial drive that sweeps oil toward producing wells. Another
contributing factor that enhances oil production during steam injection is related to near-wellbore
cleanup. In this case, steam reduces the interfacial tension that ties paraffins and asphaltenes to the
rock surfaces while steam distillation of crude oil light ends creates a small solvent bank that can
miscibly remove trapped oil. Steamflooding is also called continuous steam injection or steam drive.
See: cyclic steam injection, enhanced oil recovery, hot waterflooding, in-situ combustion, paraffin,
secondary recovery
steamflood
1. n. [Heavy Oil, Enhanced Oil Recovery, Well Completions]
A method of thermal recovery in which steam generated at surface is injected into the reservoir through
specially distributed injection wells. When steam enters the reservoir, it heats up the crude oil and
reduces its viscosity. The heat also distills light components of the crude oil, which condense in the oil
bank ahead of the steam front, further reducing the oil viscosity. The hot water that condenses from the
steam and the steam itself generate an artificial drive that sweeps oil toward producing wells. Another
contributing factor that enhances oil production during steam injection is related to near-wellbore
cleanup. In this case, steam reduces the interfacial tension that ties paraffins and asphaltenes to the
rock surfaces while steam distillation of crude oil light ends creates a small solvent bank that can
miscibly remove trapped oil. Steamflooding is also called continuous steam injection or steam drive.
See: cyclic steam injection, enhanced oil recovery, hot waterflooding, in-situ combustion, paraffin,
secondary recovery
step rate test

A test performed in preparation for a hydraulic fracturing treatment in which an injection fluid is
injected for a defined period in a series of increasing pump rates. The resulting data are used to identify
key treatment parameters of the fracturing operation, such as the pressure and flow rates required to
successfully complete the treatment.
See: hydraulic fracturing

stimulation
1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Well Completions, Well Workover and Intervention, Shale Gas]
A treatment performed to restore or enhance the productivity of a well. Stimulation treatments fall into
two main groups, hydraulic fracturing treatments and matrix treatments. Fracturing treatments are
performed above the fracture pressure of the reservoir formation and create a highly conductive flow
path between the reservoir and the wellbore. Matrix treatments are performed below the reservoir
fracture pressure and generally are designed to restore the natural permeability of the reservoir
following damage to the near-wellbore area. Stimulation in shale gas reservoirs typically takes the form
of hydraulic fracturing treatments.
Synonyms: well stimulation
See: matrix stimulation
storm choke
A downhole valve that operates by fluid velocity and closes when the fluid flow from the well exceeds
preset limits. The forerunner to modern subsurface controlled safety valves, storm chokes were used in
offshore applications as a contingency device in the event of a catastrophic failure of surface facilities
during a storm or hurricane.
See: subsurface safety valve (SSSV)
storm packer
A heavy-duty retrievable packer assembly that can be run in to isolate the wellbore of a new well in the
event of suspended activities, for example, during a severe storm. An on-off disconnect feature enables
the storm packer to be set at a safe depth while using the weight of the string below the packer to
maintain the set and hang off the drillstring to avoid pulling all the way out of the hole.
strap
To measure a running string or assembled components while running in or out of the wellbore.
2. vb. [Production Facilities]
To measure the dimensions of an oil tank, such as external diameter and height, using a steel tape. Once
the measurements are recorded, they may be used to prepare tank tables, which describe tank capacity.
See: strapping tape, tank table
subsea well
A well in which the wellhead, Christmas tree and production-control equipment is located on the
seabed.
See: Christmas tree
More Details:
• Subsea Solutions
subsurface safety valve (SSSV)

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A safety device installed in the upper wellbore to provide emergency closure of the producing conduits
in the event of an emergency. Two types of subsurface safety valve are available: surface-controlled and
subsurface controlled. In each case, the safety-valve system is designed to be fail-safe, so that the
wellbore is isolated in the event of any system failure or damage to the surface production-control
facilities.
See: surface-controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSV)
subsurface surface controlled safety valve

(SSCSV)
A downhole safety valve designed to close automatically in an emergency situation. There are two basic
operating mechanisms: valves operated by an increase inÂ fluid flowÂ and valves operated by a
decrease in ambientÂ pressure.
subsurface surface-controlled safety valve

(SSCSV)
A downhole safety valve designed to close automatically in an emergency situation. There are two basic
operating mechanisms: valves operated by an increase in fluid flow and valves operated by a decrease in
ambient pressure.
sucker rod
A steel rod that is used to make up the mechanical assembly between the surface and downhole
components of a rod pumping system. Sucker rods are 25 to 30 ft [7 to 9 m] long and threaded at each
end to enable the downhole components to be run and retrieved easily.
See: beam pump, rod pump
sucker rod pump

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Synonyms: beam pump, rod pump
See: sucker rod
sulfide stress cracking

1. n. [Drilling Fluids, Well Workover and Intervention, Well Completions]
A type of spontaneous brittle failure in steels and other high-strength alloys when they are in contact
with moistÂ hydrogen sulfide and other sulfidic environments. Tool joints, hardened parts of blowout
preventers and valve trim are particularly susceptible. For this reason, along with toxicity risks of
hydrogen sulfide gas, it is essential that water muds be kept entirely free of soluble sulfides and
especially hydrogen sulfide at low pH. Sulfide stress cracking is also called hydrogen sulfide cracking,
sulfide cracking, sulfide corrosion cracking and sulfide stress-corrosion cracking. The variation of the
name is due to the lack of agreement in the mechanism of failure. Some researchers consider sulfide-
stress cracking a type of stress-corrosion cracking, while others consider it a type of hydrogen
embrittlement.
See: corrosion control, hydrogen embrittlement, hydrogen induced failures, stress-corrosion cracking
surface controlled subsurface safety valve
(SCSSV)
A downhole safety valve that is operated from surface facilities through a control line strapped to the
external surface of the production tubing. Two basic types of SCSSV are common: wireline retrievable,
whereby the principal safety-valve components can be run and retrieved on slickline, and tubing
retrievable, in which the entire safety-valve assembly is installed with the tubing string. The control
system operates in a fail-safe mode, with hydraulic control pressure used to hold open a ball or flapper
assembly that will close if the control pressure is lost.
See: downhole safety valve (DSV), production string, subsurface safety valve (SSSV)
surface-controlled subsurface safety valve

(SCSSV)
A downhole safety valve that is operated from surface facilities through a control line strapped to the
external surface of the production tubing. Two basic types of SCSSV are common: wireline retrievable,
whereby the principal safety-valve components can be run and retrieved on slickline, and tubing
retrievable, in which the entire safety-valve assembly is installed with the tubing string. The control
system operates in a fail-safe mode, with hydraulic control pressure used to hold open a ball or flapper
assembly that will close if the control pressure is lost.
See: downhole safety valve (DSV), production string, subsurface safety valve (SSSV)
swab
1. vb. [Drilling]
To reduce pressure in a wellbore by moving pipe, wireline tools or rubber-cupped seals up the wellbore.
If the pressure is reduced sufficiently, reservoir fluids may flow into the wellbore and towards the
surface. Swabbing is generally considered harmful in drilling operations, because it can lead to kicks and
wellbore stability problems. In production operations, however, the term is used to describe how the
flow of reservoir hydrocarbons is initiated in some completed wells.
See: kick, volumetric efficiency, well control
To unload liquids from the production tubing to initiate flow from the reservoir. A swabbing tool string
incorporates a weighted bar and swab cup assembly that are run in the wellbore on heavy wireline.
When the assembly is retrieved, the specially shaped swab cups expand to seal against the tubing wall
and carry the liquids from the wellbore.
swab valve
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See: Christmas tree
swage
A threaded adapter used to connect a circulating line to a casing or tubing string. A casing or tubing
swage generally is required as a contingency option to enable any obstruction or fill to be circulated
clear during the running process.
sweep pill
A relatively small volume of viscous fluid, typically a carrier gel, that is circulated to sweep, or remove,
debris or residual fluids from the circulation system.
sweet corrosion
The deterioration of metal due to contact with carbon dioxide or similar corrosive agents, but
excluding hydrogen sulfide [H2S]. Sweet corrosion typically results in pitting or material loss
and occurs where steel is exposed to carbon dioxide and moisture.
More Details:

The corrosion caused by contact with carbon dioxide [CO2] dissolved in water. In gas condensate
wells, sweet corrosion takes the form of deep pitting inside the tubing walls. The pitting is
produced only at depths where the acidic gas contacts condensed water droplets.
See: acid gas, sour gas
More Details:
sweet crude
Crude oil containing low levels of sulfur compounds, especially hydrogen sulfide [H2S]. The facilities and
equipment to handle sweet crude are significantly simpler than those required for other potentially
corrosive types of crude oil.
sweet gas
Natural gas that does not contain hydrogen sulfide [H2S] or significant quantities of carbon dioxide [CO2].
Antonyms: sour gas
Natural gas that contains small amounts of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.
swellable packer
An isolation device that relies on elastomers to expand and form an annular seal when immersed in
certain wellbore fluids. The elastomers used in these packers are either oil- or water-sensitive. Their
expansion rates and pressure ratings are affected by a variety of factors. Oil-activated elastomers, which
work on the principle of absorption and dissolution, are affected by fluid temperature as well as the
concentration and specific gravity of hydrocarbons in a fluid. Water-activated elastomers are typically
affected by water temperature and salinity. This type of elastomer works on the principle of osmosis,
which allows movement of water particles across a semi-permeable membrane based on salinity
differences in the water on either side of the membrane.
tag
To contact, or tag, a known reference point or obstruction in the wellbore with the tubing string,
wireline or other intervention equipment.
tail pipe
The tubulars and completion components run below a production packer. The tail pipe may be included
in a completion design for several reasons. It can provide a facility for plugs and other temporary flow-
control devices, improve downhole hydraulic characteristics, and provide a suspension point for
downhole gauges and monitoring equipment.
See: downhole gauge, production packer
tally
A list containing details of tubulars that have been prepared for running, or that have been retrieved
from the wellbore. Each tubing joint is numbered and the corresponding length and other pertinent
details noted alongside.
tapered string
1. n. [Drilling]
A string of drillpipe or casing that consists of two or more sizes or weights. In most tapered strings, a
larger diameter pipe or casing is placed at the top of the wellbore and the smaller size at the bottom.
Note that since the pipe is put into the well bottom first, the smaller pipe is run into the hole first,
followed by the larger diameter. Other than the different sizes, which are usually chosen to optimize
well economics, there is nothing distinctive about the pipe sections. However, pipe-handling tools must
be available for each pipe size, not just one size, as is the typical case.
Synonyms: combination string
A string comprising tubing or components of varying size or dimension. A tapered production string may
be configured with larger OD tubing joints in the upper wellbore area to optimize the hydraulic
performance of the string. Although a tapered coiled tubing string will have the same tubing outside
diameter throughout, the upper portion of the string may have a greater wall thickness to support the
load of the string below.
A tubing string or work string that is made up from tubulars of different outside diameters (OD). In
production applications, this may be used to improve the flow and production characteristics of a well.
In drilling applications, a tapered string may be used to enable a small hole section to be drilled without
changing the entire string. In coiled tubing operations, tapered strings are configured with a constant
OD but with varying wall thickness.
tell tale
A device used to indicate the position or function of mechanical components that cannot be easily
observed, such as to indicate the launch of a cementing plug or dart.
See: cementing plug
tell-tale
A device used to indicate the position or function of mechanical components that cannot be easily
observed, such as to indicate the launch of a cementing plug or dart.
See: cementing plug
tension-set packer
A type of packer that is set by applying tension to the running string. These packers are less common
than compression-set packers due to the potential difficulties associated with retrieval. However, in
applications where there is insufficient string weight to set a compression packer, a tension packer is a
useful option.
See: compression-set packer
thread protector
1. n. [Drilling]
A cheap, expendable, perhaps even disposable threaded shape to mate with threads on drillstring and
casing components. Thread protectors prevent harmful impacts and other contact to the metal thread
surfaces. Some protectors are strong enough and are fitted with lifting eyes so that they may be
screwed into a joint of drillpipe, a drill collar or another component and a chain tied to the eye for lifting
the joint. Except for this type, most of the other available styles of thread protectors are relatively
inexpensive, being made from thermoplastics and various epoxy resins.
See: drill collar
A protective sleeve or cap generally made up on the threads of tubular goods during transport and
storage. Thread protectors are available in metal, plastic, or a combination of both.
thread rule
A pocket-size thread gauge used in field operations to correctly identify or confirm the thread type and
size of tubular goods.
through flowline (TFL)

Pertaining to treatments performed on subsea wells where the fluids and associated pump-down
equipment, such as plugs or darts, are pumped through theÂ flowlineÂ normally used for production
fluids.
See: dart, subsea well
through-flowline (TFL)

Pertaining to treatments performed on subsea wells where the fluids and associated pump-down
equipment, such as plugs or darts, are pumped through the flowline normally used for production fluids.
See: dart, subsea well
through-tubing
Pertaining to any reservoir or wellbore treatment performed through the tubing string. Through-tubing
treatments are generally associated with live-well operations, thereby causing minimal interruption to
production and eliminating the need to kill the well.
2. adj. [Well Workover and Intervention]
Pertaining to a range of products, services and techniques designed to be run through, or conducted
within, the production tubing of an oil or gas well. The term implies an ability to operate within
restricted-diameter tubulars and is often associated with live-well intervention since the tubing is in
place.
tie back liner

1 of 1
A section ofÂ linerÂ that is run from aÂ liner hangerÂ back to theÂ wellheadÂ after the initial liner and
hanger system have been installed and cemented. AÂ tie-back liner may be required to provide the
necessaryÂ pressureÂ capacity during a flow-test period or for special treatments, and is typically not
cemented in place. In some cases, a tie-back liner will be installed as a remedial treatment when the
integrity of theÂ intermediateÂ casingÂ string is in doubt.
See: casing string
tie back packer

A specially designedÂ packerÂ assembly used in conjunction with aÂ tie-backÂ liner. The tie-back packer
can be integral to the original liner hanger, or if the tie-back is a remedial treatment, it can be a separate
component set above the liner hanger.
See: liner hanger, tie-back liner
tie-back liner
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A section of liner that is run from a liner hanger back to the wellhead after the initial liner and hanger
system have been installed and cemented. A tie-back liner may be required to provide the necessary
pressure capacity during a flow-test period or for special treatments, and is typically not cemented in
place. In some cases, a tie-back liner will be installed as a remedial treatment when the integrity of the
intermediate casing string is in doubt.
See: casing string
tie-back packer
A specially designed packer assembly used in conjunction with a tie-back liner. The tie-back packer can
be integral to the original liner hanger, or if the tie-back is a remedial treatment, it can be a separate
component set above the liner hanger.
See: liner hanger, tie-back liner
tie-back string
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Another term for tie-back liner, a section ofÂ linerÂ that is run from aÂ liner hangerÂ back to
theÂ wellheadÂ after the initial liner and hanger system have been installed and cemented. AÂ tie-back
liner may be required to provide the necessaryÂ pressureÂ capacity during a flow-test period or for
special treatments, and is typically not cemented in place. In some cases, a tie-back liner will be installed
as a remedial treatment when the integrity of theÂ intermediateÂ casingÂ string is in doubt.
Synonyms: tie-back liner
See: casing string
transition flow
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up along the pipe walls. The flow is relatively chaotic, producing a frothy mixture. Unlike slug flow,
neither phase is continuous. The gas slugs are relatively unstable, and take on large, elongated shapes.
Also known as churn flow, this flow is an intermediate flow condition between slug flow and mist flow,
and occurs at relatively high gas velocity. As the gas velocity increases, it changes into annular flow.
Synonyms: churn flow
See: annular flow, bubble flow, flow regime, flow structure, mist flow, multiphase fluid flow, slug, slug
flow
travel joint
1. n. [Drilling]
Also known as slip joint, a telescoping joint at the surface in floating offshore operations that permits
vessel heave (vertical motion) while maintaining a riser pipe to the seafloor. As the vessel heaves, the
slip joint telescopes in or out by the same amount so that the riser below the slip joint is relatively
unaffected by vessel motion.
Synonyms: slip joint
Also known as slip joint, aÂ completionÂ component designed to accommodate tubing movement or
length changes while maintaining a hydraulic seal between the production conduit and theÂ annulus.
The size or length of the slip joint depends on the wellbore conditions and completion characteristics.
tubing broach
A downhole tool used to repair damaged or collapsed tubing. The tubing broach incorporates a cutter
profile that is forced inside the tubing by jarring or hydraulic force to re-form the tubing wall by
removing tubing wall material and forcing the tubing wall into place.
tubing end locator (TEL)

A downhole tool frequently used in slickline or coiled tubing tool assemblies to confirm or correlate the
tool position on depth-sensitive applications. With the end of the production tubing as a known
reference point, any error in measurement that may occur in reaching the treatment depth will be
significantly less than what may have resulted if measuring from surface.
See: coiled tubing unit, reference point

tubing grade
A system of classifying the material specifications for steel alloys used in the manufacture of tubing.
tubing hanger
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A device attached to the topmost tubing joint in the wellhead to support the tubing string. The tubing
hanger typically is located in the tubing head, with both components incorporating a sealing system to
ensure that the tubing conduit and annulus are hydraulically isolated.
See: tubing head, tubing joint
tubing head
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A wellhead component that supports the tubing hanger and provides a means of attaching the
Christmas tree to the wellhead.
See: Christmas tree
tubing joint
A single length of the pipe that is assembled to provide a conduit through which the oil or gas will be
produced from a wellbore. Tubing joints are generally around 30 ft [9 m] long with a thread connection
on each end. The specification of the tubing material, geometry of the tubing, and design of the
connection thread are selected to suit the reservoir fluid and wellbore conditions.
tubing performance curve (TPC)

1 of 1
A mathematical tool used in production engineering to assess the performance of the completion string
by plotting the surface production rate against the flowing bottomhole pressure. The fluid composition
and behavior of the fluid phases in the specific completion design will determine the shape of the curve.
The TPC is used with the inflow performance relationship to predict the performance of a specific well.
See: bottomhole pressure
tubing puncher
A special perforating gun, or charge, that is designed for limited penetration to allow an inner tubing or
casing string to be perforated without damaging a surrounding outer string. These guns often are used
in remedial or workover operations in which downhole communication devices, such as sliding sleeves,
cannot be opened to allow circulation of well-kill fluids.
See: casing string, perforating gun, sliding sleeve
tubing seal assembly

Â A system of seals arranged on the component that engages in aÂ sealboreÂ to isolate

theÂ production-tubing conduit from theÂ annulus. The seal assembly is typically longer than the
sealbore to enable some movement of the components while maintaining an efficient seal.
tubing thread
The threaded connection used to assemble the tubing string from individual tubing joints. Various
tubing thread types have evolved to suit the wellbore conditions and functions required of the tubing
string, both during installation and while the well is in production.
tubingless completion
A completion design in which the reservoir fluids are produced through small-diameter casing. The
absence of a separate tubing string significantly limits the operating and contingency options available
for the well.
tubing-retrievable safety valve (TRSV)

A type of subsurface safety valve that is run and retrieved as part of the production tubing string. The
TRSV body is integral part of the completion that enables the internal components to be configured to
provide near fullbore access through the valve. An external control line is secured to the running string
for connection to a surface-control system.
turbulent flow
A fluid-flow regime characterized by swirling or chaotic motion as the fluid moves along the pipe or
conduit. The linear velocity of the fluid particles is similar regardless of position in the conduit, although
particles close to the conduit walls have a lower velocity. This characteristic makes turbulent flow an
efficient flow regime for the pickup and transport of solids. However, the potential for erosion may be
significant, especially with abrasive fluids and a tortuous flow path.
A type of flow for single-phase fluids in which the velocity at any point may vary in both direction and
magnitude with time. Turbulent flow is characterized by random, irregular, locally circular currents, or
vortices. It occurs in straight pipes when the Reynolds number is above a critical value, corresponding to
a higher production rate. Below this value, the flow is laminar. For turbulent flow in straight pipes, the
velocity increases from zero at the wall of the pipe, passes through a thin layer of laminar flow to reach
a near constant value over most of the pipe.
See: flow regime, laminar flow
A type of fluid flow characterized by swirling or chaotic motion as the fluid moves along the flow path.
This is a preferred flow regime for mud removal during primary cementing because it is perceived to
result in better removal of mud, especially of mud at the formation wall.
unload
To initiate flow from a reservoir by removing the column of kill fluid from the wellbore. Several methods
of unloading the well are used, including circulation of lower density fluid, nitrogen lifting and swabbing.
The method used will depend on the completion design, reservoir characteristics and local availability.
See: nitrogen kickoff
upstream
Pertaining to equipment, facilities or systems located in the wellbore or production train before the
surface choke or Christmas tree.
Antonyms: downstream
See: Christmas tree
velocity string
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A small-diameter tubing string run inside the production tubing of a well as a remedial treatment to
resolve liquid-loading problems. As the reservoir pressure in a gas well depletes, there may be
insufficient velocity to transport all liquids from the wellbore. In time these liquids accumulate and
impair production. Installing a velocity string reduces the flow area and increases the flow velocity to
enable liquids to be carried from the wellbore. Velocity strings are commonly run using coiled tubing as
a velocity string conduit. Safe live-well working and rapid mobilization enable coiled tubing velocity
strings to provide a cost effective solution to liquid loading in gas wells.
See: coiled tubing
vertical lift
The vertical distance between two points in a horizontal or deviated wellbore. Any calculations relating
to wellbore pressure or downhole pump performance will be based on the vertical lift rather than the
distance traveled through the wellbore.
wait on cement
1. vb. [Drilling]
To suspend drilling operations while allowing cement slurries to solidify, harden and develop
compressive strength. The drilling crew usually uses this time to catch up on maintenance items, to rig
down one BOP and rig up another one for the new casing, to get tools and materials ready for the next
hole section, and other non-drilling tasks. The WOC time ranges from a few hours to several days,
depending on the difficulty and criticality of the cement job in question. WOC time allows cement to
develop strength, and avert development of small cracks and other fluid pathways in the cement that
might impair zonal isolation.
Alternate Form: WOC
See: cement, cementing, rig down, rig up
To suspend operations while a cement slurry to develops sufficient compressive strength to allow
drilling or other wellbore activity to continue. The WOC time is generally used to test the surface
pressure-control equipment, such as the BOP stack. Attempting to drill out the float or guide shoe
before the cement has developed sufficient bond strength may result in backing off a casing joint.
Alternate Form: WOC
See: BOP stack, casing joint, float shoe, guide shoe
water block
A condition caused by an increase in water saturation in the near-wellbore area. Water block typically
forms during the drilling phase of a well, when the near-wellbore area is exposed to a relatively high
volume of filtrate from the drilling fluid. The increased presence of water causes fine clay crystals that
may be present in the formation, such as illite, to swell and cause a reduction in permeability. Water-
block treatments typically use surfactants to reduce the surface tension between the oil and water,
helping to displace the water from the near-wellbore area.
See: surfactant
A production impairment that can occur when the formation matrix in the near-wellbore area becomes
water-saturated, thereby decreasing the relative permeability to hydrocarbons. Water block may result
from the invasion of water-base drilling or completion fluids or from fingering or coning of formation
waters. The most extreme cases of water block occur in low-pressure, low-permeability gas formations,
where alcoholic acid systems are recommended because they promote water vaporization in the
produced gas. Alcoholic acid formulations are a mixture of acid and alcohol. The acids normally
employed are usually either hydrochloric acid [HCl], mud acid [HF-HCl or HF-organic acid (formic or
acetic)]. The alcohol is either methyl or isopropyl. Alcohol lowers the surface tension of acid and allows
deeper penetration of the acid into the matrix of the rock. Alcohol is somewhat soluble in both acid and
water, and penetration of low-surface-tension volatile alcohol into a water block will aid in its removal.
See: completion fluid, damage, water saturation, water-base drilling fluid
water coning
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The change in theÂ oil-water contactÂ profile as a result of drawdownÂ pressures duringÂ production.
Coning occurs in vertical or slightly deviated wells and is affected by the characteristics of the fluids
involved and the ratio of horizontal to verticalÂ permeability.
See: cresting
water cushion
A volume of water placed in a tubing string prior to conducting a drillstem test or opening a well to flow.
The water cushion is designed to reduce and control the pressure drawdown applied to the reservoir
when the downhole valve or tester valve is opened to initiate flow.
See: drillstem test, pressure drawdown
water drive
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A reservoir-drive mechanism whereby the oil is driven through the reservoir by an active aquifer. As the
reservoir depletes, the water moving in from the aquifer below displaces the oil until the aquifer energy
is expended or the well eventually produces too much water to be viable.
Alternate Form: waterdrive
A primary recovery mechanism in which the pressure from free water is sufficient to move
hydrocarbons out of the reservoir, into the wellbore and up to surface. Waterdrive reservoirs can have
bottomwater drive or edgewater drive. In a bottomwater-drive reservoir, water is located beneath the
oil accumulation, while in an edgewater-drive reservoir, water is located only on the edges of the
reservoir.
Synonyms: waterdrive
water flood

A method of secondary recovery in which water is injected into the reservoir formation to displace
residual oil. The water from injection wells physically sweeps the displaced oil to adjacent production
wells. Potential problems associated with waterflood techniques include inefficient recovery due to
variable permeability, or similar conditions affecting fluid transport within the reservoir, and early water
breakthrough that may cause production and surface processing problems
Alternate Form: waterflood
water wet
1. adj. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Well Completions]
Pertaining to the adhesion of a liquid to the surface of a solid. In water-wet conditions, a thin film of
water coats the surface of theÂ formationÂ matrix, a condition that is desirable for efficient oil
transport. Treatments that change theÂ wettabilityÂ of the formation from water-wet toÂ oil-wetÂ can
significantly impair productivity.
2. adj. [Formation Evaluation]
Describing the preference of a solid to be in contact with a water phase rather than an oil or gas phase.
Water-wet rocks preferentially imbibe water. Generally, sandstones and carbonates are water-wet
before contact withÂ crude oil, but may be altered by components of the crude oil to becomeÂ oil-wet.
Certain minerals, as well as different crystallographic faces of the sameÂ mineral, may be variably prone
to being oil- or water-wet.
See: drainage, fluid contact, imbibition, wettability
waterdrive
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A reservoir-drive mechanism whereby the oil is driven through the reservoir by an active aquifer. As the
reservoir depletes, the water moving in from the aquifer below displaces the oil until the aquifer energy
is expended or the well eventually produces too much water to be viable.
See: reservoir, reservoir-drive mechanisms
A primary recovery mechanism in which the pressure from free water is sufficient to move
hydrocarbons out of the reservoir, into the wellbore and up to surface. Waterdrive reservoirs can have
bottomwater drive or edgewater drive. In a bottomwater-drive reservoir, water is located beneath the
oil accumulation, while in an edgewater-drive reservoir, water is located only on the edges of the
reservoir.
See: gasdrive, gravity drainage, hydrocarbon, recovery
waterflood
A method of secondary recovery in which water is injected into the reservoir formation to displace
residual oil. The water from injection wells physically sweeps the displaced oil to adjacent production
wells. Potential problems associated with waterflood techniques include inefficient recovery due to
variable permeability, or similar conditions affecting fluid transport within the reservoir, and early water
breakthrough that may cause production and surface processing problems.
See: hot waterflooding, injection well, low-salinity waterflooding, residual oil, secondary recovery
waterflooding
1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Well Completions]
A method of secondaryÂ recoveryÂ in which water is injected into theÂ reservoirÂ formationÂ to
displace residual oil. The water from injection wells physically sweeps the displaced oil to
adjacentÂ production wells. Potential problems associated with waterflood techniques include
inefficient recovery due to variableÂ permeability, or similar conditions affecting fluid transport within
the reservoir, and early water breakthroughÂ that may cause production and surface processing
problems.
See: hot waterflooding, injection well, low-salinity waterflooding, residual oil, secondary recovery
water-wet
1. adj. [Well Completions, Enhanced Oil Recovery]
Pertaining to the adhesion of a liquid to the surface of a solid. In water-wet conditions, a thin film of
water coats the surface of the formation matrix, a condition that is desirable for efficient oil transport.
Treatments that change the wettability of the formation from water-wet to oil-wet can significantly
impair productivity.
2. adj. [Formation Evaluation]
Describing the preference of a solid to be in contact with a water phase rather than an oil or gas phase.
Water-wet rocks preferentially imbibe water. Generally, sandstones and carbonates are water-wet
before contact with crude oil, but may be altered by components of the crude oil to become oil-wet.
Certain minerals, as well as different crystallographic faces of the same mineral, may be variably prone
to being oil- or water-wet.
See: drainage, fluid contact, imbibition, wettability

well stimulation
1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Well Workover and Intervention, Well Completions, Shale Gas]
A treatment performed to restore or enhance the productivity of a well. Stimulation treatments fall into
two main groups,Â hydraulic fracturingÂ treatments andÂ matrixÂ treatments. Fracturing treatments
are performed above theÂ fractureÂ pressureÂ of theÂ reservoirÂ formationÂ and create a highly
conductive flow path between the reservoir and the wellbore. Matrix treatments are performed below
the reservoir fracture pressure and generally are designed to restore the naturalÂ permeabilityÂ of the
reservoir followingÂ damageÂ to the near-wellbore area. Stimulation inÂ shaleÂ gas reservoirs typically
takes the form of hydraulic fracturing treatments.
Synonyms: stimulation
See: matrix stimulation
wellbore diagram
A schematic diagram that identifies the main completion components installed in a wellbore. The
information included in the wellbore diagram relates to the principal dimensions of the components and
the depth at which the components are located. A current wellbore diagram should be available for any
well intervention operation to enable engineers and equipment operators to select the most
appropriate equipment and prepare operating procedures that are compatible with any downhole
restrictions.
wellhead
1. n. [Drilling]
The system of spools, valves and assorted adapters that provide pressure control of a production well.
See: casing string, casinghead, day rate, Texas deck
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The surface termination of a wellbore that incorporates facilities for installing casing hangers during the
well construction phase. The wellhead also incorporates a means of hanging the production tubing and
installing the Christmas tree and surface flow-control facilities in preparation for the production phase
of the well.
See: casing hanger
wire wrapped screen

A type of screen used inÂ sand controlÂ applications to support theÂ gravel pack. The profiled wire is
wrapped and welded in place on aÂ perforated liner. Screens are available in a range of sizes and
specifications, includingÂ outside diameter, material type and the geometry and dimension of the
screen slots. The space between each wire wrap must be small enough to retain the gravel placed
Synonyms: screen
wireline retrievable safety valve (WRSV)

A type of safety valve in which the principal components can beÂ runÂ and retrieved
byÂ wirelineÂ orÂ slickline. The valve assembly is landed in a portedÂ nippleÂ that is equipped with
aÂ control lineÂ connected to the surface control system. This configuration enables the safety valve to
be easily retrieved for repair or maintenance, but the resulting internal bore of the WRSV must be
relatively small.
wireline-retrievable safety valve (WRSV)

A type of safety valve in which the principal components can be run and retrieved by wireline or
slickline. The valve assembly is landed in a ported nipple that is equipped with a control line connected
to the surface control system. This configuration enables the safety valve to be easily retrieved for repair
or maintenance, but the resulting internal bore of the WRSV must be relatively small.
wire-wrapped screen
A type of screen used inÂ sand controlÂ applications to support theÂ gravel pack. To form the screen, a
profiled wire is wrapped and welded in place on aÂ perforated liner. Screens are available in a range of
sizes and specifications, includingÂ outside diameter, material type and the geometry and dimension of
the screen slots. The space between each wire wrap must be small enough to retain the gravel placed
Synonyms: screen

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acetic acid

area open to flow

1. n. [Perforating, Well Completions]

• Artificial Lift for High-Volume Production

• Corrosion in the Oil Industry

Alternate Form: back-pressure

back pressure valve

Alternate Form: back-pressure valve

See: back-up ring

Synonyms: reverse circulation, reversing out

See: cuttings, displacement, junk

Synonyms: reverse circulation, reversing out

Synonyms: reverse circulation, reversing out

See: cuttings, displacement, junk

2. vb. [Well Completions]

Synonyms: reverse circulation, reversing out

See: drop ball

1. adj. [Well Completions]

Alternate Form: ball-operated

1. n. [Well Workover and Intervention, Well Completions]

1. adj. [Well Completions]

See: drop ball

Synonyms: openhole completion

See: rod pump, sucker rod

1. n. [Perforating, Well Completions]

See: production tubing

1. n. [Well Completions, Geophysics]

See: cap, detonator

2. n. [Well Completions, Geophysics]

1. vb. [Well Completions]

Alternate Form: blowdown

1. vb. [Well Completions]

See: choke, nipple

BHP = MW * Depth * 0.052

Alternate Form: BHP

See: formation pressure

Alternate Form: BHP

See: depth reference

Alternate Form: BHP

bottomhole static temperature

1. n. [Drilling, Well Completions]

Alternate Form: BHST

See: total depth

Alternate Form: BHST

Alternate Form: BHT

Alternate Form: BHT

1. n. [Well Completions, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

See: flood front, injection well, producing well

The gangplank or stairway connecting a jackup rig to a fixed platform.

See: blowout, drill solids, formation damage

1. n. [Perforating, Well Completions]

Water containing more dissolved inorganic salt than typical seawater.

See: connate water, formation water, fresh water, interstitial water

See: aquifer, completion fluid, producing formation

Synonyms: clear brine

See: producing formation

bring in the well

1. vb. [Well Completions]

See: flow regime, slip

Synonyms: dispersed bubble flow

See: flow structure, plug flow, slug flow

calcium carbonate plug

cap the well

1. vb. [Well Completions]