SLB FormEval

6FF40
1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

Referring to an induction log made with a particular array of transmitter and receiver coils. The array was
introduced in 1960 and became the industry standard for 30 years. The 6FF40 array has six coils with the
main transmitter-receiver pair spaced 40 in. [102 cm] apart. The design of the array includes the spacing
between the coils, the number of turns and the polarity of each coil. The three transmitter and the three
receiver coils are each connected in series to produce one signal output. FF means focused both radially
and vertically. Unlike in an array tool, the focusing is fixed by the hardware design. The 6FF40 was
designed to read deep into the formation while minimizing the signal close to the tool and maintaining
reasonable vertical resolution. The 6FF40 was combined with a shallow electrode device to form the
induction electrical survey. The use of both tools gave a qualitative indication of invasion. Both the deep
induction and the 6FF40 had deconvolution and a skin effect correction applied. The deconvolution was
designed to reduce the effect of shoulder beds on the readings in high-resistivity beds. It was not effective
in high-contrast formations. The skin effect correction was a simple exponential fit that would work on an
analog computer.
See: array induction, deep induction, invasion, resistivity log, sonde error
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1. n. [Formation Evaluation]
The value a in the relation of formation factor (F) to porosity (phi): F = a / phim. The value a is derived
empirically from best fits of measured values of F and phi on a group of rock samples. It has no clear
physical significance, although it has been related to grain shape and tortuosity. In the saturation equation,
it always occurs associated with the water resistivity as (a * Rw). It is sometimes claimed that a must be 1
since at phi = 1, F must be 1. However, a material with phi = 1 is not a rock: a is essentially an empirical
factor for rocks and as such can take any value. A wide range of values has been found, from 0.5 to 5.
See: Archie equation, porosity exponent
accelerator source
A device for producing high-energy neutrons by using a charged particle accelerator. Neutron generators
are used in various pulsed neutron devices and some neutron porosity measurements. In a typical device,
deuterium (2D) and tritium (3T) ions are accelerated towards a target also containing the same isotopes.
When 2D and 3T collide, they react to produce a neutron with an energy of about 14.1 MeV. The first
neutron generators were built in the late 1950s and soon led to the first pulsed neutron capture log.
Synonyms: neutron generator
See: activation log, chemical neutron source, neutron interactions, neutron porosity, pulsed neutron
spectroscopy log
accuracy
The closeness of the agreement between the result of the measurement and the conventional true value of
the quantity. Accuracy should not be confused with precision. (ISO) Core measurements have well-
defined calibration techniques and standards. Logging measurements are characterized during tool design
and construction, and calibrated regularly to some standard. The quoted accuracy of a log then depends on
the initial characterization, the reproducibility of the standard, and the stability of the measurement
between calibrations and under downhole conditions. The actual accuracy also depends on the equipment
performing and being operated to specification.
See: alpha processing, calibration, repeatability, uncertainty
acid effect
The change in a pulsed neutron capture measurement produced by acidizing a carbonate formation.
Acidizing tends to increase the porosity as well as leave chlorides in the formation, thereby increasing the
capture cross section. Both of these results affect the formation thermal decay time and must be taken into
account in the interpretation.
See: diffusion, sigma, time-lapse
acoustic log
1. n. [Geophysics]
A display of traveltime of acoustic waves versus depth in a well. The term is commonly used as a
synonym for a sonic log. Some acoustic logs display velocity.
Synonyms: acoustic velocity log
See: acoustic wave, depth conversion, interval transit time, interval velocity, velocity survey
A record of some acoustic property of the formation or borehole. The term is sometimes used to refer
specifically to the sonic log, in the sense of the formation compressional slowness. However, it may also
refer to any other sonic measurement, for example shear, flexural and Stoneley slownesses or amplitudes,
or to ultrasonic measurements such as the borehole televiewer and other pulse-echo devices, and even to
noise logs.
See: acoustic mode, flexural mode, interval transit time, noise log, Stoneley wave
acoustic mode
A situation in which acoustic energy that propagates in one direction is confined in the other two
directions as, for example, a mode confined to an interface between two different materials or within the
borehole. The Stoneley wave, tube wave and flexural mode have important applications in formation
evaluation, while most of the others, such as the Rayleigh wave and the various guided borehole modes
(normal mode, leaky mode and hybrid mode), are considered interference that must be filtered out. In y
slow formations, leaky modes can help determine formation compressional slowness.
See: interval transit time
acoustic transducer
A device for transforming electrical energy into sound, or vice versa. In sonic logging applications,
acoustic transducers are usually made of piezoelectric ceramic or magnetostrictive materials, and may be
used as either receivers or transmitters in a frequency range between about 1 and 30 kHz. The transducers
are excited as either monopoles, emitting or receiving sound in all directions, or dipoles, emitting or
receiving in one plane. In ultrasonic logging applications, acoustic transducers are made of piezoelectric
ceramic materials, and often are used in alternating transmitter/receiver (pulse-echo) mode, in a frequency
range from a few hundred kilohertz to a few megahertz.
See: monopole, sonic log, sonic measurement, ultrasonic measurement
acquisition log
The log that is actually recorded while taking the measurements. It is distinct from a playback, which is
produced later on from digital data.
See: base log, composite log, correlation log, detail log
activation log
A log of elemental concentrations derived from the characteristic energy levels of gamma rays emitted by
a nucleus that has been activated by neutron bombardment. The carbon-oxygen log, elemental capture
spectroscopy log, pulsed neutron spectroscopy log, aluminum activation log and oxygen activation log are
all examples of activation logs. However, the term is most commonly used to refer to the aluminum and
oxygen activation logs, the latter also being known as a water-flow log.
See: geochemical log, induced gamma ray spectroscopy, oxygen activation
adjacent bed
AÂ formationÂ layerÂ above or below the layer being measured by aÂ loggingÂ tool. The term
"surrounding bed" is used in particular to describe the adjacent layers above or below a horizontal well. In
a vertical well, the term "shoulderÂ bed" is more common, and is used in particular in resistivity logging
to describe the layers above and below a reservoir. The term "adjacent bed" is used in both cases.
Synonyms: shoulder bed, surrounding bed
See: deconvolution, depth of investigation, iterative forward modeling, radial resolution, vertical
resolution
Alford rotation
A processing technique to project formation shear data recorded in any two orthogonal directions into the
fast and slow shear directions in the presence of shear-wave anisotropy. In the sonic logging application, a
dipole transmitter excites a flexural mode that is recorded at one set of receivers that is in-line with the
dipole and other receivers that are 90o out of line (the cross-dipole component). A similar recording is
made of the wave from a second dipole transmitter, mounted orthogonally to the first. The flexural-wave
velocity is closely related to the formation shear velocity, particularly at low frequencies and in hard
formations. Using all four waveforms, the Alford rotation is used to determine the speed and direction of
the fast and the slow shear wave. Reference: Alford RM: "Shear Data in the Presence of Azimuthal
Anisotropy: Dilley, Texas," Expanded Abstracts, 56th SEG Annual International Meeting and Exposition,
Houston, Texas, USA, November 2-6, 1986, Paper S9.6
See: anisotropy, stress-induced anisotropy
alpha processing
A technique for combining a measurement that has a high accuracy but low precision with another
measurement of the same quantity that has a high precision but low accuracy in order to produce a result
that is better than either alone. Alpha processing is used to improve the vertical resolution of neutron
porosity and other dual-detector nuclear logs. The detector near the source has better precision than the
far detector in the sense that it responds more precisely to vertical changes. However, the near detector is
less accurate because it is more affected by the borehole environment. Alpha processing mathematically
superimposes the rapid changes of the near detector on the slowly changing but accurate far detector to
produce an accurate log with high vertical resolution. The technique is also used to improve results from
the carbon-oxygen log and other pulsed neutron spectroscopy measurements. Two methods are used to
determine the carbon/oxygen ratio. The windows method counts the number of gamma rays within energy
windows placed at the main peaks for carbon and oxygen. This method has good statistical precision but
poor accuracy, as gamma rays from other elements contaminate these windows. The other method,
spectral stripping, compares the total spectrum against standards for many elements, inverting the
spectrum to obtain the yield for each element. This method is more accurate but has less statistical
precision. Averaging over a number of measurements, alpha processing adjusts the windows result with
the more accurate spectral stripping in order to obtain a precise and accurate result.
See: compensated neutron log, pulsed neutron spectroscopy measurement, response matched, vertical
response
altered zone
A near-wellbore formation zone, a few inches thick, whose acoustic velocity has been affected by
impregnation with drilling fluids, stress relief, or both. The acoustic velocity of the rock in the immediate
vicinity of the borehole wall can be much slower than that in the virgin formation. To measure the
formation velocity, it may be necessary to use a sonic logging tool that has a greater spacing between
transmitter and receiver array (about 10 to 15 ft [3 to 4.5 m]) than the standard sonic tool (about 3 to 5 ft
[0.9 to 1.5 m]). The altered zone may also give rise to different acoustic modes, for example the hybrid
mode or a second Stoneley wave.
See: long-spacing sonic log
aluminum activation log
A wireline log of the concentration by weight of aluminum in the formation, based on the principle of
neutron activation. Aluminum (27Al) can be activated by capturing relatively low-energy neutrons from a
chemical source to produce the isotope 28Al, which decays with a half-life of 2.3 minutes and emits a
relatively easily detected 1.78 MeV gamma ray. A natural gamma ray spectrometer will detect this
gamma ray along with the other natural gamma rays. If the natural gamma spectrum has been measured
before activation, it can be subtracted from the spectrum after activation to give an estimate of Al content.
Al is a relatively direct indicator of the volume of clay, since clay minerals are alumino-silicates.
See: activation log, chemical neutron source, geochemical log, induced gamma ray spectroscopy, natural
gamma ray spectroscopy
annulus
1. n. [Drilling]
The space between two concentric objects, such as between the wellbore and casing or between casing
and tubing, where fluid can flow. Pipe may consist of drill collars, drillpipe, casing or tubing.
Alternate Form: annuli
See: annular velocity, bridge, casing centralizer, cement, cementing, crossflow, displacement, drill collar,
eccentricity, flapper valve, pack off
With reference to invasion, a region between the flushed zone and the undisturbed zone containing a
buildup of formation water. The annulus forms during invasion and is caused by the different mobilities
of oil and water. It only occurs in the presence of both, but is unstable and will dissipate vertically or
horizontally with time. The annulus has approximately the same water saturation as the flushed zone but
contains formation water. When the formation water is much more saline than the mud filtrate, the
annulus forms a conductive ring around the borehole. This conductivity will cause an induction log to
read too low a resistivity, by an amount that depends on its depth of investigation and the radius of the
annulus. (Laterologs are little affected since they respond to resistivity, not conductivity.) Often a medium
log will be more affected than a deep log so that an annulus can be detected by out-of-order curves
(medium curves reading less than either shallow or deep). Array induction logs contain enough
information to solve and correct for the effect of the annulus.
See: depth of invasion, transition zone, undisturbed zone
3. n. [Well Testing]
The space between two concentric pipe strings, such as between the production tubing and casing in a
well. The term may also refer to the space between a pipe string and the borehole wall in an openhole
completion or openhole drillstem test (DST).
API unit
The unit of radioactivity used for natural gamma ray logs. This unit is based on an artificially radioactive
concrete block at the University of Houston, Texas, USA, that is defined to have a radioactivity of 200
American Petroleum Institute (API) units. This was chosen because it was considered to be twice the
radioactivity of a typical shale. The formation is the primary standard for calibrating gamma ray logs.
However, even when properly calibrated, different gamma ray tools will not necessarily have identical
readings downhole because their detectors can have different spectral sensitivities. They will read the
same only if the downhole formation contains the same proportions of thorium, potassium and uranium as
the Houston standard. For example, logging while drilling (LWD) tools have thicker housings than
wireline tools, causing a different spectral response to the three sources of radioactivity, and therefore a
different total gamma ray reading in some formations. The nuclear well log calibration facility at the
University of Houston, known as the API pits, was opened in 1959 for the calibration of natural gamma
ray and neutron logs. A facility for calibrating natural gamma ray spectroscopy logs was added later.
See: neutron log
apparent matrix
A calculation of the properties of the solid fraction of a rock from the combination of two logs. For
example, by combining the density and neutron porosity measurements, it is possible to compute an
apparent matrix density; by combining neutron porosity and sonic measurement, it is possible to compute
an apparent matrix traveltime. The computations assume a particular fluid, usually fresh water, and
particular response equations. The results are often displayed as quicklook logs for lithology
identification. The word matrix is used here in the formation evaluation sense of the term rather than the
geological one.
See: crossplot porosity
Archie equation
A particular relation proposed by G.E. Archie between the formation factor (F) and porosity (phi), in
which F = 1 / phim, where the porosity exponent, m, is a constant for a particular formation or type of
rock. In the original work, Archie proposed that m lay between 1.8 and 2.0 for consolidated sandstones,
and close to 1.3 for loosely consolidated sandstones. m was named the cementation exponent shortly
afterwards. This relation is also known as the Archie II equation.
See: a, Humble formula
Archie rock
A rock whose petrophysical properties are well described by the Archie equation with constant values for
the porosity exponent and the saturation exponent. Such rocks typically have very little clay, a regular
pore structure and high-salinity water. The term often is used to describe a rock that is petrophysically
simple.
See: formation factor, formation water, resistivity index, water saturation
armor
The metal strands on the outside of a wireline logging cable. Typical cables have two layers of metal
strands, one wound clockwise and the other counterclockwise. The armor gives the cable its strength. It is
used as the current return in some electrical measurements.
Synonyms: logging tool
See: bridle, head, torpedo
array induction
An induction tool or log that consists of several mutually balanced arrays whose signals are recorded
separately and combined in software to produce the response desired. Typically, there is one transmitter
and five to ten pairs of receivers and bucking coils that are balanced to remove direct coupling. The
signals are combined in a wide variety of ways to produce the responses desired, as for example, deep-
reading, high vertical resolution or some combination of both. There are trade-offs in any response. For
example, a deep-reading log typically will not have high vertical resolution. If it does, it will be more
sensitive to the invasion condition and cave effect.
See: 6FF40, borehole correction, cave effect, forward modeling, induction, inversion, radial processing,
resistivity log
array laterolog
An electrode device with multiple current electrodes configured in several different ways to produce
several different responses. A typical array consists of a central electrode emitting survey current, with
multiple guard electrodes above and below it. Current is sent between different guard electrodes to
achieve greater or less focusing. The greater the focusing, the greater the depth of investigation. About
five basic measurements are obtained in this way. This hardware focusing may be further improved by
software focusing, in which the signals from the basic measurements are superimposed mathematically to
ensure proper focusing in a wide range of conditions.
See: electrode resistivity
array propagation resistivity
A resistivity recorded by a measurements-while-drilling propagation tool consisting of an array of transmitters and
receivers whose signals are recorded separately and combined by software to produce the response desired. In a
typical design, five transmitters emit a signal, and the phase shift and attenuation between two receivers are
recorded. The phase shifts and attenuations are combined in different ways to produce borehole-compensated
logs with different depths of investigation and radial resolution.
See: borehole compensation, propagation resistivity, propagation resistivity measurement, resistivity log
More Details:
• Resistivity While Drilling: Images from the String
array sonic
A type of acoustic logging tool that uses a large number of receivers, typically 4 to 12. Modern acoustic logging
tools are designed to measure not only the compressional wave but also the shear and other acoustic waves
generated by the transmitter. The separation and identification of these waves are facilitated by the use of an
array of receivers placed about 6 in. [15 cm] apart, which is close enough to avoid aliasing but far enough to
sample a significant moveout in the wave. The waveforms at each receiver are recorded and processed by signal
processing techniques, such as slowness-time coherence, to measure the velocities of the different waves.
See: long-spacing sonic log, sonic log, sonic measurement
attenuation
1. n. [Geophysics]
The loss of energy or amplitude of waves as they pass through media. Seismic waves lose energy through
absorption, reflection and refraction at interfaces, mode conversion and spherical divergence, or spreading of the
wave.
Alternate Form: attenuate
See: amplitude, converted wave, Fresnel zone, Q, suppression, true-amplitude recovery, wave
The reduction in amplitude of an electromagnetic wave passing through the formation, usually measured in
decibels/meter, dB/m. The term is used in particular with reference to the propagation resistivity log and the
electromagnetic propagation log.
See: attenuation resistivity, decibel, electromagnetic propagation measurement, propagation resistivity
measurement
attenuation resistivity
The ability of a formation to resist electrical conduction, as derived from the reduction in amplitude of the
electromagnetic wave generated in a propagation resistivity measurement. At the frequencies used and
within the range of measurement, the attenuation depends almost solely on the resistivity, so that the
former can be transformed to the latter with a simple algorithm. The transform also depends on
transmitter/receiver spacings and tool design. For a 2-MHz measurement, a typical measurement range is
0.2 to 50 ohm-m. Above 50 ohm-m, the dependence of attenuation on resistivity is too small to measure
accurately.
See: dielectric resistivity, phase-shift resistivity, polarization horn, propagation resistivity, resistivity log
More Details:
• The Lowdown on Low-Resistivity Pay
azimuthal
Pertaining to being focused in one direction. An azimuthal, or azimuthally focused, measurement has one or more
directions perpendicular to the surface of a logging tool from which it receives most of its signal. Examples are the
density, laterolog and microresistivity logs. A nonazimuthal, or azimuthally symmetric measurement is one which
measures equally in all directions around the tool. Examples are the induction, propagation resistivity log and
gamma ray.
See: azimuthal density, azimuthal laterolog, logging tool
2. adj. [Geology]
Pertaining to the angle between the vertical projection of a line of interest onto a horizontal surface and true north
or magnetic north measured in a horizontal plane, typically measured clockwise from north.
See: attitude, dip, strike, trend
azimuthal density
A type of logging while drilling density log in which the density is measured at different azimuths around the drill
collar. The density measurement is focused, so that when the collar rotates, the measurement sees different
azimuths around the borehole. An average density can be calculated by summing all the azimuthal data.
Alternatively, the data can be summed over different segments, for example in four quadrants, to give an
azimuthal density in four directions. When the hole is overgauge, certain quadrants will be firmly pressed against
the borehole wall, while others may have a significant standoff and too high a delta rho. The good quadrants can
then be chosen for formation evaluation.
See: azimuthal resolution, compensated-density log, density measurement, quadrant density, spine and ribs plot
azimuthal laterolog
A type of electrode device that is able to measure resistivity in different directions around the sonde. In most
laterologs, the electrodes are cylinders that average the resistivity azimuthally around the sonde. In azimuthal
laterologs, the electrode is segmented radially in several portions, each of which responds to the resistivity in the
direction it is facing.
See: button resistivity, electrode resistivity
azimuthal resolution
An angle that characterizes the ability of an azimuthal logging measurement to resolve changes in different
directions around the tool; alternatively, the smallest angle for which a significant change can be detected.
backup curve
An extra curve on a log, designed to appear when the standard curve goes off track. For example, if the standard
gamma ray curve is presented on a scale of 0 to 200 gAPI units, the backup curve may be scaled from 200 to 400
gAPI units. Alternatively, if the standard resistivity log is presented on a scale of 0 to 50 ohm-m, the backup curve
might be presented on a scale of 0 to 500 ohm-m in the same track but be blanked off for readings below 50 ohm-
m. The backup curve usually has the same coding as the standard curve but a different line weight.
See: track
bad hole
A borehole that is not to gauge or is rugose. The term usually refers to the detrimental effect that such a borehole
has on the response of logging measurements, in particular pad tools like the density or micro-resistivity. The
existence of bad hole is usually determined by a caliper log and on various secondary measurements such as delta
rho.
See: cave effect, corkscrew hole, rugosity
balanced array
An array induction whose transmitters and receivers are arranged to produce a null reading in free space, that is,
which has the mutual signal balanced to zero.
See: 6FF40, bucking coil, receiver, X-signal
base exchange
The quantity of positively charged ions (cations) that a clay mineral or similar material can accommodate on its
negatively charged surface, expressed as milli-ion equivalent per 100 g, or more commonly as milliequivalent
(meq) per 100 g. Clays are aluminosilicates in which some of the aluminum and silicon ions have been replaced by
elements with different valence, or charge. For example, aluminum (Al+++) may be replaced by iron (Fe++) or
magnesium (Mg++), leading to a net negative charge. This charge attracts cations when the clay is immersed in an
electrolyte such as salty water and causes an electrical double layer. The cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is often
expressed in terms of its contribution per unit pore volume, Qv. In formation evaluation, it is the contribution of
cation-exchange sites to the formation electrical properties that is important. Various techniques are used to
measure CEC in the laboratory, such as wet chemistry, multiple salinity and membrane potential. Wet chemistry
methods, such as conductometric titration, usually involve destruction or alteration of the rock. Although quicker
and simpler to perform, they are less representative of electrical properties in situ. The multiple salinity and
membrane potential methods are more direct measurements of the effect of CEC on formation resistivity and
spontaneous potential.
Antonyms: cation-exchange capacity
See: clay-bound water, dual water
2. n. [Drilling Fluids]
Quantity of positively charged ions (cations) that a clay mineral (or similar material) can accommodate on its
negative charged surface, expressed as milliequivalents per 100 grams. CEC of solids in drilling muds is measured
on a whole mud sample by a methylene blue capacity (MBC) test, which is typically performed to specifications
established by API. CEC for a mud sample is reported as MBC, methylene blue test (MBT) or bentonite equivalent,
lbm/bbl or kg/m3.
See: anion, cation, equivalent weight, ion exchange, methylene blue dye, mixed-metal hydroxide, montmorillonite,
peptized clay, peptizing agent
base log
The log used as the reference for depths in the well. Each log may record formation features at slightly different
depths due to their different response and the difficulty of aligning depths. It is therefore important to select one
log to which the other logs are depth matched, and which is used as the reference for well-to-well correlation and
mechanical operations such as perforating. The gamma ray is most often used as the base log since it can be
recorded in both open and cased holes.
See: correlation log, depth wheel
BHT
The temperature in the borehole at total depth at the time it is measured. In log interpretation, the bottom hole
temperature (BHT) is taken as the maximum recorded temperature during a logging run, or preferably the last of
series of runs during the same operation. BHT is the temperature used for the interpretation of logs at total depth.
Farther up the hole, the correct temperature is calculated by assuming a certain temperature gradient. The BHT
lies between the bottomhole circulating temperature (BHCT) and the bottomhole static temperature (BHST).
Alternate Form: bottomhole temperature
bimetallism
The electromagnetic force created by two different metals in contact with each other. If two such metals are in
contact in a logging tool, and also communicate along a conductive borehole, then a potential drop is generated in
the borehole. This potential drop will appear on the spontaneous potential (SP) log, where it can be confused with
the electrochemical potential. Since the magnitude of the drop depends on the formation resistivity, the effect of
bimetallism is often seen as a resistivity log superimposed on the normal SP. Under usual circumstances, the effect
of bimetallism on the SP is small, and care is taken to avoid it.
See: shale baseline, static spontaneous potential
Biot theory
A theory for acoustic propagation in a porous and elastic medium developed by M.A. Biot. Compressional and
shear velocities can be calculated by standard elastic theory from the composite density, shear and bulk modulus
of the total rock. The problem is how to determine these from the properties of the constituent parts. Biot showed
that the composite properties could be determined from the porosity and the elastic properties (density and
moduli) of the fluid, the solid material, and the empty rock skeleton, or framework. To account for different
frequencies of propagation, it is also necessary to know the frequency, the permeability of the rock, the viscosity
of the fluid and a coefficient for the inertial drag between skeleton and fluid. Unlike the Gassmann model, the Biot
theory takes into account frequency variations, and allows for relative motion between fluid and rock framework.
As a result, it predicts some of the observed changes in velocity with frequency, as well as the critical frequency
below which the Gassmann model is valid. It also predicts the existence of a so-called slow wave in addition to the
shear wave and the compressional, or fast wave. The slow wave arises when the fluid and the skeleton move 1800
out-of-phase with each other. Its velocity is related to fluid mobility, but unfortunately has been observed only in
the laboratory, not on logs. At logging frequencies, it degenerates into a diffusion phenomenon rather than a
wave, and is apparently too highly attenuated to be observed in real rocks. However, in permeable formations, the
Stoneley wave couples into the slow wave, causing the attenuation and dispersion that allow the measurement of
Stoneley permeability. The full Biot theory is used mainly to analyze laboratory data. For practical log
interpretation, it is more common to use the simpler Gassmann model. Reference:See Biot MA: Theory of
Propagation of Elastic Waves in a Fluid-Saturated Porous Solid: I Low Frequency Range, Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America 28, (1956):168-178. Biot MA: Theory of Propagation of Elastic Waves in a Fluid-Saturated
Porous Solid: II Higher Frequency Range,Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 28, (1956): 179-191.
See: sonic log
bit resistivity
The resistivity measured at the drill bit by a measurements-while-drilling (MWD) tool. The bit resistivity
measurement responds to resistivity changes as the bit penetrates the formation, or when the time after bit
is zero. It is thus an early indication of formation change. The measurement is similar to a wireline
electrode device except that toroids are used instead of electrodes. A transmitter toroid induces a low-
frequency current in the drillstring, which flows out of the bit and returns farther up the string. The
magnitude of the current depends on the resistivity near the bit, and is measured by another toroid. The
vertical resolution and depth of investigation depend on the distances between the toroids and the bit,
which, in turn, depend on the type of bottomhole assembly (BHA) used. The depth of investigation is
sufficient that the effect of the borehole is normally small. The measurement is unfocused and usually not
borehole-corrected. Since both bit and drillstring are in physical contact with the formation, it is possible
to make the measurement in oil-base muds.
See: button resistivity, electrode device, geosteering, oil-base mud, ring resistivity
More Details:
• Resistivity While Drilling: Images from the String
borehole compensation
An upgoing and downgoing arrangement of transducers in a logging tool, largely to offset spurious changes in
reading caused by variations in borehole size or sonde tilt. The technique is used for measurements that rely on
the propagation of a wave, such as sonic, propagation resistivity and electromagnetic propagation measurement.
Propagation logs rely on measuring the difference in properties of a wave at two receivers. The borehole
influences this difference if the tool is tilted or if there is a cave opposite one of the receivers. The effect can be
compensated for by using two transmitters that radiate sequentially in opposite directions. In ideal conditions, the
effect of a tilt or a cave is exactly opposite for the two transmitters, so that an average gives the correct result.
Borehole compensation is different from borehole correction.
See: attenuation resistivity, dielectric resistivity, logging tool, phase-shift resistivity, propagation resistivity
measurement
borehole correction
The amount by which a log measurement must be adjusted in order to remove the contribution of the borehole.
Although most log measurements are designed to pick up a minimum of signal from the borehole, some
contribution usually remains. This contribution may be removed by software or by manual entry into correction
charts. In resistivity logging, the correction replaces the borehole with a resistivity equal to that of the formation.
In nuclear logging, the correction adjusts the reading to that which would be found in a standard condition, such as
an 8-in. [20-cm] borehole filled with fresh water.
See: borehole compensation, cave effect, standoff
borehole gravity

Pertaining to the detection of the Earth's gravitational field within a wellbore. Subtle vertical variations of the
Earth's gravity field may be detected over the length of a borehole. These depend on the variations in the
formation density not only above and below the sensor, but also laterally away from the borehole. Thus, borehole
gravity measurements may be used to detect the following phenomena: - overburden pressure - lateral formation
density changes arising from porosity changes away from the borehole (fracture fields, vugs) - lateral proximity to
lithology changes, such as major faulting or salt intrusions - time-lapse density measurements to monitor fluid
saturation changes during the life of a reservoir. In borehole gravity measurements, highly accurate formation
density measurements, averaged over a large volume, may be made by comparing changes of gravity between
measurement stations.
See: borehole gravity meter
borehole gravity meter
A logging instrument capable of making relative gravity measurements at stations along the borehole with a
sensitivity and repeatability in the microGal range (about 1 part in 10-9 of the Earth's gravity field) The only
commercial measurement device capable of this precision is the LaCoste & Romberg borehole gravimeter,
although several research projects have been proposed to replace this classic technology.
See: borehole gravity, elevation correction
borehole televiewer
An ultrasonic logging device with a radially mounted rotating transducer that is used to scan the borehole wall. The
transducer (in transmit mode) emits a high-frequency pulse that is reflected by the borehole wall back to the
transducer (in receive mode). In openhole applications, it can be used to measure the borehole diameter (by
measuring the acoustic transit time between transducer and borehole wall) and the amplitude of acoustic signals
reflected by the borehole wall. The transducer is rotated to produce a cross section of the borehole size and
images of the borehole wall. These are used to identify fractures, breakouts and other borehole features. In cased
hole, they are used to identify internal corrosion.
See: pulse-echo, ultrasonic measurement
Born method
A method of analyzing the response of an induction logging tool that considers the contribution of each element of
the formation as a perturbation from the average background conductivity. The development of the solution is
similar to the Born approximation in quantum mechanics, since the latter also involves a single scattering. The
Born response is valid for modest formation contrasts. The zero-conductivity Born response is identical to the
geometrical factor.
See: array induction
bottom log interval
The bottom of the interval recorded on the log, or the deepest point at which the log readings are valid. At the
bottom of the well, each log will have a valid first reading at a different depth. The bottom log interval is then
either the lowermost first reading or the first reading of the most important log.
Antonyms: top log interval
See: last reading
bottomhole temperature
The temperature in the borehole at total depth at the time it is measured. In log interpretation, the bottom hole
temperature (BHT) is taken as the maximum recorded temperature during a logging run, or preferably the last of
series of runs during the same operation. BHT is the temperature used for the interpretation of logs at total depth.
Farther up the hole, the correct temperature is calculated by assuming a certain temperature gradient. The BHT
lies between the bottomhole circulating temperature (BHCT) and the bottomhole static temperature (BHST).
Alternate Form: BHT
2. n. [Well Completions]
The downhole temperature measured or calculated at a point of interest. The BHT, without reference to circulating
or static conditions, is typically associated with producing conditions.
Alternate Form: BHT
bound fluid
Fluid in the pore space that does not flow under normal reservoir conditions. This fluid may include water, oil or
gas, but most often refers just to bound water. Bound fluid does not flow on primary or secondary production,
injection or invasion unless the rock wettability is altered. When used in connection with a nuclear magnetic
resonance measurement, the term refers to the signal that occurs below a certain cutoff, typically 33 ms in
sandstones and 100 ms in carbonates. The source of this signal is bound water, but may also include oil with a
viscosity above about 60 cp in sandstones or 30 cp in carbonates. Note that, contrary to the sense of "bound," this
oil may or may not be moveable under normal reservoir conditions.
See: nuclear magnetic resonance, primary production, secondary production
bound water
Water in the pore space that does not flow under normal reservoir conditions. Bound water does not flow on
primary or secondary production, injection or invasion unless the rock wettability is altered. When used in
connection with a nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, the term refers to all the water that is not free to
move. This includes capillary-bound water and clay-bound water. However, water in mineral hydrates is not
included as it relaxes too fast to be measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). In practice, bound water is
defined as the water signal below a certain cutoff, typically 33 ms in sandstones and 100 ms in carbonates. When
used in connection with the dual water model, the term refers to the clay-bound water only. In the Hill-Shirley-
Klein model, the term is known as the hydration water.
See: bound fluid, nuclear magnetic resonance, primary production, secondary production
bound-fluid log
A type of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) log that is designed to record properly only the bound fluid. Bound
fluid is characterized by a fast relaxation time, typically less than 33 ms in sandstones and 100 ms in carbonate
rocks. Therefore, the wait time for a bound fluid log can be much shorter than for standard NMR logs, with the
result that logging speeds are much faster.
See: nuclear magnetic resonance measurement
Boyle's Law
A principle of physics stating that the product of pressure and volume divided by the temperature is a constant for
an ideal gas. It is a good approximation for many real gases, such as helium, over reasonable ranges of
temperature and pressure.
See: Boyle's Law Double Cell, Boyle's Law Single Cell
Boyle's Law Double Cell
A technique for measuring the grain volume of a core sample by observing the change in pressure of helium
introduced into a chamber containing the sample. The rock sample is placed in a chamber of known volume.
Helium is held in a reference chamber at known volume and pressure, typically 100 to 200 psi [689 to 1379 kPa].
The two chambers are connected, causing the helium to drop in pressure as it fills the sample chamber and the
pores in the sample. The only volume not filled is the grain volume and the isolated pores. Neglecting the latter,
the grain volume can then be calculated from Boyle's Law using the pressure before and after connecting the
chambers and the chamber volumes.
See: Boyle's Law Single Cell, buoyancy, core plug, liquid saturation method, mercury displacement method,
porosimeter, routine core analysis, summation of fluids method
Boyle's Law Single Cell
A technique for measuring the pore volume of a core sample by observing the change in pressure of helium
introduced into the pore space. The rock sample is held in a core holder whose internal walls are elastomers, so
that the only void space is the internal pore volume. With a suitable holder, the sample can be held under a
confining stress. Helium is held in a reference cell at known volume and pressure, typically 100 to 200 psi [689 to
1379 kPa]. The helium is introduced to the core sample, dropping in pressure as it fills the connected pore space.
The effective pore volume is obtained from Boyle's Law using the pressure before and after introduction of helium,
and the reference volume.
See: Boyle's Law Double Cell, buoyancy, core plug, liquid saturation method, mercury displacement method,
bridle
A special section of cable that is placed between the logging cable and the head of the logging tool. Unlike the
logging cable, the steel load-bearing element is in the center, surrounded by the conductors that are held in an
insulating jacket. The bridle is needed for most conventional electrical logs and laterologs in which the cable armor
is used as a current return. To be effective, this return must be at some distance from the logging tool and
insulated from it. Typical bridles are 80 ft [24 m] long. Electrodes may be wound on the outside of the bridle and
connected to the logging tool for use as measurement references or for spontaneous potential measurements.
See: electrical log, torpedo
broadside array
A particular arrangement of transmitters and receivers used in the electromagnetic propagation measurement in
which the dipoles used as sensors are oriented perpendicular to the axis of the tool. The orientation is combined
with relatively short spacings to give a significant signal even in the most attenuative environments, such as salty
muds.
See: dipole, electromagnetic propagation, endfire array, receiver
bucking coil
A coil in an induction logging tool designed to buck out, or reduce, the direct coupling between transmitter and
receiver coils. The direct coupling signal is far larger than the formation signal. The bucking coil is wound with the
opposite polarity to the main receiver coil, and placed in series with it at a location that minimizes the direct
coupling. The combination of transmitter, main receiver and bucking coils is known as a mutually balanced array.
See: 6FF40, array induction
bucking current
On a laterolog device, the current sent through a guard electrode (A1) with the purpose of focusing the current
sent by the central current emitting electrode (A0). The bucking current maintains A1 and A0 at the same
potential, thereby forcing the current from A0 to run approximately perpendicular to the sonde into the formation.
See: microresistivity
bulk relaxation
In a nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, the loss of coherent energy by hydrogen atoms as they interact
with each other in bulk fluids. Bulk relaxation in fluids is caused primarily by fluctuating local magnetic fields arising
from the random tumbling motion of neighboring molecules. Local field fluctuations may be high, but the fast
movement of molecules tends to average these out. Thus the bulk relaxation depends strongly on the rate of
movement and is affected by temperature and viscosity. In water-wet rocks, hydrocarbons do not touch the pore
walls and are not affected by surface relaxation. Thus the T1 and T2 of hydrocarbons are the result only of bulk and
diffusion relaxation. This is an important feature of NMR logging. Based on this feature, direct hydrocarbon-typing
techniques have been developed for the detection and characterization of hydrocarbons.
See: longitudinal relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance, relaxation time, transverse relaxation
buoyancy method
A technique for measuring the bulk volume of a core sample by submerging it in a bath of mercury and observing
the increase in weight of the bath, following Archimedes principle. The bulk volume is calculated from the increase
in weight divided by the density of mercury at the temperature of the bath. The sample must not touch the side of
the bath and be only a few millimeters below the surface. Mercury is used because it is so strongly nonwetting and
therefore does not enter the pore space. Other, less toxic, liquids may be used in the bath, such as brine, refined
oil or toluene. In this case, the sample must be fully saturated with the liquid before immersion. In an alternative
method, the saturated sample is weighed in air and then again once immersed. The bulk volume is then the
difference in weight divided by the density of the liquid used.
See: Boyle's Law Double Cell, Boyle's Law Single Cell, core plug, liquid saturation method, mercury displacement
method, porosimeter, routine core analysis, summation of fluids method, wettability
butterfly chart
A plot representing the effect of invasion on resistivity measurements that have different depths of investigation.
The plot assumes a step profile model of invasion and determines true resistivity, flushed zone resistivity and
diameter of invasion from ratios of deep-, medium- and shallow-resistivity measurements. Strictly speaking, when
both resistive and conductive invasion are plotted, the chart is called a butterfly chart. When only one is plotted it
is known as a tornado chart.
See: conductive invasion, depth of investigation, resistive invasion
button resistivity
The resistivity measured by the buttons of a measurements-while-drilling (MWD) toroid device. Typically three
buttons, each with a different depth of investigation, are mounted on a sleeve attached to the drillstring, and by
their nature are azimuthally focused. The measurement is similar to a wireline microresistivity log, except that
toroids are used instead of electrodes for transmitting and monitoring. The button resistivities are focused
measurements with vertical resolutions and depths of investigation of a few inches. With three button
measurements, it is possible to correct for the presence of invasion, assuming a step profile.
See: azimuth, bit resistivity, electrode resistivity, ring resistivity
cable
1. n. [Geophysics]
A bundle of electrical wires that connects geophones, or the entire carrier system for marine hydrophones,
which includes the hydrophones, the electrical wires, the stress member, spacers, the outer skin of the
cable, and the streamer filler, which is typically kerosene or a buoyant plastic. The cable relays data to the
seismic recording truck or seismic vessel.
See: channel, eel, geophone, geophone cable, hydrophone, jug hustler, ocean-bottom cable, spacer,
streamer
More Details:
• Cables and Skatesâ€”Improving the Weakest Links
The cable on which wireline logging tools are lowered into the well and through which signals from the
measurements are passed. The cable consists of a central section with conductors surrounded by a metal,
load-bearing armor.
See: bridle, head, logging tool, torpedo
More Details:
• Cables and Skatesâ€”Improving the Weakest Links
cake
1. n. [Drilling Fluids, Formation Evaluation]

The residue deposited on a permeable medium when a slurry, such as a drilling fluid, is forced against the medium
under a pressure. Filtrate is the liquid that passes through the medium, leaving the cake on the medium. Drilling
muds are tested to determine filtration rate and filter-cake properties. Cake properties such as cake thickness,
toughness, slickness and permeability are important because the cake that forms on permeable zones in the
wellbore can cause stuck pipe and other drilling problems. Reduced oil and gas production can result from
reservoir damage when a poor filter cake allows deep filtrate invasion. A certain degree of cake buildup is desirable
to isolate formations from drilling fluids. In openhole completions in high-angle or horizontal holes, the formation
of an external filter cake is preferable to a cake that forms partly inside the formation. The latter has a higher
potential for formation damage.
Synonyms: filter cake
See: deflocculated mud, drilling fluid, dynamic filtration, filter-cake quality, filter-cake thickness, filtrate, filtrate
volume, openhole completion, relative filtrate volume, resin, static filtration
calibration
1. n. [Geophysics]
A method of adjusting a data set against a control that has properties to which the data set should conform.
See: fan shooting
The process of adjusting a measurement to a standard, so that copies of the same type of logging tool or
laboratory instrument will read the same. The tool or instrument is placed in the presence of a calibrator or
calibrating environment, for example, a source of gamma rays for a gamma ray tool, or the air, far from the
ground, for an induction tool. Calibration coefficients, typically a gain and an offset, are calculated so that the tool
or instrument reads correctly in the calibrator. The coefficients are then applied during subsequent measurements.
The term master calibration is used for the regular, as for example quarterly, calibration of a logging tool in the
workshop. For most wireline tools, a secondary calibrator is adjusted during the master calibration and taken to
the wellsite so that a wellsite calibration can be done just prior to the logging job. Some tools, such as the gamma
ray, are calibrated only at the wellsite. For most measurements-while-drilling tools, the environment requires that
the calibration be performed at the workshop and only a verification made at the wellsite. For some
measurements, there is a primary worldwide standard against which calibrators are calibrated, as for example, the
radioactive formations at the University of Houston used to define gamma ray API units.
camera
The device used in early logging to record logging measurements on photographic film. The camera consisted of a
light shining on galvanometers, which reflected the light to produce a trace on one or more films. The
galvanometers deflected according to the log measurement to give the log reading. The films were turned by the
depth wheel, which gave the depth axis of the log.
Synonyms: recorder
capillary pressure curve
The relationship describing the capillary pressure required to obtain a given nonwetting phase saturation in a rock.
Rocks have a distribution of pore throat sizes, so as more pressure is applied to the nonwetting phase, increasingly
smaller pore openings are invaded. The capillary pressure curve is important for understanding saturation
distribution in the reservoir and affects imbibition and multiphase fluid flow through the rock.
See: wettability
carbon density
The density of carbon in oil. This density affects the interpretation of the carbon-oxygen log. The term may also be
used for the density of carbon in other materials.
See: pulsed neutron spectroscopy log, pulsed neutron spectroscopy measurement
carbonate gamma ray
A gamma ray log from which the uranium contribution has been subtracted. In some rocks, and in particular in
carbonate rocks, the contribution from uranium can be large and erratic, and can cause the carbonate to be
mistaken for a shale. The carbonate gamma ray is then a better indicator of shaliness.
Synonyms: corrected gamma ray
See: natural gamma ray spectroscopy, potassium, thorium
cartridge
The section of a wireline logging tool that contains the telemetry, the electronics and power supplies for the
measurement, as distinct from the sonde that contains the measurement sensors. Strictly speaking, the term
refers to the package of electronic hardware inside a steel housing, but it is also used to refer to the complete
assembly including housing.
cation exchange capacity
Alternate Form: cation-exchange capacity, CEC
lbm/bbl or kg/m3.
Synonyms: base exchange
Alternate Form: cation-exchange capacity, CEC
cation-exchange capacity
See: clay-bound water, dual water
lbm/bbl or kg/m3.
Synonyms: base exchange
Alternate Form: CEC
See: anion, bentonite, cation, equivalent weight, ion exchange, methylene blue dye, mixed-metal hydroxide,
montmorillonite, peptized clay, peptizing agent, shale
cave effect
The effect of a sharp change in the borehole diameter, such as that caused by a cave or rugose hole, on an
induction log. In smooth boreholes of constant diameter, the effect of the borehole is well understood and can be
corrected for. However, a sharp increase in diameter over a small depth interval can induce signals on one coil in
the array and not in others. This signal is not handled by the normal borehole correction and may result in a spike
on the log. The spike usually is significant only when the resistivity is high and the contrast between formation and
borehole resistivity is very large. The spike also depends on the design of the array or the processing.
cement bond log
1. n. [Drilling]
A representation of the integrity of the cement job, especially whether the cement is adhering solidly to the
outside of the casing. The log is typically obtained from one of a variety of sonic-type tools. The newer versions,
called cement evaluation logs, along with their processing software, can give detailed, 360-degree representations
of the integrity of the cement job, whereas older versions may display a single line representing the integrated
integrity around the casing.
Alternate Form: cement evaluation log
A log that uses the variations in amplitude of an acoustic signal traveling down the casing wall between a
transmitter and receiver to determine the quality of cement bond on the exterior casing wall. The fundamental
principle is that the acoustic signal will be more attenuated in the presence of cement than if the casing were
uncemented. The measurement is largely qualitative, as there is no indication of azimuthal cement variations such
as channeling, and as it is sensitive to the effect of a microannulus.
See: pulse-echo
cementation exponent
The exponent of porosity, m, in the relation of formation factor, F, to porosity, phi. In the Archie
equation, F = 1 / phim, H. Guyod termed m the cementation exponent because m was observed to be
higher in cemented rock. The more general term is porosity exponent.
Reference:Guyod H: Fundamental Data for the Interpretation of Electric Logs, The Oil Weekly 115, no.
38 (October 30, 1944): 21-27.
centralizer
A device fitted with a hinged collar and bowsprings to keep the casing or liner in the center of the wellbore to help
ensure efficient placement of a cement sheath around the casing string. If casing strings are cemented off-center,
there is a high risk that a channel of drilling fluid or contaminated cement will be left where the casing contacts the
formation, creating an imperfect seal.
See: bow-spring centralizer, cementing, deviated hole, eccentricity
A device used to keep a tool string in the center of the tubing, casing or wellbore. Tool centralization may be
required for several reasons: to prevent the tool from hanging up on obstructions on the wellbore wall, to place
fluid efficiently and to avoid excessive standoff.
A device that helps to maintain the logging tool in the center of the borehole. On wireline tools such devices
typically have three or more flexible bow springs. They may be mounted on the outside surface of the logging tool
or else mounted in-line, between two cartridges or sondes. Some measurements, such as acoustic logs, respond
better when the tool is centralized, while others, including induction logs, are better when eccentralized.
Antonyms: eccentralizer
See: bow-spring centralizer, sonde
centrifuge
An item of solids-removal equipment that removes fine and ultrafine solids. It consists of a conical drum that
rotates at 2000 to 4000 rpm. Drilling fluid is fed into one end and the separated solids are moved up the bowl by a
rotating scroll to exit at the other end. Centrifuges generally have limited processing capacity (50 to 250 gpm) but
are useful for processing weighted drilling fluids and can remove finer solids than can a hydrocyclone or shaker
screens. They can also be used for water clarification or for processing oily cuttings.
See: closed mud system, dewatering
A rapidly rotating flywheel on a vertical axle to whose rim is attached a series of tubes at one end, the other end
being free to tilt upwards and outwards. At high speeds, the centrifugal force in the tubes is far greater than
gravity. The centrifuge is used to expel fluids from core samples, either to clean them or to desaturate them for
measurements of irreducible water saturation, resistivity index or nuclear magnetic resonance properties. It can be
used at multiple speeds to obtain a capillary pressure curve. Centrifuges are also used in studies of clay
mineralogy, where micron-scale fractions are extracted from suspension and subjected to analysis by X-ray
diffraction (XRD).
See: distillation extraction, porous plate technique
channeling
The condition in which cement flows in a channel only on some sides of the casing or borehole annulus, and thus
does not provide adequate hydraulic isolation in all radial azimuths. The channel frequently manifests itself as an
intermediate amplitude signal on a cement bond log. Pulse-echo tools are able to detect a channel because they
measure the cement bond at different azimuths.
See: azimuth
chemical neutron source
An encapsulated radioactive material that emits neutrons for use in neutron porosity measurements. The most
common source relies on alpha-beryllium reactions in a 241Am-Be mixture. Beryllium releases a neutron of
approximately 4 MeV when struck by an alpha particle. The americium is the source of alpha particles.
253
Californium fission is an intense source of 2.3 MeV neutrons but is used only in special applications due to its
short half-life of 2.65 years and special licensing requirements.
See: epithermal neutron porosity measurement, neutron generator, neutron interactions, thermal neutron
porosity measurement
clay bound water
Water within the clay lattice or near the surface within the electrical double layer. This water does not move when
fluid is flowed through the rock. In the normal definition used by a log analyst, clay-bound water is not part of the
effective porosity and is the difference between total porosity and effective porosity. Clay-bound water is
understood to include the interlayer water, although the contribution of the latter to the electrical properties of
the clay may be different from the water in the electrical double layer. In the dual-water and the Hill-Shirley-Klein
models, the volume of clay-bound water is related to the cation-exchange capacity per unit volume, Qv, by
expressions that depend on the salinity and temperature of the electrolyte in which the clay is immersed. Direct
measurement of the clay-bound water volume in the laboratory is difficult.
See: bound water, dual water, free water, microporosity, small-pore water
clay-bound water
Water within the clay lattice or near the surface within the electrical double layer. This water does not move when
fluid is flowed through the rock. In the normal definition used by a log analyst, clay-bound water is not part of the
effective porosity and is the difference between total porosity and effective porosity. Clay-bound water is
understood to include the interlayer water, although the contribution of the latter to the electrical properties of
the clay may be different from the water in the electrical double layer. In the dual-water and the Hill-Shirley-Klein
models, the volume of clay-bound water is related to the cation-exchange capacity per unit volume, Qv, by
expressions that depend on the salinity and temperature of the electrolyte in which the clay is immersed. Direct
measurement of the clay-bound water volume in the laboratory is difficult.
See: bound water, dual water, free water, microporosity, small-pore water
coding
The characteristics of the trace used to display a log. The most common codings are solid, long-dashed, short-
dashed and dotted. The trace can also have a different line weight or thickness, from light to heavy.
See: backup curve, track
compatible scales
Scales for different logs that are chosen so that the logs will overlay in certain conditions. For example, a
sandstone-compatible scale may have the neutron log scaled from 0.45 to -0.15 vol/vol and the density from 1.9 to
2.9 g/cm3. Then, in a pure quartz sandstone filled with fresh water, the two logs will overlay as the porosity varies.
See: limestone-compatible scale
compensated density log
A density log that has been corrected for the effect of mud and mudcake by using two or more detectors at
different spacings from the source. The shorter the spacing, the shallower the depth of investigation and the larger
the effect of the mudcake. Thus, a short spaced detector, which is very sensitive to the mudcake, can be used to
correct a long-spaced detector, which is only slightly sensitive to it. In a typical two-detector compensation
scheme, the density measured by the longest spacing detector is corrected by an amount, delta rho, which is a
function of the difference between long- and short-spacing densities. The correction is found to depend on the
difference between formation and mudcake density multiplied by mudcake thickness. Although there are three
unknowns, simple functions are reliable for moderate corrections. Experimental results are often presented in the
form of a spine and ribs plot. There are other schemes using, for example, more detectors. Dual detector density
logs were introduced in the mid 1960s.
See: azimuthal density, density measurement, photoelectric effect
compensated neutron log
A neutron porosity log in which the effects of the borehole environment are minimized by using two detectors. In
the most common technique, the two source-detector spacings are chosen so that the ratio of the two count rates
is relatively independent of the borehole environment. This ratio is then calibrated in terms of porosity in a known
formation and borehole environment typically with the tool placed against the side of an 8-in. [20-cm] borehole in
a limestone block, both filled with fresh water at surface temperature and pressure. The response is also
determined at different porosities and in sandstones, dolomites and other borehole environments. Correction
factors are developed to convert the measured log to the standard conditions. The source and detectors are not
azimuthally focused. Wireline tools are run eccentralized against the borehole wall. Since the neutrons emitted
into the mud are strongly attenuated, the resulting log is effectively focused into the formation. Measurements-
while-drilling tools will normally be unfocused since they are centralized unless the borehole is overgauge. The
vertical resolution is about 2 ft [0.6 m], but can be improved by alpha processing.
See: chemical neutron source, epithermal neutron porosity measurement, limestone porosity unit, limestone-
compatible scale, thermal neutron porosity measurement, vertical resolution
compensated-density log
A density log that has been corrected for the effect of mud and mudcake by using two or more detectors at
different spacings from the source. The shorter the spacing, the shallower the depth of investigation and the larger
the effect of the mudcake. Thus, a short spaced detector, which is very sensitive to the mudcake, can be used to
correct a long-spaced detector, which is only slightly sensitive to it. In a typical two-detector compensation
scheme, the density measured by the longest spacing detector is corrected by an amount, delta rho, which is a
function of the difference between long- and short-spacing densities. The correction is found to depend on the
difference between formation and mudcake density multiplied by mudcake thickness. Although there are three
unknowns, simple functions are reliable for moderate corrections. Experimental results are often presented in the
form of a spine and ribs plot. There are other schemes using, for example, more detectors. Dual detector density
logs were introduced in the mid 1960s.
See: azimuthal density, density measurement, photoelectric effect
composite log
A single log created by splicing together two logs of the same type run at different times in the well; or by splicing
two different types of log run at the same time. For example, it is common practice to splice all the basic logs run
over different depth intervals in a well to obtain a single composite record.
See: correlation log, detail log
compressibility
The ratio of the percent change in volume to the change in pressure applied to a fluid or rock.
The relative change in fluid volume related to a unit change in pressure. This is usually expressed as volume change
per unit volume of fluid per psi of pressure change. Gas has higher compressibility than liquid (oil or water).
Synonyms: fluid compressibility
Compton scattering
A gamma ray interaction in which the gamma ray collides with an electron, transferring part of its energy to the
electron, while itself being scattered at a reduced energy. Compton scattering occurs with high probability at
intermediate gamma ray energies, between 75 keV and 10 MeV in sedimentary formations. When a beam of
gamma rays traverses a material, the total reduction due to Compton scattering depends on the electron density
of the material the higher the density, the larger the reduction. This is the basis for the density log. Compton
scattering is also an important mechanism in gamma ray detectors.
See: cross section, density measurement, photoelectric effect, scintillation detector
computed tomography
A technique for imaging a core by scanning it with a highly focused source of X-rays and recording the attenuated
X-rays on the other side. The source and detector are rotated and moved along the core. The measurements are
combined mathematically to give a full core image.
See: fluoroscopy, X-radiography
conductive invasion
A situation in which the resistivity of the flushed zone is less than the resistivity of the undisturbed zone. Such a
setting generally favors the use of electrode resistivity devices (laterologs, ring resistivity), which respond to
resistivity, rather than induction and propagation resistivity devices, which respond to conductivity.
Antonyms: resistive invasion
See: array laterolog, azimuthal laterolog, true resistivity
conductive rock matrix model
A model, or set of equations, for the resistivity response of formations with conductive minerals, such as shaly
sands. The model is used to analyze core data and to calculate water saturation from resistivity and other logs. The
conductive rock matrix model (CRMM) was proposed by W. Givens. The model treats the rock as two components
in parallel: a conductive pore network with fluid that is free to move, and the remainder of the rock, which may
have conductive minerals or immobile but conductive water. The model is not concerned with the origin of this
conductivity, but gives it a resistivity, Rm. The two components are in parallel as follows: 1 / Rt = 1 / Rp + 1 / Rm
where Rp is the resistance of the free-fluid pore network and can be expressed in terms of the porosity and
formation water resistivity by the Archie equation. The model was developed from core data, and can explain the
observed variations of the porosity exponent with porosity and the saturation exponent with water saturation in
shaly sands. For log analysis Rm needs to be related to parameters that can be measured by logs. Reference: Givens
WW: Formation Factor, Resistivity Index and Related Equations Based upon a Conductive rock Matrix Model
(CRMM), Transactions of the SPWLA 27th Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, USA, June 9-13, 1986, paper
P.
See: cation-exchange capacity, resistivity log, saturation equation, saturation exponent
conductivity
The ability of a material to conduct electricity. It is the inverse of resistivity and is measured in siemens per meter
(S/m) or mho/m. The conductivity is a property of the material, whereas the conductance also depends on the
volume measured. The two are related by a system constant, which in simple cases is the length between the
measurement electrodes divided by the area. In the most general case, the conductivity is the current density
divided by the electric field and depends on the frequency of the applied signal.
See: dielectric permittivity, horizontal resistivity, vertical resistivity
conductometric titration
A technique for estimating the cation-exchange capacity of a sample by measuring the conductivity of the sample
during titration. The technique includes crushing a core sample and mixing it for some time in a solution like
barium acetate, during which all the cation-exchange sites are replaced by barium (Ba++) ions. The solution is then
titrated with another solution, such as MgSO4, while observing the change in conductivity as the magnesium (Mg++)
ions replace the Ba++ ions. For several reasons, but mainly because the sample must be crushed, the measured
cation-exchange capacity may differ from that which affects the in situ electrical properties of the rock.
See: multiple salinity
core
1. vb. [Drilling]
To deepen the wellbore by way of collecting a cylindrical sample of rock. A core bit is used to
accomplish this, in conjunction with a core barrel and core catcher. The bit is usually a drag bit fitted with
either PDC or natural diamond cutting structures, but the core bit is unusual in that it has a hole in its
center. This allows the bit to drill around a central cylinder of rock, which is taken in through the bit and
into the core barrel. The core barrel itself may be thought of as a special storage chamber for holding the
rock core. The core catcher serves to grip the bottom of the core and, as tension is applied to the
drillstring, the rock under the core breaks away from the undrilled formation below it. The core catcher
also retains the core so that it does not fall out the bottom of the drillstring, which is open in the middle at
that point.
See: diamond bit, drag bit, PDC bit
More Details:
• Defining Coring: Getting to the Core of the Matter
2. n. [Geology]
Innermost layer of the Earth. Studies of compressional and shear waves indicate that the core makes up
nearly 3500 km [2170 miles] of the Earth's radius of 6370 km [3950 miles]. Such studies also
demonstrate that because shear waves do not pass through the outer part of the core (2250 km [1400
miles] thick), it is liquid (only solids can shear). The inner core is solid and 1220 km [750 miles] thick.
The core's iron and nickel composition was inferred through studies of the Earth's gravitational field and
average density. The relatively low density of the outer layers of the Earth suggests a dense inner layer.
See: asthenosphere, crust, lithosphere, mantle, plate tectonics, S-wave
A cylindrical sample of geologic formation, usually reservoir rock, taken during or after drilling a well.
Cores can be full-diameter cores (that is, they are nearly as large in diameter as the drill bit) taken at the
time of drilling the zone, or sidewall cores (generally less than 1 in. [2.5 cm] in diameter) taken after a
hole has been drilled. Cores samples are used for many studies, some of which relate to drilling fluids and
damage done by them.
See: bland coring fluid, core, coring fluid, drill-in fluid, drilling fluid, dynamic filtration, filtrate, filtrate
tracer, filtration
More Details:
core analysis
1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Shale Gas]

Laboratory study of a sample of a geologic formation, usually reservoir rock, taken during or after drilling a well.
Economic and efficient oil and gas production is highly dependent on understanding key properties of reservoir
rock, such as porosity, permeability, and wettability. Geoscientists have developed a variety of approaches,
including log and core analysis techniques, to measure these properties. Core analysis is especially important in
shale reservoirs because of the vertical and lateral heterogeneity of the rocks. Core analysis can include evaluation
of rock properties and anisotropy; organic matter content, maturity, and type; fluid content; fluid sensitivity; and
geomechanical properties. This information can be used to calibrate log and seismic measurements and to help in
well and completion design, well placement, and other aspects of reservoir production.
core gamma log
A log obtained in the laboratory by moving the core past a gamma ray detector. The log can be of the total gamma
ray in API units, or of the spectral response in weight concentrations of thorium, uranium and potassium. The main
purpose is to correlate the depth of each section of core with the depth of a log.
See: gamma ray log, natural gamma ray spectroscopy, potassium, scintillation detector, thorium, uranium
core image
An image of the external or internal features of a core. External images are photographs taken under natural or
ultraviolet light; natural light highlights lithology and sedimentary structures, while ultraviolet light causes
hydrocarbon zones to fluoresce. Internal images are obtained using X-rays or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
X-ray techniques measure the attenuation of X-rays passing through the core. The attenuation depends mainly on
the density. Hence the image reflects density and lithology changes, internal bedding planes, fractures and
nodules. These techniques include, in increasing resolution, fluoroscopy, X-radiography and computed
tomography. Most NMR images measure the quantity and relaxation time of hydrogen, and therefore give
information on fluid distribution. Some NMR techniques examine carbon, sodium and phosphorous.
core plug
A plug, or sample, taken from a conventional core for analysis. Core plugs are typically 1 in. to 1 1/2 in. [2.5 to 3.8
cm] in diameter and 1 in. to 2 in. [5 cm] long. Core plugs are ordinarily cut perpendicular to the axis of the core or
parallel to the axis, called horizontal and vertical plugs, respectively, when cut from a vertical wellbore. The terms
horizontal and vertical are often applied for cores cut from a deviated or horizontal wellbore, even though they are
not strictly correct unless core orientation is measured and plugs are cut to the true in-situ orientation.
See: routine core analysis, sidewall core, whole core
corkscrew hole
The result of certain drilling conditions that cause the borehole to take the shape of a corkscrew. Most logging
tools are much longer than the wavelength of the corkscrew, and therefore see it as a change in standoff or a
change in hole size. For this reason, the corkscrew is often observed as a wave on the caliper log. A corkscrew hole
affects measurements sensitive to standoff, such as induction and neutron porosity, and may affect pad tools, if
they cannot follow the changes.
Synonyms: spiral borehole
See: bad hole, cave effect
corrected gamma ray
A gamma ray log from which the uranium contribution has been subtracted. In some rocks, and in particular in
carbonate rocks, the contribution from uranium can be large and erratic, and can cause the carbonate to be
mistaken for a shale. The carbonate gamma ray is then a better indicator of shaliness.
Synonyms: carbonate gamma ray
See: natural gamma ray spectroscopy, potassium, thorium
correlate
1. vt. [Geology]
To seek a comparison or equivalence. Scientists attempt to compare or match up well log signatures, chemical
signatures, seismic signatures, fossils and rock samples across wide areas to determine the equivalence, extent,
thickness, quality, relative age or other properties of stratigraphic units and rock bodies.
Alternate Form: correlation
See: check-shot survey, chronostratigraphy, lithostratigraphy, marker bed, pick, signature, stratigraphy, stratum,
tie, two-dimensional survey
2. vb. [Production Logging, Well Completions, Formation Evaluation, Reservoir Characterization]
To compare and fix measured depths with known features onÂ baselineÂ logs of the wellboreÂ tubularsÂ and the
surroundingÂ formation.
Synonyms: depth correlation
correlation log
A log run for the purpose of correlating between wells. The most common logs used for this purpose are the
gamma ray, the resistivity and the acoustic log; the most common depth scales are 1/500 and 1/1000, or 2 in./100
ft [5 cm/30 m] and 1 in./100 ft [2.5 cm/30 m].
See: acoustic log, base log, composite log, detail log, gamma ray log, resistivity log
CPMG
In a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurement, referring to the cycle of radio frequency pulses designed by
Carr, Purcell, Meiboom and Gill to produce pulse echoes and counteract dephasing due to magnetic field
inhomogeneities. In the CPMG sequence, an initial radio frequency pulse is applied long enough to tip the protons
into a plane perpendicular to the static magnetic field (the 90o pulse). Initially the protons precess in unison,
producing a large signal in the antenna, but then quickly dephase due to the inhomogeneities. Another pulse is
applied, long enough to reverse their direction of precession (the 180o pulse), and causing them to come back in
phase again after a short time. Being in phase, they produce another strong signal called an echo. They quickly
dephase again but can be rephased by another 180o pulse. Rephasing is repeated many times, while measuring the
magnitude of each echo. This magnitude decreases with time due to molecular relaxation mechanisms surface,
bulk and diffusion. One measurement typically may comprise many hundreds of echoes, while the time between
each echo (the echo spacing) is of the order of 1 ms or less. Carr HY and Purcell EM: ?Effects of Diffusion on Free
Precession in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Experiments,? Physical Review 94, no. 3 (1954): 630-638. Meiboom S
and Gill D: ?Modified Spin-Echo Method for Measuring Nuclear Relaxation Times,? The Review of Scientific
Instruments 29, no. 8 (1958): 688-691.
See: echo spacing, longitudinal relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance
measurement, pulse-echo, T1, T2, transverse relaxation
cross dipole

Describing a waveform or a log that has been recorded by a set of dipole receivers oriented orthogonally (or 900
out of line) with a dipole transmitter. In sonic logging, cross-dipole flexural modes are used to determine shear
anisotropy together with in-line flexural modes. The data are processed using the Alford rotation.
See: Alford rotation, array sonic, cross dipole, sonic log
cross section
1. n. [Geology]
A diagram of a vertical section through a volume, as opposed to the surface, "bird's eye," or plan view of a map.
Cross sections are useful for displaying the types and orientations of subsurface structures and formations.
See: fence diagram, lithostratigraphy
Constant of proportionality relating the fraction of incident particles that undergo an interaction to the thickness
and number of target atoms within a material, and the incident flux. It is a measure of the probability of an
interaction. The microscopic cross section has units of area per interacting atom. The macroscopic cross section,
which is the product of the microscopic cross section and the number of particles per unit volume, has units of
inverse length. Cross sections for most reactions are determined experimentally and depend on the type of
interaction, the material and the energy of the incident particle.
See: Compton scattering, pair production, photoelectric effect
crossplot porosity
The porosity obtained by plotting two porosity logs against each other, normally density and neutron
porosity. The computation assumes a particular fluid, usually fresh water, and particular response
equations. The result is largely independent of lithology and is often a more reliable estimate of porosity
than a single porosity log. It is often displayed as a quicklook log.
See: apparent matrix, fresh water, neutron porosity
More Details:
• Defining Porosity: How Porosity Is Measured
crosswell electromagnetic tomography
1 of 3
A technique for measuring formation resistivity between two or more wells. This technique measures the
signal between an electromagnetic induction transmitter in one well, and a receiver array located in
another well. The transmitting antenna broadcasts a continuous sinusoidal signal at programmable
frequencies. Tomographic processing creates a map of resistivity of the area between the wells.
Measurements acquired by this technique have a greater depth of investigation than conventional logging
tools and are sensitive to fluid content. Crosswell electromagnetic induction surveys fill an intermediate
role between high-resolution well logs and lower-resolution surface measurements. Asset managers
utilize crosswell electromagnetic surveys for a variety of applications, such as monitoring sweep
efficiency, identifying bypassed pay, planning infill drilling locations and improving the effectiveness of
reservoir simulations.
See: tomography
More Details:
• Looking Deep into the Reservoir
crosswell reflection tomography

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Geophysics]
A crosswell seismic technique that incorporates reflection traveltimes and direct traveltimes into a
tomographic inversion algorithm to produce images of seismic velocity between wells.
See: crosswell seismic tomography, tomography
More Details:
crosswell seismic tomography

A survey technique that measures the seismic signal transmitted from a source, located in one well, to a
receiver array in a neighboring well. The resulting data are processed to create a reflection image or to
map the acoustic velocity or other properties (velocities of P- and S-waves, for example) of the area
between wells. Placement of the source and receiver array in adjacent wells not only enables the
formation between wells to be surveyed, it also avoids seismic signal propagation through attenuative
near-surface formations. Another advantage is that it places the source and receiver near the reservoir
zone of interest, thereby obtaining better resolution than is possible with conventional surface seismic
surveys. This technique is often used for high-resolution reservoir characterization when surface seismic
or vertical seismic profile (VSP) data lack resolution, or for time-lapse monitoring of fluid movements in
the reservoir.
See: tomography
More Details:
crosswell tomography
1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Formation Evaluation, Geophysics]

A technique for measuring a signal that is broadcast from a transmitter or source located in one well, to a
receiver array placed in a neighboring well. This technique is used to create a display of formation
properties such as acoustic velocity and attenuation, seismic reflectivity, or electromagnetic resistivity in
the area between wells. The reservoir-scale data acquired with this technique can be used to bridge the
gap between wellbore measurements and surface measurements.
See: tomography
More Details:
curve
The presentation on hard copy of log data from a single measurement versus depth. The term is also used to refer
to the log data themselves, as a synonym for a single log.
See: coding, trace, track
data rate
The rate at which measurements are transmitted between logging tool and surface. In measurement-while-drilling
(MWD), if the data rate is low in comparison with the drilling or tripping speed, the sampling interval or the
amount of data transmitted must be reduced or else information will be lost. In wireline logging, the data rate can
limit the logging speed or the number of tools in the tool string.
See: logging tool, measurements-while-drilling, real-time data, recorded data, telemetry, tool string
Dean-Stark extraction
A method for the measurement of fluid saturations in a core sample by distillation extraction. The water in the
sample is vaporized by boiling solvent, then condensed and collected in a calibrated trap. This gives the volume of
water in the sample. The solvent is also condensed, then flows back over the sample and extracts the oil.
Extraction continues for a minimum of two days until the extracted solvent is clean or the sample shows no more
fluorescence. The weight of the sample is measured before and after extraction. Then the volume of oil is
calculated from the loss in weight of the sample minus the weight of the water removed from it. Saturations are
calculated from the volumes.
See: core plug, distillation extraction, retort method, routine core analysis
deconvolution
1. n. [Geophysics]
A step in seismic signal processing to recover high frequencies, attenuate multiples, equalize amplitudes, produce
a zero-phase wavelet or for other purposes that generally affect the waveshape. Deconvolution, or inverse
filtering, can improve seismic data that were adversely affected by filtering, or convolution that occurs naturally as
seismic energy is filtered by the Earth. Deconvolution can also be performed on other types of data, such as
gravity, magnetic or well log data.
See: autocorrelation, backscatter, deterministic deconvolution, filter, inverse filter, processing, resolution,
signature deconvolution, zero-phase
With reference to induction logging, a method of removing shoulder-bed effects from an induction log. The term
refers to early 6FF40 and deep induction logs in which the standard method of deconvolution was based on three
measurements separated by 78 in. [198 cm] in depth. The three measurements were weighted by an amount
calculated to reduce the effect of shoulder beds on the readings in a high-resistivity bed. Originally, the resistivity
of the shoulder beds could be input, but in later usage this resistivity became standardized at 1 ohm-m. The
deconvolution was not effective in high-contrast formations. In modern tools, the shoulder effect is corrected by
using an inverse filter or an automatic inversion.
See: 6FF40, bed, inverse filter, shoulder bed
A mathematical operation that uses downhole flow-rate measurements to transform bottomhole pressure
measurements distorted by variable rates to an interpretable transient. Deconvolution also can use surface rates
to transform wellhead pressures to an interpretable form. Deconvolution has the advantage over convolution that
it does not assume a particular model for the pressure-transient response. However, the simplest form of
deconvolution often gives a noisy result, and more complex approaches may be computing intensive.
See: convolution, transient-rate and pressure-test analysis
deep induction
A particular type of induction log that was designed to read deep into the formation while maintaining reasonable
vertical resolution. The deep induction log (ID) is based on the measurement of a 6FF40 array and was combined
with a medium induction array to form the dual induction tool. Versions built after 1968 had a small extra
transmitter coil to reduce the borehole effect on the medium induction while changing the deep response very
little. The midpoint of the ID integrated radial geometrical factor is at 62 in. [157 cm] radius for high resistivities,
reducing to 45 in. [114 cm] at 1 ohm-m. ID receives very little signal from within 20 in. [50 cm] of the tool. The
vertical resolution is about 8 ft [2.4 m] but varies with local conditions.
Alternate Form: ID
See: cave effect, depth of investigation, dual induction, geometrical factor
delta rho
A log that shows the magnitude of the correction applied to the long-spacing detector of a density measurement.
When delta rho is above a certain value, typically +/- 0.15 g/cm3, the correction may no longer be accurate, and
needs to be examined in more detail. Delta rho is also used as a qualitative indicator of borehole rugosity.
See: azimuthal density, compensated-density log, spine and ribs plot
delta t
1. n. [Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]

Also called interval transit time, the amount of time for a wave to travel a certain distance, proportional to the
reciprocal of velocity, typically measured in microseconds per foot by an acoustic log and symbolized by t or DT. P-
wave interval transit times for common sedimentary rock types range from 43 (dolostone) to 160 (unconsolidated
shales) microseconds per foot, and can be distinguished from measurements of steel casing, which has a
consistent transit time of 57 microseconds per foot.
Synonyms: interval transit time, slowness
See: acoustic, drift, P-wave
delta t stretch
A feature on a sonic log caused by low signal amplitude that results in erroneously long traveltimes. Sonic logs that
do not record waveforms measure the acoustic traveltime between transmitter and receiver by detecting the first
signal at the receiver above a certain threshold (first motion detection). The threshold is small so that the signal is
detected just after it crosses the zero signal baseline. However, if the threshold is set too high, or the signal is too
small, the system will not trigger at the sharp zero crossing but at some later point on the waveform. This increases
the apparent transmitter-receiver time. Delta-t stretch is more likely at the far receiver, where signals are weaker,
so that the apparent traveltime calculated between receivers is too large. In the extreme case, the system triggers
on the next cycle of the waveform, known as cycle skipping.
See: acoustic traveltime, cycle skip, delta t, sonic measurement, zero crossing
delta-t stretch
A feature on a sonic log caused by low signal amplitude that results in erroneously long traveltimes. Sonic logs that
do not record waveforms measure the acoustic traveltime between transmitter and receiver by detecting the first
signal at the receiver above a certain threshold (first motion detection). The threshold is small so that the signal is
detected just after it crosses the zero signal baseline. However, if the threshold is set too high, or the signal is too
small, the system will not trigger at the sharp zero crossing but at some later point on the waveform. This increases
the apparent transmitter-receiver time. Delta-t stretch is more likely at the far receiver, where signals are weaker,
so that the apparent traveltime calculated between receivers is too large. In the extreme case, the system triggers
on the next cycle of the waveform, known as cycle skipping.
See: acoustic traveltime, cycle skip, delta t, sonic measurement, traveltime, zero crossing
density measurement
A measurement of the bulk density of the formation, based on the reduction in gamma ray flux between a source
and a detector due to Compton scattering. The gamma ray source, usually 137Cs (cesium), is chosen so that gamma
ray energies are high enough to interact by Compton scattering but not by pair production. The detectors
discriminate against low gamma ray energies that may have been influenced by photoelectric absorption. Although
Compton scattering depends on electron density and not bulk density, density logs are calibrated to give the
correct bulk density in the majority of sedimentary rocks. Due to the Z/A effect there are small differences in some
formations. The measurement responds to the average density of the material between source and detector. In
the wireline measurement, care is taken to minimize the mud between the sensors and the formation by pressing
a pad against the borehole wall, with source and detector focused into the formation. In the logging-while-drilling
measurement, a sleeve may be mounted on the collar around the sensors to exclude the mud. The detectors
measure the gamma rays scattered from the formation. Even then, mudcake or borehole rugosity can affect the
measurement. It is common practice to compensate for the mudcake by using two or more detectors at different
spacings.
See: azimuthal density, compensated-density log, Compton scattering, cross section, delta rho, logging while
drilling, pair production, PEF, scintillation detector, spine and ribs plot, Z/A effect
A measurement of the bulk density of the formation based on borehole-gravity measurements. As the
gravitational attraction between two bodies is dependent upon their masses and their separation, it follows that
its measurement also can be used to make a direct determination of density. The density thus measured is highly
accurate but averaged over a large volume.
See: borehole gravity
departure curve
A graph that shows the effects of environmental factors on the ideal response of a measurement. The name comes
from the departure of the actual response from the ideal. The term is used most commonly in relation to the effect
of hole size, mud resistivity, bed thickness, invasion and other factors on electrical logs.
See: bed thickness, electrical log, environmental corrections
dephasing
In a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurement, the loss of synchronization of hydrogen atoms precessing at
different speeds about the static magnetic field. When the signals from individual atoms are not synchronized,
they are out of phase and the total signal is reduced. The dephasing occurs either because of inhomogeneities in
the static magnetic field or through molecular processes. Dephasing due to inhomogeneities is known as the free-
induction decay and is corrected by the CPMG sequence. Molecular dephasing is known as transverse relaxation.
See: echo spacing, free-induction decay, longitudinal relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic
resonance measurement, transverse relaxation
depth correlation
1. n. [Production Logging, Well Workover and Intervention, Reservoir Characterization, Formation Evaluation]
The process of comparing and fixing measured depths with known features on baseline logs of the wellbore
tubulars and the surrounding formation.
depth datum
Â Also known as depth reference, the point in a well from which depth is measured. Alternatively, the depth
reference is the point at which the depth is defined as being zero. It is typically the top of the kelly bushing or the
level of the drill floor on the rig that is used to drill the well. The depth measured from that point is the measured
depth (MD) for the well. Even when the drilling rig has been removed, all subsequent measurements and
operations in the well are still tied in to the same depth reference. However, for multiwell studies, the depths are
normally shifted to the permanent datum. The depth reference and its elevation above the permanent datum are
recorded on the log heading. In some contexts, the term may refer to any point from which depth is measured.
Synonyms: depth reference
See: depth wheel, first reading, last reading
depth derived

Referring to a borehole-compensation scheme for sonic logs that combines measurements taken when the logging
tool is at two different depths in the borehole. In normal borehole-compensation schemes, the effects of caves
and sonde tilt are minimized by combining measurements from a second transmitter (T2) above a pair of receivers
with those from the first transmitter (T1) below the receivers. This arrangement makes the logging tool
unacceptably long for the long-spacing sonic log. In the depth-derived system, T2 is located below T1, at a distance
equal to the receiver spacing. T1 is fired and the transit time between the receivers at depth z (TT1z) is recorded as
usual. Then when T1 and T2 are at depth z, both are fired sequentially and the difference in time for their signals
to reach one of the receivers is recorded (TT2z). The average of TT1z and TT2z is borehole-compensated since the
acoustic signals traveled in opposite directions for the two measurements.
See: borehole compensation, logging tool, long-spacing sonic log, sonic log, sonic measurement
depth mark
A magnetic mark placed on a logging cable as a reference for depth measurements. The marks are placed on the
cable at regular intervals, usually 100 ft [30 m] or 50 m [164 ft], under a certain tension in a workshop. The
intervals may change slightly as a function of tension downhole, but this change can be corrected for. During
logging operations, the marks are detected by a magnetic mark detector, and then used to check and correct the
depth read by the depth wheel.
See: depth wheel
depth matched

Pertaining to two or more logging curves that have been aligned in depth. Logs recorded on different runs will not
be exactly aligned at all depths because of the difficulty of perfect depth control. If the two logs are offset by the
same amount throughout the log, then only a simple depth shift is required. If the offset varies, then the logs need
to be depth matched. Depth matching is simplest if both runs contain the same type of log, such as a gamma ray.
The two gamma rays can then be aligned, either manually or with software, and the other logs shifted by the same
amount. Otherwise the alignment is based on two logs that respond in a similar fashion, such as a neutron porosity
and a shallow laterolog. Depth matching also may be needed for logs recorded on the same run. Although there is
a fixed distance between the measure points and the depth reference, the apparent distance will vary if the tool
moves unevenly up the hole, due to stick and slip or yo-yo effects. Depth matching is then necessary.
See: base log, curve, depth control, gamma ray log, neutron porosity, stick and slip
depth of invasion
The distance from the borehole wall that the mud filtrate has penetrated into the formation. The depth of invasion
affects whether a log measures the invaded zone, the undisturbed zone or part of each zone. The term is closely
related to the diameter of invasion, the latter being twice the depth of invasion plus the borehole diameter. Depth
of invasion is a more appropriate parameter for describing the response of pad and azimuthally focused
measurements such as density and microresistivity logs. The term is well-defined in the case of a step profile of
invasion. In the case of an annulus or a transition zone, two depths must be defined, corresponding to the inner
and outer limits of the annulus or transition zone. When the invasion model is not specified, the term usually
refers to the outer limit of invasion.
See: azimuthal, diameter of invasion, filtrate slump, flushed zone, step profile, transition zone
depth of investigation
A distance that characterizes how far a logging tool measures into the formation from the face of the tool or the
borehole wall. The depth of investigation summarizes the radial response of the measurement in one or more
directions. For nuclear and resistivity measurements, the depth of investigation should be associated with the
percentage of signal received from within that depth, typically either 50% or 90%. Most quoted depths of
investigation assume a homogeneous formation with certain properties, such as a given resistivity or fluid content.
The depths of investigation can vary considerably in inhomogeneous conditions, and at different values of the
properties concerned. They should be considered only a qualitative guide to tool response. For other
measurements, the depth of investigation is either well-defined by the tool physics (in the case of nuclear
magnetic resonance), or else can be given only approximately, an accurate value being too dependent on
formation properties (in the case of acoustic and electromagnetic propagation). The term is used for all
measurements but is most appropriate for azimuthally focused devices such as nuclear logs. For azimuthally
symmetric devices such as resistivity logs, the term radius of investigation is more appropriate.
See: diameter of investigation, electromagnetic propagation, geometrical factor, logging tool, nuclear magnetic
resonance, radial resolution, radial response, radius of investigation, resistivity log
depth reference
The point in a well from which depth is measured. Alternatively, the depth reference is the point at which the
depth is defined as being zero. It is typically the top of the kelly bushing or the level of the drill floor on the rig that
is used to drill the well. The depth measured from that point is the measured depth (MD) for the well. Even when
the drilling rig has been removed, all subsequent measurements and operations in the well are still tied in to the
same depth reference. However, for multiwell studies, the depths are normally shifted to the permanent datum.
The depth reference and its elevation above the permanent datum are recorded on the log heading. In some
contexts, the term may refer to any point from which depth is measured.
Synonyms: depth datum
See: depth wheel, first reading, last reading
depth wheel
A calibrated wheel used to drive the depth recording system in wireline logging. The wheel is pressed against the
logging cable as the cable is spooled onto the drum and therefore turns as the cable is run in and out of the
borehole. After zeroing the depth on surface, the depth wheel provides the depth input to the recording system.
Small errors in calibration and slippage can cause the wheel to introduce systematic errors in the depth recorded.
For this reason, the depth is checked and corrected using depth marks. The depth wheel is also referred to as a
depth encoder. Modern encoders have two wheels so that slippage can be detected by differences between the
two measurements.
See: depth mark
depth-derived

Referring to a borehole-compensation scheme for sonic logs that combines measurements taken when the logging
tool is at two different depths in the borehole. In normal borehole-compensation schemes, the effects of caves
and sonde tilt are minimized by combining measurements from a second transmitter (T2) above a pair of receivers
with those from the first transmitter (T1) below the receivers. This arrangement makes the logging tool
unacceptably long for the long-spacing sonic log. In the depth-derived system, T2 is located below T1, at a distance
equal to the receiver spacing. T1 is fired and the transit time between the receivers at depth z (TT1z) is recorded as
usual. Then when T1 and T2 are at depth z, both are fired sequentially and the difference in time for their signals
to reach one of the receivers is recorded (TT2z). The average of TT1z and TT2z is borehole-compensated since the
acoustic signals traveled in opposite directions for the two measurements.
See: borehole compensation, logging tool, long-spacing sonic log, sonic log, sonic measurement
detail log
A log with a depth scale chosen to show sufficient detail of the formation. The most common scales are 1/200 or 5
in./100 ft.
See: correlation log, detail log, track
diameter of invasion
The distance from the borehole wall into the formation that the mud filtrate has penetrated. The term assumes
equal invasion on all sides of the borehole. It is the diameter of the circle thus formed, with the center being the
center of the borehole. The diameter of invasion affects whether a log measures the invaded zone, the
undisturbed zone, or part of each zone. The term is closely related to the depth of invasion, being twice the depth
of invasion plus the borehole diameter. Diameter of invasion is a more appropriate parameter for describing the
response of azimuthally symmetric measurements such as induction, laterolog and propagation resistivity. The
term is well-defined in the case of a step profile of invasion. In the case of an annulus or a transition zone, two
diameters must be defined, corresponding to the inner and outer limits of the annulus or transition zone. When
the invasion model is not specified, the term usually refers to the outer limit of invasion.
See: azimuthal, depth of invasion, filtrate slump, flushed zone, propagation resistivity, step profile, transition zone
diameter of investigation
A distance that characterizes how far a logging tool measures into the formation from the axis of the tool or
borehole. The term is similar to depth of investigation but is appropriate only for azimuthally symmetric
measurements such as resistivity.
See: azimuthal, depth of investigation, radial response, radius of investigation
dielectric constant
The degree to which a medium resists the flow of electric charge, defined as the ratio of the electric
displacementÂ to the electric field strength. It is more common to use the relative dielectric constant.
Synonyms: dielectric permittivity
See: dielectric propagation log, dielectric resistivity, permittivity, propagation resistivity
dielectric permittivity
The degree to which a medium resists the flow of electric charge, defined as the ratio of the electric displacement
to the electric field strength. It is more common to use the relative dielectric permittivity.
Synonyms: dielectric constant, permittivity
See: dielectric propagation log, dielectric resistivity, electromagnetic propagation, propagation resistivity
dielectric propagation log
A log of the high-frequency (on the order of 25 MHz) dielectric properties of the formation. The log usually
includes two curves the relative dielectric permittivity, symbolized by epsilon which is unitless, and the resistivity in
ohm-m. At the frequency used, water molecules have a strong effect on the dielectric properties, so that both
relative dielectric permittivity and conductivity increase with the volume of water present. Relative dielectric
permittivity can be used to distinguish hydrocarbons from water of any salinity. However, the effect of salinity is
more important than the salinity effect with the high-frequency electromagnetic propagation log, and the
interpretation is more complex. The advantage of the dielectric propagation log is that the lower frequency
permits a larger depth of investigation and therefore an analysis of the undisturbed zone.
See: electromagnetic propagation measurement
dielectric resistivity
The resistivity of the formation derived by combining the attenuation and phase shift of a propagation
resistivity measurement. Common practice is to transform attenuation and phase shift independently to
resistivity, assuming a certain transform between permittivity and resistivity. These relations lose
accuracy at high resistivity. However, by combining the two measurements, both the dielectric
permittivity and resistivity can be determined without need for a transform. The dielectric resistivity
extends the range of measurement, typically up to 3000 ohm-m.
See: attenuation resistivity, dielectric permittivity, phase shift, phase-shift resistivity, polarization horn,
propagation resistivity
More Details:
differential SP
The spontaneous potential (SP) measured between two electrodes placed close together in the borehole, as
opposed to the normal SP, which is measured with one electrode in the borehole and one at surface.
See: spontaneous potential
differential spectrum
A technique in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging that is based on the difference between the T2
distributions, or spectra, acquired at different polarization times. The technique often is used to detect gas or light
oil. These fluids have long T1 that exceed 1 s. A measurement made with a long polarization time will polarize much
of these fluids and give significant signal at the appropriate T2. A measurement made with a short polarization time
will polarize little of these fluids and will give a much smaller signal. Other fluids, with shorter T1, will be polarized
in both cases, so that a difference in signal at the appropriate T2 identifies gas or light oil.
See: direct hydrocarbon typing, enhanced diffusion, longitudinal relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance, nuclear
magnetic resonance measurement, polarization time, shifted spectrum, transverse relaxation, wait time
diffusion
1. n. [Geophysics]
The movement of ions or molecules from regions of high concentration to low concentration within a solution.
See: spontaneous potential
2. n. [Geophysics]
The conduction of heat by the movement of molecules.
3. n. [Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]
The process by which particles move over time within a material due to their kinetic motion. The term is most
commonly used in pulsed neutron capture logging and in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging. In a pulsed
neutron capture log, the term refers to the spread of neutrons away from the neutron generator. In NMR logging,
diffusion refers to the movement of gas, oil or water molecules within the pore space.
See: neutron generator, neutron interactions, nuclear magnetic resonance, sigma
diffusion relaxation
In a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurement, the loss of coherent energy by hydrogen atoms as they
move within the pore space. Hydrogen atoms that move significantly within the pores during a NMR measurement
will encounter different magnetic fields and hence will precess at different rates, or dephase. Dephasing
contributes only to T2 and is most significant in gas or light oils. The magnitude depends on the field gradient, the
echo spacing and the diffusion coefficient of the fluid. Diffusion relaxation can be induced in water by using long
echo spacings. This is the basis of the enhanced diffusion technique.
See: bulk relaxation, diffusion relaxation, echo spacing, nuclear magnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance
measurement, relaxation time, T2, transverse relaxation
dip correction
An algorithm for correcting the effects of dip or borehole deviation on the response of a logging measurement.
These effects are significant for deep-reading logs such as induction and electrode devices. The standard
processing used to produce these logs assumes a vertical well with horizontal formation layers. In the presence of
a relative dip between the borehole and formation layers, the logs may read incorrectly. For older logs such as the
dual induction, a set of inverse filters can be designed to correct for dip effect up to about 60. For modern array
logs, iterative forward modeling with a one-dimensional layered earth model can correct up to about 85.
See: array induction, dual induction, electrode device, inverse filter, inversion
direct hydrocarbon typing
The application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging to the determination of hydrocarbon type (gas, light
oil, medium oil, heavy oil), using only NMR data. Three techniques are most commonly used: differential spectrum,
shifted spectrum and enhanced diffusion.
See: differential spectrum, enhanced diffusion, heavy oil, nuclear magnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance
measurement, shifted spectrum
dispersed clay
Clay that is scattered throughout the pore space. There are three general types: pore lining, pore filling and pore
bridging. The terms dispersed clay and dispersed shale tend to be used synonymously.
See: structural shale
distillation extraction
A technique for cleaning core samples in which the water fraction is removed by distillation and the oil fraction is
extracted using solvents. Cleaning is done with either the Soxhlet or, when fluid saturation measurements are
required, the Dean-Stark apparatus. Different solvents are used depending on the type of fluids and rock, the most
common ones being toluene, methanol, xylene and chloroform. Several solvents may be used in sequence.
See: centrifuge, Dean-Stark extraction
drainage

The process of forcing a nonwetting phase into a porous rock. Oil migrates into most reservoirs as the non-wetting
phase, so initial charging of the reservoir is a drainage process.
See: imbibition, migration, oil-wet, water-wet, wettability
drained test
1. n. [Geology, Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]

A drained test is one in which the pore fluid in the sample is able to flow and equilibrate to imposed pore pressure
conditions; the fluid mass and volume will vary but its pressure will be constant. A drained test could be on a dry
sample.
See: undrained test
drillpipe conveyed

Describing sensors that are embedded in drill collars in order to record measurements-while-drilling.
See: drill collar, logging tool, telemetry
Pertaining to the use of drillpipe to move wireline logging tools up and down a borehole. In difficult conditions--
high well deviation, rough hole--wireline logging tools cannot reach the bottom of the hole under their own
weight. In drillpipe-conveyed logging operations, the tools are moved mechanically by the drillpipe, while a
wireline maintains the electrical connection.
See: cable
dual induction
The combination of a deep-induction and a medium-induction array on the same sonde. In a typical
implementation, the two arrays share the same transmitters but have different receivers. If the dual-induction log
is combined with a shallow laterolog or microresistivity log, it is possible to correct for the effect on invasion on the
deep log, assuming a step profile.
See: 6FF40, deep induction, induction, medium induction, receiver, step profile
dual water
A model of shaly formations that considers there to be two waters in the pore space: far water, which is the
normal formation water; and near water (or clay-bound water) in the electrical double layer near the clay surface.
The clay-bound water consists of clay counter-ions and the associated water of hydration. The volume of this layer
is determined by its thickness, which is constant at high salinities, and its area, which is proportional to the
counter-ion concentration per unit pore volume (Qv). The volume of clay-bound water per unit pore volume, Swb,
can therefore be written as: Swb = alpha * vq * Qv where vq = 0.28 cm3/meq at 25oC is the factor relating volume to
counter-ion concentration at high salinity and is a function only of temperature, and alpha = 1 above a certain
salinity, below which it increases with temperature and with decreasing salinity. The fractional volume of the far
water is then (1 ? alpha?* vq * Qv). The dual-water concept was developed for the interpretation of resistivity in
shaly sands, but is also useful in the interpretation of nuclear and nuclear magnetic resonance logs. In these cases,
the parameter most used is the total volume of clay-bound water in the rock, equal to Swb multiplied by the total
porosity.
See: clay-bound water, far water, formation water, nuclear magnetic resonance, total porosity, wet-clay porosity
eccentralizer
A device that helps to keep a wireline logging tool away from the center of the borehole. Typical devices are a
single bow spring mounted on the outside surface of the logging tool or a set of rubber fingers mounted at the
bottom. Some measurements, such as induction logs, respond better when the tool is eccentralized, while others,
including acoustic logs, are better when centralized.
Antonyms: centralizer
See: acoustic log, logging tool
echo spacing
The time between each echo in a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurement. The time is also the time to
the first echo and is therefore an important parameter in defining the fastest relaxation time that can be
measured. In standard measurements, the echo spacing ranges from 0.2 to 1 ms.
See: CPMG, diffusion relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, relaxation time, shifted spectrum
effective porosity
1. n. [Geology]
The interconnected pore volume or void space in a rock that contributes to fluid flow or permeability in a
reservoir. Effective porosity excludes isolated pores and pore volume occupied by water adsorbed on clay minerals
or other grains. Total porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow.
Effective porosity is typically less than total porosity.
See: fluid flow, total porosity
In the original definition of core analysts, the volume of connected pores in a unit volume of rock. Effective
porosity in this sense is the total porosity less the isolated porosity. It is the porosity measured by most core
analysis techniques that do not involve disaggregating the sample. In these techniques, the porosity is usually
measured on totally dried core samples. Drying removes most of the clay-bound water. In log interpretation,
effective porosity means the total porosity less the clay-bound water. The definition is based on the analysis of
shaly formations, in which the clay-bound water is considered immobile and hence ineffective. Isolated porosity is
rare in such formations and is ignored, being included in the effective porosity. Effective porosity on dried core
samples is therefore greater than effective porosity from log analysis, and close to the total porosity from log
analysis. In humidity-dried cores, part of the clay-bound water is not removed, and the difference is reduced. In
some usage, the capillary-bound water is not considered part of the effective porosity. In this case effective
porosity is synonymous with free fluid. Effective porosity is measured in volume/volume, percent or porosity units,
p.u.
See: clay-bound water, free fluid, free water, isolated porosity, microporosity, small-pore water, total porosity
effective water saturation
Â The fraction of water in theÂ poreÂ space corresponding to the effective porosity. It is expressed in
volume/volume, percent orÂ saturationÂ units. Unless otherwise stated, water saturation is the fraction
ofÂ formation waterÂ in theÂ undisturbed zone. The saturation is known as the total water saturation if the pore
space is theÂ total porosity, but is called effective water saturation if the pore space is the effective porosity. If
used without qualification, the term water saturation usually refers to the effective water saturation.
Synonyms: water saturation
See: flushed-zone water saturation, moveable hydrocarbons, moved hydrocarbons, residual oil
elastic neutron scattering
A neutron interaction in which the kinetic energy lost by a neutron in a nuclear collision is transferred to the
nucleus. The energy of a neutron is reduced more efficiently in collisions with nuclei of similar mass to the neutron,
like hydrogen and other elements of low atomic mass. Elastic neutron scattering is one of the main principles
behind the neutron porosity log, as well as the pulsed neutron capture log, which is mainly used to determine
water saturation behind casing.
See: chemical neutron source, inelastic neutron scattering, neutron capture, neutron generator, neutron
interactions, neutron porosity, water saturation
electrical anisotropy
A difference in vertical and horizontal resistivity within a formation and at the scale of the resistivity
measurement. Although there are several possible types of anisotropy, the term usually is used when the
electrical properties are the same in all horizontal directions, but different in the vertical direction. For
horizontal beds, this type of anisotropy is more fully known as transverse isotropy with a vertical axis of
symmetry (TIV). The term may also refer to a difference in resistivities measured parallel and
perpendicular to bedding.
See: bed, horizontal resistivity, parallel resistivity, perpendicular resistivity, vertical resistivity
More Details:
• Oilfield Anisotropy: Its Origins and Electrical Characteristics
electrical double layer

With reference to formation evaluation, the layer between a clay particle and the formation water that has a
particular distribution of ions. Clays have an excess negative charge on their surface. When in contact with
formation water, this charge attracts an excess of positive cations, normally Na+ together with their molecules of
hydration water, into a region near the interface. The layer next to the clay surface, the Stern layer, has no anions,
and is always present. Outside the Stern layer is the Gouy layer, through which the ion concentration gradually
approaches that of free brine. The thickness of this layer increases as brine salinity decreases.
See: bound water, cation-exchange capacity, clay-bound water, dual water, effective porosity, electrical double
layer, formation water, total porosity, wet-clay porosity
electrical log
A log recorded using an electrical wireline. In this sense, the term refers to any log recorded on a wireline, whether
it measures an electrical quantity or not. The term dates from the early days of logging when the only logs were
the spontaneous potential and resistivity from conventional electrode devices.
See: electrode device, logging tool, resistivity log, spontaneous potential
A wireline log of formation resistivity produced by a simple, unfocused arrangement of current emitting and
measure electrodes. Conventional electrical devices have four electrodes-current emitting (A), current return (B),
measure (M) and measure reference (N)-which may be placed in different configurations. The two most common
configurations are the normal and lateral. The currents used are low frequency, typically less than 500 Hz. H.G. Doll
recorded the first electrical log on September 5, 1927, in the Pechelbronn field, Alsace, France.
Alternate Form: electrical survey
See: departure curve, electrode device, electrode resistivity, wireline log
electrical survey
A particular combination of a spontaneous potential log and three electrical logs consisting of a 16-in. [40-cm]
short normal, a 64-in. [162-cm] long normal and an 18-ft, 8-in. [5.7-m] lateral. With this combination, it is possible
to correct for the effects of invasion in many average logging environments. This combination is sometimes called
a conventional electrical log or survey, or simply electrical log, and is also referred to as the ES.
See: departure curve, electrical log, electrode device, electrode resistivity, spontaneous potential
electrode device
A logging tool based on an arrangement of simple metallic electrodes working at low frequency (less than 500 Hz).
The term includes conventional electrical logs, laterologs, micrologs and other microresistivity logs. Electrode
devices are used for both wireline and measurements-while-drilling logs. In all electrode devices, a current (IO) and
a voltage (VO) are measured on the appropriate electrodes or combinations of electrodes. The apparent formation
resistivity is then determined by: Ra = K VO / IO, where K is a system constant for the device concerned.
See: departure curve, electrical log, electrode resistivity, microlog, wireline log
electrode resistivity
The resistivity measured by an electrode device. The term often is used to distinguish this resistivity from that
measured by the measurements-while-drilling propagation resistivity, or the wireline induction resistivity. The
term may also refer to measurements-while-drilling toroid devices, such as bit resistivity, ring resistivity and button
resistivity. These devices do not use electrodes but have a similar response. Electrode resistivity measurements
respond to resistivity, not conductivity. They are therefore best at measuring true formation resistivity at high
resistivities, high contrasts in resistivity between formation and drilling mud, and for conductive invasion. These
are conditions that are not well covered by propagation and induction resistivity.
See: bit resistivity, button resistivity, conductive invasion, drilling fluid, electrode device, propagation resistivity,
ring resistivity
electrokinetic potential
The electromagnetic force, in millivolts, generated by an electrolyte flowing through a permeable medium. This
potential is an unwanted contribution to the spontaneous potential (SP) log. In principle, there is no flow into a
permeable reservoir at the time of logging, since the mudcake has isolated the reservoir from the borehole.
However, it is possible for mudcakes and shales to produce an electrokinetic potential at the time of logging. In
normal conditions, any potential is small and equal along the borehole, so that the effect on the SP is negligible. A
significant electrokinetic potential can be generated in particular conditions, for example, high differential pressure
or poor mudcakes.
See: bimetallism, differential pressure, shale baseline, spontaneous potential, static spontaneous potential
electromagnetic propagation

Pertaining to logs that measure the properties of electromagnetic waves as they move through a formation.
Measurements-while-drilling (MWD) propagation resistivity logs work between about 100 kHz and 10 MHz.
Dielectric propagation logs work between 20 and 200 MHz. Logs made above 200 MHz and into the GHz range are
known as electromagnetic propagation logs. Below about 100 kHz, the measurements are based on the properties
of standing waves, not of propagation. Induction and laterolog tools work in this range.
See: dielectric propagation log, resistivity log
electromagnetic propagation measurement
A measurement of the high frequency (about 1 GHz) dielectric properties of the formation. In a typical tool, a
microwave transmitter is placed a few inches below two receivers separated by 4 cm [1.6 in.]. At this frequency,
the response is best explained as the propagation of a wave. Thus the phase shift and attenuation of the wave
between the receivers are measured and transformed to give the log measurements of propagation time and
attenuation. Because of the short spacings, the measurement has excellent vertical resolution and reads within
inches of the borehole wall except at high resistivity. Different transmitter and receiver spacings and orientations
are used, leading to different arrays, such as the endfire array and the broadside array. An ideal measurement
would give the plane wave properties of the formation. However, the geometry of the measurement precludes
this, so that a correction, known as the spreading-loss correction, is needed for the attenuation and to a much
smaller extent for the propagation time. The measurement is also affected by the dielectric properties and
thickness of the mudcake. Borehole compensation is used to correct for sonde tilt or a rough borehole wall.
See: conductivity, electromagnetic propagation, filter cake, relative dielectric permittivity, spreading loss
elemental capture spectroscopy

Referring to a log of the yields of different elements in the formation, as measured by capture gamma ray
spectroscopy using a pulsed neutron generator. The log is a type of pulsed neutron spectroscopy log that uses only
the capture spectrum. The capture spectrum is formed by many elements, but since the main purpose of the log is
to determine lithology, the principal outputs are the relative yields of silicon, calcium, iron, sulfur, titanium and
gadolinium. The yields give information only on the relative concentration of these elements. To get absolute
elemental concentrations, it is necessary to calibrate to cores, or, more often, use a model such as the oxide-
closure model. The depth of investigation of the measurement is several inches into the formation. It can be run in
open or cased hole. The absolute elemental concentrations are insensitive to fluids in the borehole and formation.
See: activation log, cased hole, depth of investigation, geochemical log, neutron interactions, openhole, oxide-
closure model, pulsed neutron spectroscopy measurement
endfire array
A particular arrangement of transmitters and receivers used in the electromagnetic propagation measurement in
which the dipoles used as sensors are oriented along the axis of the tool. The orientation is combined with
relatively long spacings to give deeper penetration, and hence less effect of mudcake or rugosity.
See: broadside array, electromagnetic propagation, electromagnetic propagation measurement, receiver
enhanced diffusion

A technique in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging based on a long echo spacing, specially chosen to
enhance the diffusion of formation water. Echo spacings in standard NMR logs are too short to allow any
significant diffusion relaxation from water. Long echo spacings, for example 3 s, cause diffusion relaxation to limit
the maximum T2 from water. They also limit the maximum T2 from light hydrocarbons. However, there is a certain
range of viscosity of medium oil that is less affected. The enhanced diffusion technique therefore permits the
identification of some medium oils.
See: differential spectrum, diffusion relaxation, direct hydrocarbon typing, echo spacing, longitudinal relaxation,
nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, shifted spectrum, transverse relaxation, wait time
environmental corrections
The adjustments that must be made to log measurements to bring them back to the standard conditions for which
the tool has been characterized. Different measurements require different corrections. For example resistivity
measurements usually require correction for the borehole, invasion and shoulder beds, and may also be corrected
for apparent dip, anisotropy and surrounding beds in horizontal wells. Density measurements require correction
only for borehole size, while neutron porosity measurements require corrections for temperature, pressure and a
large number of borehole and formation parameters. Not all corrections are significant in all cases. Corrections can
be calculated manually, using charts, or applied through software. Conventionally, corrections are applied
sequentially, as for example first borehole then invasion. In some situations, such as the combination of deep
invasion and high apparent dip on a resistivity measurement, the corrections are too interdependent for
sequential application to be accurate. The solution is iterative forward modeling.
See: apparent dip, borehole correction, iterative forward modeling, neutron porosity, shoulder bed, step profile
epithermal neutron porosity measurement

A measurement based on the slowing down of neutrons between a source and one or more detectors that
measure neutrons at the epithermal level, where their energy is above that of the surrounding matter, between
approximately 0.4 and 10 eV. The slowing-down process is dominated by hydrogen, and is characterized by a
slowing-down length. By measuring the neutrons at the epithermal level, rather than the thermal level, the
response is a purer estimate of hydrogen index, unaffected by thermal absorbers. On the other hand, the count
rate is smaller for the same source and source-detector spacing. Epithermal measurements have been made with
both the compensated neutron technique and by using a pad pressed against the borehole wall with detectors
focused into the formation.
See: chemical neutron source, compensated neutron log, excavation effect, hydrogen index, limestone porosity
unit, limestone-compatible scale, neutron interactions, slowing-down length, thermal neutron porosity
measurement
equivalent conductance
With reference to the conductivity of brines, the ionic conductivity provided by a unit ion concentration. The
conductivity of the brine (Cw, in siemens per meter or S/m) is determined by the equivalent conductance, (B, in
S/m per meq/cm3) and the ion concentration (N, in milli-ion equivalent, or more commonly milliequivalent, meq
per cm3) as Cw = B * N.
See: cation-exchange capacity, dual water
equivalent water resistivity
The effective resistivity of the formation water or the mud filtrate, as it affects the electrochemical
potential. The electrochemical potential is the main source of the spontaneous potential log. The
equivalent water resistivity, or equivalent resistivity, is defined as the reciprocal of the activity of a
solution, so that the formula for the electrochemical potential, Ec, can be written as: Ec = - K log10 (Rmfe /
Rwe) where K is a coefficient, and Rmfe and Rwe are the equivalent water resistivities. The importance of
Rmfe and Rwe is that they are equal to the actual water resistivities for NaCl solutions above about 0.1
ohm-m. In salty waters below 0.1ohm-m, the equivalent resistivity is lower by an amount that depends on
temperature and salinity. In fresh waters, divalent ions such as Ca++ and Mg++ have a strong effect on Ec.
Rwe is then related to Rw by an empirical transform that assumes average concentrations of these ions. For
fresh mud filtrates, it has been common practice to set Rmfe = 0.85 * Rmf.
See: formation water, fresh water, K coefficient, liquid-junction potential, membrane potential,
spontaneous potential, static spontaneous potential
More Details:
estimated ultimate recovery
1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Formation Evaluation, Shale Gas]

The amount of oil and gas expected to be economically recovered from a reservoir or field by the end of its
producing life. Estimated ultimate recovery can be referenced to a well, a field, or a basin.
excavation effect
That part of the effect of gas on the neutron porosity measurement that is not explained by differences in
hydrogen index. By using the concept of hydrogen index, the only significant contributor to the neutron porosity in
a gas zone is the liquid-filled porosity, since the hydrogen indices of gas and matrix are close to zero. However, the
resultant liquid-filled porosity is found to be too low. The error comes from treating the gas-filled porosity as
matrix. If this matrix is excavated and replaced with gas, the correct response can be predicted.
See: hydrogen index, neutron porosity
far water
Water that is far from the clay surface, as distinct from clay-bound water (or "near" water). The term is used in the
dual-water model. It includes the capillary-bound water and the free water.
See: clay-bound water, dual water, free water
fast diffusion
The rapid rate of diffusion of molecules in pore fluids during a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurement.
In fast diffusion, the hydrogen within a certain volume diffuses fast enough that only one T2 peak is observed for
the whole volume. This is the case in a single pore, because the surface relaxation is not strong enough for
observation of separate T2 peaks, for example, for water near the surface of a grain and water in the middle of the
pore. Fast diffusion is also considered to occur between most clay- and capillary-bound water, between normal
pores and micropores within some carbonates, and in some other systems.
See: clay-bound water, nuclear magnetic resonance measurement
fast formation
A formation where the velocity of the compressional wave traveling through the borehole fluid is less than the
velocity of the shear wave through the surrounding formation. In such conditions a shear head wave is generated,
so that standard techniques based on monopole transducers can be used to measure formation shear velocity. In
hard formations, several normal modes are excited in addition to the Stoneley and leaky modes.
Antonyms: slow formation
See: acoustic mode, compressional wave, head wave, leaky mode, shear wave, sonic log, sonic measurement
fast formation arrival
An early signal in a cement-bond log. In some formations, particularly carbonates of low porosity, it is possible that
the first acoustic signal to arrive at the receiver passes through the formation rather than through the casing, and
hence its amplitude is unrelated to the cement bond. This manifests itself by a shortening of the transmitter-to-
receiver traveltime and by anomalous patterns on the variable-density log. In such cases, it may be assumed that
the cement bond is good, as the signal would be unlikely to be transmitted through the formation with sufficient
amplitude to be detected if cement bond were poor.
See: variable-density log
fast neutron reaction
A neutron interaction in which the neutron is absorbed by the target nuclei, which then emit nuclear particles such
as alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, protons or additional neutrons. Fast neutron reactions have a small
probability of occurrence relative to the other principal interactions, except at high neutron energy.
interactions
fast-formation arrival
An early signal in a cement-bond log. In some formations, particularly carbonates of low porosity, it is possible that
the first acoustic signal to arrive at the receiver passes through the formation rather than through the casing, and
hence its amplitude is unrelated to the cement bond. This manifests itself by a shortening of the transmitter-to-
receiver traveltime and by anomalous patterns on the variable-density log. In such cases, it may be assumed that
the cement bond is good, as the signal would be unlikely to be transmitted through the formation with sufficient
amplitude to be detected if cement bond were poor.
See: variable-density log
fast-neutron reaction
A neutron interaction in which the neutron is absorbed by the target nuclei, which then emit nuclear particles such
as alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, protons or additional neutrons. Fast neutron reactions have a small
probability of occurrence relative to the other principal interactions, except at high neutron energy.
interactions
filtrate
1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Drilling Fluids]

The liquid that passes through a filter cake from a slurry held against the filter medium, driven by differential
pressure. Dynamic or static filtration can produce a filtrate.
Alternate Form: mud filtrate
See: bridging material, calcium test, chloride test, dynamic filtration, filtrate volume, formaldehyde, high-pressure,
high-temperature filtration test, low-pressure, low-temperature filtration test, potassium ion, relative filtrate
volume, spurt loss, total hardness test
filtrate slump
The downward vertical movement of filtrate with time after invasion. In hydrocarbon zones, the filtrate is heavier
than the formation fluid. Therefore, in a vertical well, gravity causes the filtrate to sink to the bottom of a
permeable zone, while the hydrocarbons move back to the borehole at the top. In a horizontal well, the mud
filtrate will sink below the well, leaving hydrocarbons above it. The amount of movement depends, among other
factors, on the time since invasion, the fluid mobilities and the difference in fluid densities. In water zones, the
direction of movement depends on the relative densities of filtrate and formation water. In the more usual case of
fresh filtrate and salty formation water, the filtrate will move upwards.
See: depth of invasion, formation fluid, formation water, step profile
first reading
The depth of the first reliable reading of a curve on a log. For the typical bottom-to-top survey, the curve readings
before the tool is picked up from the bottom of the hole are not reliable--they are straight lines that do not
represent the formation at the depth indicated. With several logging tools in a tool string, the first reading of each
curve will be at a different depth, depending on the measure point of each tool.
Antonyms: last reading
See: pick-up
fish
1. n. [Drilling]
Anything left in a wellbore. It does not matter whether the fish consists of junk metal, a hand tool, a length of
drillpipe or drill collars, or an expensive MWD and directional drilling package. Once the component is lost, it is
properly referred to as simply "the fish." Typically, anything put into the hole is accurately measured and sketched,
so that appropriate fishing tools can be selected if the item must be fished out of the hole.
See: back off, drill collar, fishing tool, sidetrack, washover pipe
2. vb. [Drilling]
To attempt to retrieve a fish from a wellbore. Where available, specially skilled individuals, aptly called fishermen,
are called onto location to direct and assist with the fishing operations. Depending on the type of fish, the manner
in which it was lost, regulatory requirements (for example a fish that includes a nuclear source, such as certain well
logging tools), and the value of the fish if recovered, fishing operations may be immediately successful or may be
attempted unsuccessfully for several days or even weeks.
The surface electrode used as the reference electrode for the spontaneous potential (SP) measurement. The metal
electrode is attached to the end of a long electric cable and typically placed in the mud pit, or, in the case of an
offshore rig, in the sea. The SP is a measurement of the natural electrical potential between an electrode in the
well and the fixed reference electrode on surface.
See: mud pit, shale baseline, spontaneous potential
fishing bell
Â Also known as the head, the device that connects the end of theÂ loggingÂ cableÂ or theÂ bridleÂ to the top of
the logging tool. It contains theÂ weak point, so that when the weak point is broken and the cable removed, the
uppermost assembly left in the hole is the head. The top of the head is specially designed to easeÂ fishingÂ of the
logging tool.
See: logging tool
flexural mode
A type of acoustic propagation along the borehole that is visualized as a shaking of the borehole across its
diameter. The flexural mode is excited by a dipole source, and measured by dipole receivers oriented in the same
direction. Its speed is chiefly a function of the formation shear velocity, the borehole size and fluid velocity, and
the frequency. It is used to estimate formation shear velocity, and is the only technique available in slow
formations where shear velocity is less than borehole-fluid velocity. In this situation, shear head waves are not
generated by a monopole source, so that standard monopole techniques cannot be used. The flexural wave is
sensitive to properties of the altered zone, as well as to formation anisotropy, whether intrinsic or stress-induced.
See: acoustic mode, altered zone, shear rate, sonic log, sonic measurement, Stoneley wave
fluoroscopy
A technique for imaging a core by moving a core between a source of X-rays and a fluorescent screen. The image
on the screen is intensified and recorded by a video camera.
See: computed tomography, core image, X-radiography
flushed zone
The volume close to the borehole wall in which all of the moveable fluids have been displaced by mud filtrate. The
flushed zone contains filtrate and the remaining hydrocarbons, the percentage of the former being the flushed-
zone water saturation, Sxo. In simple models, the flushed zone and the invaded zone are synonymous.
Synonyms: invaded zone
See: diameter of invasion, flushed-zone water saturation, formation water, hydrocarbon, invasion, water
saturation
flushed zone water saturation
The fraction of water in a given pore space in the flushed zone. It is expressed in volume/volume, percent or
saturation units and is given the symbol Sxo. Unless otherwise stated, the pore space concerned is usually the
effective porosity. If the pore space concerned is the total porosity, the saturation is more correctly known as the
total flushed-zone water saturation; or if it is the effective porosity, the effective flushed-zone water saturation.
See: effective porosity, flushed zone, moveable hydrocarbons, residual oil, total porosity, water saturation
flushed-zone water saturation

The fraction of water in a given pore space in the flushed zone. It is expressed in volume/volume, percent or
saturation units and is given the symbol Sxo. Unless otherwise stated, the pore space concerned is usually the
effective porosity. If the pore space concerned is the total porosity, the saturation is more correctly known as the
total flushed-zone water saturation; or if it is the effective porosity, the effective flushed-zone water saturation.
See: effective porosity, flushed zone, moveable hydrocarbons, moved hydrocarbons, residual oil, total porosity,
water saturation
formation
1. n. [Geology]
The fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. A body of rock that is sufficiently distinctive and continuous that it can
be mapped. In stratigraphy, a formation is a body of strata of predominantly one type or combination of types;
multiple formations form groups, and subdivisions of formations are members.
See: differential compaction, formation pressure, geologic map, geostatic pressure, isochore, isopach, lithostatic
pressure, permeability, relative age, structure map, tight, trap, underpressure
2. n. [Geology]
A surface land form.
See: geologic map
A general term for the rock around the borehole. In the context of formation evaluation, the term refers to the
volume of rock seen by a measurement made in the borehole, as in a log or a well test. These measurements
indicate the physical properties of this volume. Extrapolation of the properties beyond the measurement volume
requires a geological model.
formation evaluation
1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Shale Gas]

The measurement and analysis of formation and fluid properties through examination of formation cuttings or
through the use of tools integrated into the bottomhole assembly while drilling, or conveyed on wireline or
drillpipe after a borehole has been drilled. Formation evaluation is performed to assess the quantity and
producibility of fluids from a reservoir. Formation evaluation guides wellsite decisions, such as placement of
perforations and hydraulic fracture stages, and reservoir development and production planning.
formation exposure time

The time that has elapsed between the bit first penetrating a formation and a log being recorded opposite the
formation. In logging-while-drilling operations, this time is different for each log, since it depends on the drilling
rate and the distance between the bit and the particular logging sensor.
See: logging while drilling, time after bit
formation factor
The ratio of the resistivity of a rock filled with water (Ro) to the resistivity of that water (Rw). G.E. Archie postulated
that the formation factor (F) was a constant independent of Rw and solely a function of pore geometry (the Archie
equation I). It has since been shown that F is independent of Rw only for a certain class of petrophysically simple
rocks (Archie rocks). In rocks with conductive minerals, such as shaly sands, there is a more complex dependence.
In such cases, the ratio Ro/Rw is known as the apparent formation factor and may vary with Rw , temperature and
the type of ion in solution. The intrinsic formation factor is then defined as F corrected for the effect of shale, or
else the value of Ro/Rw at the limit of high salinity (low Rw ). The correction for the effect of shale depends on the
saturation equation used, for example Waxman-Smits, dual water, SGS or CRMM. Unless otherwise stated, the
term formation factor usually refers to the apparent formation factor. F has been related to porosity (phi) by
several formulae (Archie, Humble and others) that have the general expression F = a / phim, where a is a constant
and m the porosity exponent.
See: Archie equation, Archie rock, dual water, Humble formula, laminated sand, porosity exponent, tortuosity
formation water
1. n. [Geology]
Water that occurs naturally within the pores of rock. Water from fluids introduced to a formation through drilling
or other interference, such as mud and seawater, does not constitute formation water. Formation water, or
interstitial water, might not have been the water present when the rock originally formed. In contrast, connate
water is the water trapped in the pores of a rock during its formation, and may be called fossil water.
See: brine, connate water, fresh water, interstitial water, pore
Water in the undisturbed zone around a borehole. The resistivity and other properties of this water are used in the
interpretation of measurements made in the borehole or from the surface. Although formation water normally is
the same as the geological formation water, or interstitial water, it may be different because of the influx of
injection water.
See: Archie equation, connate water, formation factor, injection water, interstitial water, true resistivity
forward modeling
The technique of determining what a given sensor would measure in a given formation and environment by
applying a set of theoretical equations for the sensor response. Forward modeling is used to determine the general
response of most electromagnetic logging measurements, unlike nuclear measurements whose response is
determined mainly in laboratory experiments. Forward modeling is also used for interpretation, particularly in
horizontal wells and complex environments. In this case, iterative forward modeling is used. The set of theoretical
equations (the forward models) can be 1D, 2D or 3D. The more complex the geometry, the more factors can be
modeled but the slower the computing time.
See: Born method, iterative forward modeling
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
A technique for quantitative mineralogical analysis of a sample of rock by measuring the effect of midrange
infrared radiation transmitted through the sample. This radiation excites vibrations in the chemical bonds within
the mineral molecules at particular frequencies characteristic of each bond. The transmitted radiation is compared
with the spectral standards for a wide variety of minerals to determine the abundance of each mineral in the
sample. Typically, a core plug is ground finely and a small (approximately 1 g) representative sample selected and
dispersed in a potassium bromide matrix for the measurement.
Alternate Form: FTIR
See: core plug, X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
free fluid
Fluid in the pore space that can flow under normal reservoir conditions. This fluid may include water, oil or gas,
and will flow on production, injection or invasion. When the term is used in connection with nuclear magnetic
resonance measurements, it refers to the signal that occurs above a certain cutoff, typically 33 ms in sandstones
and 100 ms in carbonates. The source of this signal is free water and oil with a viscosity below about 60 cp in
sandstones, and 30 cp in carbonates. Note that, contrary to the sense of "free," this oil may or may not be residual
under normal reservoir conditions.
Alternate Form: free water
See: bound fluid, clay-bound water, effective porosity, magnetic resonance, total porosity
The volume of fluid (expressed in percent) that separates from a cement slurry when the slurry is left static. The
free fluid can be measured as specified in API Recommended Practice 10B. Free fluid is also known as free water.
Alternate Form: free water
free induction decay
In a nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, the decay, or relaxation, caused by dephasing in an
inhomogeneous magnetic field. Since this relaxation is not related to formation properties, it is unwanted and
corrected by using the CPMG pulse sequence.
See: free-induction decay, nuclear magnetic resonance
free water
1. n. [Geology]
Water that is mobile, available to flow, and not bound to surfaces of grains or minerals in rock.
2. n. [Drilling]
In cementing, any water in the slurry that is in excess of what is required to fully hydrate the Portland cement and
other additives. Free water can physically separate as a cement slurry sets. This separation tendency, especially in
the presence of a high-pressure gas-bearing formation, can impair zonal isolation, the primary job of the cement.
For that reason, the well designer usually specifies a maximum free-water content for the slurry.
See: cementing, portland cement
The aqueous phase that separates from a slurry or mixture of fluids. In cementing operations, free water is
undesirable since channels tend to form through the set cement, providing potential gas migration paths. When
processing reservoir fluids, the water that separates easily under gravity separation is known as free water. In
some cases, additional water may be locked in an emulsion, contributing to the aqueous phase but not available as
free water.
See: gas migration
Water in the pore space that can flow under normal reservoir conditions. When used in connection with nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements, free water is all the water that is not clay bound, capillary bound or in
mineral hydrates. The latter is in any case excluded as it relaxes too fast to be measured by NMR. When used in
connection with the dual-water model, the term means the far water.
Alternate Form: far water
See: bound water, clay-bound water, dual water, effective porosity, free fluid, magnetic resonance, total porosity
free-induction decay
In a nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, the decay, or relaxation, caused by dephasing in an
inhomogeneous magnetic field. Since this relaxation is not related to formation properties, it is unwanted and
corrected by using the CPMG pulse sequence.
See: nuclear magnetic resonance
fresh core
A core that is in the same state as when it was brought to the surface. A fresh core is sealed as soon as possible
after retrieval from the well to minimize the loss of fluids and exposure to air. The term implies that the core is
analyzed before being stored, after storage it is known as preserved core. Since the purpose is to minimize
alteration, a fresh core has often been drilled with a bland mud, either water- or oil-base, but with a minimum of
chemical additives and weighting material.
See: bland coring fluid, native state core, oil-base mud, preserved core, restored state core, routine core analysis,
water-base drilling fluid
fresh water
Formation water with low salinity. Water is considered fresh when its low conductivity makes the interpretation of
resistivity logs difficult. The salinity at which this becomes important depends on temperature and clay content,
among other factors, but is generally somewhere less than 10 ppk.
See: formation water, resistivity log
2. n. [Geology]
Water that is low in dissolved salt (< 2000 ppm).
See: brine, connate water, hydrostatic head, hydrostatic pressure, interstitial water
FTIR
A method for obtaining quantitative mineralogical analysis of a rock sample by measuring the effect of midrange
infrared radiation transmitted through the sample.
See: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
full waveform
A log or a recording in which the complete signal received at an acoustic transducer is recorded. With full-
waveform recording, it is possible to determine the slowness not only of the first arrival but also of later arrivals. In
borehole sonic logging, these may be the shear, flexural and Stoneley waves. The waveforms are recorded by an
array of receivers in an array-sonic tool, and processed with a suitable technique such as slowness-time coherence.
See: acoustic transducer, array sonic, flexural mode, pulse-echo, shear wave, Stoneley wave
Gal
The unit of acceleration commonly used in gravity surveying. 1 Gal (1000 milliGal or 106 microGal) = 1 cm/sec/sec.
See: gravity survey
gamma ray interactions
Phenomena resulting from the transfer of energy from a gamma ray to matter, usually to an electron. The
probability of a specific interaction occurring depends on the atomic number of the material and the energy of the
gamma ray. In formation evaluation, there are two types of interactions of interest: the photoelectric effect, which
indicates lithology, and Compton scattering, which depends on formation density. The third type of interaction,
pair production, occurs at energies above those used for logging.
See: Compton scattering, pair production, photoelectric effect, scintillation detector
gamma ray log
1. n. [Drilling]
A common and inexpensive measurement of the natural emission of gamma rays by a formation. Gamma ray logs
are particularly helpful because shales and sandstones typically have different gamma ray signatures that can be
correlated readily between wells.
See: signature
A log of the total natural radioactivity, measured in API units. The measurement can be made in both openhole
and through casing. The depth of investigation is a few inches, so that the log normally measures the flushed zone.
Shales and clays are responsible for most natural radioactivity, so the gamma ray log often is a good indicator of
such rocks. However, other rocks are also radioactive, notably some carbonates and feldspar-rich rocks. The log is
also used for correlation between wells, for depth correlation between open and cased hole, and for depth
correlation between logging runs. The gamma ray log was the first nuclear well log and was introduced in the late
1930s.
See: cased hole, corrected gamma ray, depth correlation, depth of investigation, flushed zone, logging run, natural
gamma ray spectroscopy, openhole, potassium, scintillation detector, thorium, uranium
gamma-gamma log
A measurement that uses a source of gamma rays and a detector of gamma rays. The term is synonymous with
density log, and is just an older name.
geochemical log
A log of elemental concentrations from which the geochemistry of the formation may be derived. Several logs
provide information on elemental weight concentrations: natural gamma ray spectroscopy, elemental capture
spectroscopy or pulsed neutron spectroscopy and aluminum activation. The combination of some or all of their
outputs is known as a geochemical log, since it provides information on most of the principal elements found in
sedimentary rocks. Pulsed neutron spectroscopy provides relative elemental yields, whereas absolute
concentrations are needed for quantitative results. Absolute concentrations can be derived by calibration to core
or by using a model such as the oxide-closure model. The absolute elemental concentrations can then be
converted into mineral concentrations using a model that defines what minerals are present. The first complete
geochemical logs were run in the mid 1980s.
See: aluminum activation log, elemental capture spectroscopy, natural gamma ray spectroscopy, oxide-closure
model, pulsed neutron spectroscopy log
geometrical factor
The response of a logging measurement as a function of distance from the tool. The geometrical factor can be
radial, reflecting the response perpendicular to the tool; vertical, reflecting the response along the tool axis; or
two-dimensional, reflecting both. It can also be a differential geometrical factor, which is the contribution to the
signal at a particular distance; or integrated, which is the sum of all signals from the tool to a particular distance.
The term geometrical factor was introduced for induction logging since it gave a convenient method for computing
the reading in a heterogeneous environment. For example, in an invaded formation the log reading, Clog, can be
written as: Clog = Gi * Cxo + (1 - Gi) * Ct where Gi is the geometrical factor for a diameter of invasion Di, and Cxo and
Ct are the conductivities of the invaded zone and the undisturbed zone. A true geometrical factor depends only on
the geometry of the volume concerned, which in practice is only true for induction logs at zero conductivity.
However, the term has come to be used for other cases and for other measurements even though the geometrical
factor depends significantly on formation properties. The correct term for these cases is the pseudogeometrical
factor.
See: pseudogeometrical factor, radial response, vertical response
GR
An abbreviation for gamma ray, usually with reference to the gamma ray log.
See: carbonate gamma ray, gamma ray log, natural gamma ray spectroscopy, potassium, thorium, uranium
grain density
1. n. [Geology]
The density of a rock or mineral with no porosity, also known as matrix density, commonly in units of g/cm3.
See: specific gravity
The density of the grains in a formation or core sample. As used in log and core analysis, the term 'grain' refers to
all the solid material in the rock, since, when interpreting the measurements, no effort is made to distinguish
grains from other solid material. The grain density of core samples is calculated from the measured dry weight
divided by the grain volume. In logs, grain density is calculated from the density log, using an estimate of porosity
and knowledge of the fluid content.
See: core plug, porosimeter, routine core analysis, whole core
gravity units
One-tenth of a milliGal: (10 g.u. = 1.0 mGal). Gravity units are sometimes used in old gravity maps.
guard electrode
An electrode on a laterolog sonde that focuses the current sent by the central current-emitting electrode (A0). The
guard electrode is held at the same potential as A0, thereby forcing the current from A0 to run approximately
perpendicular to the sonde into the formation, and preventing it from running up the borehole to a great extent.
guard log
A measurement made by a type of electrode device in which the current flow and hence the measurement is
focused in a disk that is concentric with and perpendicular to the sonde. The term usually refers to a Laterolog-3
device. Guard logs may be recorded by either wireline or measurements-while-drilling tools.
head
The device that connects the end of the logging cable or the bridle to the top of the logging tool. It contains the
weak point, so that when the weak point is broken and the cable removed, the uppermost assembly left in the
hole is the head. The top of the head is specially designed to ease fishing of the logging tool, and is also known as
the fishing bell.
Alternate Form: fishing bell
See: logging tool
head wave
1. n. [Geophysics]
A wave entering a relatively high-velocity medium whose incident and refracted angle is the critical angle.
Synonyms: refraction
See: angle of incidence, critical angle, refractor
A pressure wave in the borehole fluid generated by the passage of either the acoustic compressional wave or the
shear wave in the formation. These pressure waves are recorded by logging tools using hydrophones and are the
basis for the sonic log. A head wave is generated only when the compressional or the shear speed is faster than the
fluid speed. In slow formations, where the shear speed is less than the fluid speed, no shear head wave is created.
See: acoustic mode, sonic measurement
heading
The first page or pages on a log print, which include information about the well, the survey, the mud properties
and other relevant data.
See: insert, repeat section, tail, track
horizontal resistivity
The resistivity of a formation measured by flowing current in a horizontal plane. In anisotropic formations the
horizontal and vertical resistivities are different. In a vertical well, wireline induction logs and measurements-
while-drilling propagation logs measure the horizontal resistivity, whereas laterologs measure the horizontal
resistivity with some component of the vertical. In deviated and horizontal wells, all these logs measure some
mixture of both vertical and horizontal resistivity.
See: deviated hole, electrical anisotropy, parallel resistivity, perpendicular resistivity
housing
The outside steel case of a cartridge or a sonde in a wireline logging tool. The housing isolates the electronics,
power supplies and sensors from the borehole and bears the pressure burden.
See: wireline log
Humble formula
A particular relation between the formation factor (F) and porosity (phi) proposed by the Humble Oil Company.
The original formula was expressed as F = 0.62 / phi2.15. A nearly equivalent form, with a simpler porosity exponent,
is F = 0.81 / phi2. These formulae are considered most suitable for relatively high-porosity, sucrosic, or granular,
rocks. See Winsauer WO, Shearin HM, Masson PH and Williams M: Resistivity of Brine-Saturated Sands in Relation
to Pore Geometry, AAPG Bulletin 36 (1952): 253-277.
See: Archie equation, formation factor, porosity exponent
hybrid scale
An early scale used for the presentation of resistivity logs. The scale has two parts, equally divided about a
midpoint. The left part is linear in resistivity, for example 0 on the left edge to 50 ohm-m at the midpoint. The right
part is linear in conductivity, from 0 on the right to 1/50 = 20 mS/m at the midpoint. In this way, it was possible to
display the complete range of resistivity in one track. It was subsequently replaced by the logarithmic scale.
See: resistivity log
hydrogen index
The number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume divided by the number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume of
pure water at surface conditions. The hydrogen index (HI) is thus the density of hydrogen relative to that of water.
It is a key factor in the response of a neutron porosity log.
See: excavation effect, neutron porosity
ID
1. n. [Drilling]
Inside or inner diameter. Casing, tubing and drillpipe are commonly described in terms of inside diameter and
outside diameter (OD).
Antonyms: outside diameter
Alternate Form: inside diameter
A particular type of induction log that was designed to read deep into the formation while maintaining reasonable
vertical resolution. The deep induction log (ID) is based on the measurement of a 6FF40 array and was combined
with a medium induction array to form the dual induction tool. Versions built after 1968 had a small extra
transmitter coil to reduce the borehole effect on the medium induction while changing the deep response very
little. The midpoint of the ID integrated radial geometrical factor is at 62 in. [157 cm] radius for high resistivities,
reducing to 45 in. [114 cm] at 1 ohm-m. ID receives very little signal from within 20 in. [50 cm] of the tool. The
vertical resolution is about 8 ft [2.4 m] but varies with local conditions.
Alternate Form: deep induction
IM
A particular type of induction log designed to read an intermediate distance into the formation while maintaining
good vertical resolution. The medium-induction array of eight coils (IM) is produced by three transmitters and five
receivers running at 20 kHz. A small fourth transmitter coil was added in tools built since 1968. The midpoint of the
integrated radial geometrical factor is 30 in. [76 cm] in radius. The vertical resolution is about 4 ft [1.2 m] but varies
with conditions. The IM is combined with a deep-induction log on the same sonde to produce a dual induction log.
Alternate Form: medium induction
imbibition

The process of absorbing a wetting phase into a porous rock. Imbibition is important in a waterdrive reservoir
because it can advance or hinder water movement, affecting areal sweep. Spontaneous imbibition refers to the
process of absorption with no pressure driving the phase into the rock. It is possible for the same rock to imbibe
both water and oil, with water imbibing at low in situ water saturation, displacing excess oil from the surface of the
rock grains, and oil imbibing at low in-situ oil saturation, displacing excess water. An imbibition test is a comparison
of the imbibition potential of water and oil into a rock. The wettability of the rock is determined by which phase
imbibes more.
See: drainage, oil-wet, water-wet
in situ fluid analysis
Analysis performed by downhole tools to determine physical and chemical properties of fluids. Typical analyses
that can be performed downhole include basic density and viscosity measurements at sampling pressure and
temperature.
in situ viscosity evaluation
Downhole measurement of fluid viscosity, typically performed either with logging tools based on nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) or with sampling tools such as formation testers.
See: in-situ viscosity evaluation
induced gamma ray spectroscopy
The principle of an activation log, which is a log of elemental concentrations derived from the characteristic energy
levels of gamma rays emitted by a nucleus that has been activated by neutron bombardment. The term is often
used to refer specifically to the pulsed neutron spectroscopy measurement.
See: activation log, elemental capture spectroscopy, geochemical log, neutron interactions, pulsed neutron
spectroscopy log, spectrum
induction

Related to a wireline log of formation resistivity based on the principle of inducing alternating current loops in the
formation and measuring the resultant signal in a receiver. In the simplest device, an alternating current of
medium frequency (10?s of kHz) is passed through a transmitter coil, thereby inducing an alternating magnetic
field in the formation. This field creates current loops in the formation. The loops produce their own magnetic
field, which induce a current when they cross the receiver coil. This signal is proportional to the conductivity of the
formation, with contributions from different regions of the formation summing approximately in conductivity. As a
result, the induction log is most accurate at high conductivities and with resistive invasion. However, below about
1 ohm-m skin effect becomes important. Practical induction-logging tools use arrays of several coils, designed to
achieve a specific focusing and depth of investigation. These arrays are either hardwired, such as the 6FF40, 5FF40
and others, or consist of several simple arrays that are combined in software (an array induction). For many years,
the most common induction log was the 6FF40. This was often combined with the medium induction and a shallow
laterolog or microresistivity log so as to correct for the effect of invasion, assuming a step profile. Induction logs
also need borehole correction and shoulder-bed correction. In older tools, this was accomplished through multiple
correction charts, while modern tools include software for this purpose. H.G. Doll introduced the first practical
induction-logging technique in 1949. See Doll HG: Introduction to Induction logging and Application to Logging of
Wells Drilled with Oil Base Mud Journal of Petroleum Technology 1, no. 6 (June 1949): 148-162.
See: array induction, cave effect, dual induction, electrical anisotropy, polarization horn, R-signal, resistivity log,
skin effect, X-signal
induction electrical survey
A combination of a 6FF40 induction log with an electrode measurement such as a 16-in. [40-cm] short normal. In
some cases other induction arrays, such as the 5FF27, may have been used. The use of both measurements in the
induction electrical survey (IES) gave a qualitative indication of invasion.
See: dual induction
inelastic neutron scattering
A neutron interaction in which part of the kinetic energy lost by a neutron in a nuclear collision excites the nucleus.
The excited nucleus will usually emit characteristic gamma rays upon de-excitation. Inelastic neutron scattering is
possible only if the neutron energy exceeds a characteristic threshold for the element. Inelastic neutron scattering
is the principle behind the carbon-oxygen log, which is used to determine water saturation behind casing.
See: chemical neutron source, fast-neutron reaction, neutron capture, neutron generator, neutron interactions,
water saturation
inertial resistance
The extra resistance of a porous medium to fluid flow, beyond that predicted by Darcy's law, caused by local
accelerations within the tortuous pore volume. The inertial resistance is proportional to the fluid density times the
flow rate. The inertial resistance is significant with gas because flow rates can be high. In laboratory measurements
of permeability, inertial resistance can be important for high-permeability samples where high flow rates are
needed to have significant pressure gradients. The effect is corrected by using the Forchheimer equation and
making measurements at several flow rates (often through an unsteady state test).
See: core plug, permeameter, pressure gradient, routine core analysis, steady state, unsteady state
insert
A section on a log print that gives the scales of the curves displayed and the depth scale. There usually is an insert
at the beginning and end of each interval surveyed.
See: heading, repeat section, tail, track
in-situ fluid analysis
Analysis performed by downhole tools to determine physical and chemical properties of fluids. Typical analyses
that can be performed downhole include basic density and viscosity measurements at sampling pressure and
temperature.
interwell tomography
1. n. [Geophysics, Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

A technique for measuring a signal that is broadcast from a transmitter or source located in one well, to a
receiver array placed in a neighboring well. This technique is used to create a display of formation
properties such as acoustic velocity and attenuation, seismic reflectivity, or electromagnetic resistivity in
the area between wells. The reservoir-scale data acquired with this technique can be used to bridge the
gap between wellbore measurements and surface measurements.
See: interwell tomography, tomography
More Details:
invaded zone
The volume close to the borehole wall in which some or all of the moveable fluids have been displaced by mud
filtrate. It consists of the flushed zone and the transition zone or annulus. In simple models, the invaded zone and
the flushed zone are considered synonymous.
Antonyms: undisturbed zone, virgin zone
See: diameter of invasion, flushed zone, invasion, transition zone
invasion
The process by which mud filtrate, and sometimes whole mud, enters a permeable formation. The mud filtrate
displaces some or all of the moveable fluids in the formation, leaving an invaded zone. The invasion process is
complex. It is generally considered to start with a short initial spurt loss when the bit penetrates the rock. During
this period, invasion depends on formation permeability, among other factors. A mudcake is soon formed, after
which invasion is either described as dynamic, when mud is being circulated, or static, when it is not. In both cases,
the volume of invasion depends little on formation properties and strongly on other factors such as mudcake
permeability and differential pressure. However, the profile of the invasion front within the formation, both
vertically and radially, does depend on formation properties. With high permeability and with different densities of
filtrate and formation fluid, gravity can cause vertical movement of the filtrate, leading to different depths of
invasion at the top and bottom of a zone. With two moveable phases (oil and water) and differing permeabilities,
an annulus can be formed. The radial profile from the wellbore out to the undisturbed zone depends on
permeability, with lower permeabilities leading to sharper transitions.
See: filtrate slump, flushed zone, formation fluid, invaded zone, moved hydrocarbons, transition zone, undisturbed
zone
Pertaining to the influence of invasion on the response of logging measurements. For example, an invasion
correction is the correction made to a deep-reading measurement such as an induction log for the effect of the
invaded zone. The correction is based on a suitable invasion model, such as a step profile or transition zone model.
See: annulus
inverse

Referring to a type of conventional electrical log in which the current-emitting and the current-return electrodes (A
and B) are placed close together on the sonde, with the measure electrode (M) several feet away and the measure
return (N) far away. This arrangement is sensitive to the potential gradient between A and B. The spacing is
defined by the distance from M to the midpoint between A and B. The most common spacing is 18 ft, 8 in. [5.7 m].
The lateral gives a sharper response to a bed boundary than a normal but also introduces several artifacts that can
give misleading results.
See: electrical log, lateral
inverse filter
Generally, a finite impulse response (FIR) filter that has been designed to transform the usually irregular vertical
response functions of raw measurements into a smooth, well-behaved response function such as a Gaussian
response or a Kaiser window function. The criteria for designing inverse filters can include vertical response, depth
of investigation and near-field (cave effect) response. Inverse filters have been used for many years to improve the
response of induction arrays.
See: deconvolution, response matched
irreducible water
The lowest water saturation, Swi, that can be achieved in a core plug by displacing the water by oil or gas. The state
is usually achieved by flowing oil or gas through a water-saturated sample, or spinning it in a centrifuge to displace
the water with oil or gas. The term is somewhat imprecise because the irreducible water saturation is dependent
on the final drive pressure (when flowing oil or gas) or the maximum speed of rotation (in a centrifuge). The
related term connate water saturation is the lowest water saturation found in situ.
See: centrifuge
isolated porosity
The pore volume not connected to the pore network. Isolated porosity can be significant in volcanic rocks and
some carbonates, for example as vugular, moldic and intraparticle porosity.
See: effective porosity, free water, microporosity, small-pore water, total porosity
iterative forward modeling
The use of repeated forward modeling of a logging tool response to produce modeled logs that very closely match
the measured logs. The final model is then the log analyst?s best estimate of the formation properties. Iterative
forward modeling is a hand-operated inversion. The technique is used mainly for laterologs and induction logs
when the formation or the environment are complex, so that the environmental effects cannot be separated and
treated individually by automatic inversion. Iterative forward modeling allows the log analyst to use local
knowledge and petrophysics to select between the many possible solutions that are mathematically correct. These
cases occur most often in horizontal wells, or vertical wells with the combined effects of invasion and large
resistivity contrast between beds.
See: forward modeling
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K coefficient
With reference to the spontaneous potential log, the coefficient, K, in the equation relating electrochemical
potential to the chemical activity of the mud filtrate and formation water. Ec = - K log10 (aw / amf). The coefficient is
equal to kT/e in which k is the Boltzman's constant, e is the electron charge and T is the absolute temperature. K is
equal to 71 at 25oC [77oF], 12 from the liquid junction potential and 59 from the membrane potential for a perfect
shale.
See: liquid-junction potential, membrane potential, mud filtrate, static spontaneous potential
lag
1. n. [Geophysics]
The delay or difference in the arrival time of seismic events that can result from weathering of the rocks or
variations in geologic structures in the subsurface.
See: arrival, event, weathering
2. n. [Geophysics]
A term used in seismic processing to describe the interval between the zero-time of a crosscorrelation between
two traces and the point of maximum correlation.
See: crosscorrelation, trace
3. n. [Geophysics]
The time delay of the onset of one sinusoidal oscillation, or frequency component of a trace, relative to another.
Also known as a "phase-lag."
See: sinusoid
The distance between the static measure point and the dynamic measure point of a logging measurement. For
nuclear logs and any others that must be recorded over a significant time period, there is a difference between the
measure point with the tool stationary and moving. If the tool is moving during this period, the effective center of
measurement will be a certain distance from the point at which the measurement started. This distance is the lag.
The lag depends on the logging speed and the sampling interval.
See: sampling interval, vertical resolution
laminated sand
A particular model, or equation, for deriving the water saturation from resistivity and other logs. The model
assumes a laminar shale distribution and considers the total resistivity to be the sum in parallel of the sand and
shale laminae.
See: Archie equation, saturation equation
laser diffraction
A technique for analyzing the grain-size distribution of a core sample. A cleaned, disaggregated sample is dispersed
in a carrier fluid. The grains cause diffraction of a laser beam directed through the fluid. The angle of scattering is
inversely proportional to the particle size, while the intensity of scattering is proportional to the number of
particles. Laser diffraction also may be referred to as laser sieve analysis.
See: carrier fluid, sieve analysis
last reading
The depth of the last reliable reading of a log. For the normal bottom-to-top survey, the last reliable reading often
occurs just before the logging tool enters the casing. With several logging tools in a tool string, the last readings
will be at different depths, depending on the measure point of each measurement.
Antonyms: first reading
See: logging tool
lateral

Referring to a type of conventional electrical log in which the current-emitting and the current-return electrodes (A
and B) are placed close together on the sonde, with the measure electrode (M) several feet away and the measure
return (N) far away. This arrangement is sensitive to the potential gradient between A and B. The spacing is
defined by the distance from M to the midpoint between A and B. The most common spacing is 18 ft, 8 in. [5.7 m].
The lateral gives a sharper response to a bed boundary than a normal but also introduces several artifacts that can
give misleading results.
See: electrical log
leaky mode
A type of acoustic energy that propagates in one direction while being confined in the other two directions, in this
case by the borehole wall. Leaky modes can be considered as multiply reflected and constructively interfering
waves propagating in the borehole. Each time a compressional wave hits the borehole wall, part of the energy is
reflected into the borehole, while the rest is converted to compressional or shear energy that radiates into the
formation, hence the term 'leaky'. Leaky modes are dispersive, starting at a certain cutoff frequency with the
formation compressional velocity and increasing towards the borehole fluid velocity at high frequency. In slow
formations, where no head wave is generated because the borehole fluid is faster than the formation
compressional wave, the low-frequency end of the leaky mode can be used to determine formation compressional
velocity. The term 'hybrid mode' is used to describe a form of leaky mode that is associated with an altered zone.
See: acoustic mode, altered zone, flexural mode, head wave, normal mode, Stoneley wave, tube wave
limestone compatible scale
Display ranges chosen for the density and neutron porosity logs such that the two curves will overlay at all porosity
values providing the matrix is pure calcite and the pores are filled with fresh water. The most common overlay
spans two tracks, with the density reading from 1.95 to 2.95 g/cm3, and the neutron in limestone porosity units
from 0.45 to −0.15 vol/vol.
See: fresh water, limestone, limestone porosity unit, neutron porosity, sandstone porosity unit, sandstone-
compatible scale, track
limestone porosity unit
A transform from raw log data chosen so that a log recorded in these units will give the correct porosity of the
formation, providing the matrix is pure calcite and the pores are filled with fresh water. The unit, which may be in
vol/vol or p.u., is most commonly used for neutron porosity logs but may also be used for density and acoustic
logs. The definition is strictly true only if all borehole and other environmental corrections have been applied.
See: acoustic log, fresh water, limestone-compatible scale, neutron porosity, sandstone porosity unit, sandstone-
compatible scale
limestone-compatible scale
values providing the matrix is pure calcite and the pores are filled with fresh water. The most common overlay
spans two tracks, with the density reading from 1.95 to 2.95 g/cm3, and the neutron in limestone porosity units
from 0.45 to −0.15 vol/vol.
See: fresh water, limestone, limestone porosity unit, neutron porosity, sandstone porosity unit, sandstone-
compatible scale, track
liquid saturation method
A technique for measuring the pore volume of a core sample from the difference in its weight when dry and when
saturated with a liquid. A clean, dry sample is weighed and then evacuated for several hours in a vacuum chamber,
flushing with CO2 to remove remaining air if necessary. A de-aerated liquid is introduced into the chamber and
pressured to ensure complete saturation. The saturated sample is then weighed again. The difference in weight
divided by the density of the liquid is the connected, or effective, pore volume. It is also common to measure the
weight of the sample when immersed in the liquid. The grain and bulk volume can then be calculated as in the
buoyancy method.
See: Boyle's Law Double Cell, Boyle's Law Single Cell, buoyancy method, core plug, mercury displacement method,
liquid-junction potential
The electromagnetic force generated by a boundary between solutions of high salinity and low salinity. In a
permeable formation, a liquid-junction potential is generated between the invaded zone and the undisturbed zone
when the mud filtrate and the formation water have different salinities. This potential is one component of the
electrochemical potential, from which the spontaneous potential log is derived. The other, much larger component
is the membrane potential at a shale boundary. The liquid-junction potential is reduced if there is clay in the
permeable formation, since this generates another, local membrane potential with the opposite polarity to the
liquid-junction potential.
See: electrokinetic potential, formation water, invaded zone, K coefficient, membrane potential, spontaneous
potential, undisturbed zone
log
1. vb. [Reservoir Characterization, Formation Evaluation, Drilling]

To continuously measureÂ formationÂ properties with electrically powered instruments to infer
properties and make decisions about drilling andÂ productionÂ operations. The record of the
measurements, typically a long strip of paper, is also called a log. Measurements include electrical
properties (resistivity andÂ conductivityÂ at various frequencies),Â sonicÂ properties, active and passive
nuclear measurements, dimensional measurements of the wellbore,Â formation
fluidÂ sampling,Â formation pressureÂ measurement, wireline-conveyedÂ sidewallÂ coring tools, and
others. For wireline measurements, theÂ loggingÂ tool (or sonde) is lowered into the open wellbore on a
multiple conductor, contra-helically armored wireline cable. Once the tool string (link to ID 2964) has
reached the bottom of the interval of interest, measurements are taken on the way out of the wellbore.
This is done in an attempt to maintain tension on theÂ cableÂ (which stretches) as constant as possible
forÂ depth correlationÂ purposes. (The exception to this practice is in certain hostile environments in
which the tool electronics might not survive the downhole temperatures for long enough to allow the tool
to be lowered to the bottom of the hole and measurements to be recorded while pulling the tool up the
hole. In this case, "down log" measurements might be conducted on the way into the well, and repeated
on the way out if possible.) Most wireline measurements are recorded continuously while the sonde is
moving. Certain fluid sampling and pressure-measuring tools require that the sonde be stopped,
increasing the chance that the sonde or the cable might become stuck.Â Logging while drillingÂ (LWD)
tools take measurements in much the same way as wireline-logging tools, except that the measurements
are taken by a self-contained tool near the bottom of theÂ bottomhole assemblyÂ and are recorded
downward (as the well is deepened) rather than upward from the bottom of the hole.
See: hostile environment, wireline log
More Details:
• Real-Time Openhole Evaluation
The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical quantities in or around a well.
The term comes from the word "log" used in the sense of a record or a note. Wireline logs are taken
downhole, transmitted through a wireline to surface and recorded there. Measurements-while-drilling
(MWD) and logging while drilling (LWD) logs are also taken downhole. They are either transmitted to
surface by mud pulses, or else recorded downhole and retrieved later when the instrument is brought to
surface. Mud logs that describe samples of drilled cuttings are taken and recorded on surface.
Synonyms: well log
See: real-time data, recorded data
More Details:
•
logarithmic mean
The average value of a set of measurements, calculated by taking the logarithms of the measurements, finding the
arithmetic average of the logarithms and then taking the antilogarithm of the average.
logging

Pertaining to a log.
See: LWD, measurement after drilling, MWD, wireline
More Details:
• Defining Logging: Discovering the Secrets of the Earth
logging run
An operation in which a logging tool is lowered into a borehole and then retrieved from the hole while recording
measurements. The term is used in three different ways. First, the term refers to logging operations performed at
different times during the drilling of a well. For example, Run 3 would be the third time logs had been recorded in
that well. Second, the term refers to the number of times a particular log has been run in the well. Third, the term
refers to different runs performed during the same logging operation. For example, resistivity and nuclear logs may
be combined in one tool string and recorded during the first run, while acoustic and nuclear magnetic resonance
logs may be recorded during the second run.
See: composite log
logging tool
The downhole hardware needed to make a log. The term is often shortened to simply "tool." Measurements-
while-drilling (MWD) logging tools, in some cases known as logging while drilling (LWD) tools, are drill collars into
which the necessary sensors and electronics have been built. Wireline logging tools are typically cylinders from 1.5
to 5 in. [3.8 to 12.7 cm] in diameter. Since the total length is more than can be conveniently handled in one piece,
the logging tool is divided into different sections that are assembled at the wellsite. These sections consist of
cartridges and sondes. Different measurements can be combined to make up a tool string. The total length of a
tool string may range from 10 to 100 ft [3 to 30 m] or more. Flexible joints are added in long tool strings to ease
passage in the borehole, and to allow different sections to be centralized or eccentralized. If the total length is very
long, it is often preferable to make two or more logging runs with shorter tool strings.
Synonyms: tool string
See: bridle, cable, drill collar, head, log, torpedo
logging unit
The cabin that contains the surface hardware needed to make wireline logging measurements. The logging unit
contains at the minimum the surface instrumentation, a winch, a depth recording system and a data recorder. The
surface instrumentation controls the logging tool, processes the data received and records the results digitally and
on hard copy. The winch lowers and raises the cable in the well. A depth wheel drives the depth recording system.
The data recorder includes a digital recorder and a printer.
See: camera
long spacing sonic log
Log recorded by aÂ sonicÂ tool with a longer transmitter-to-receiverÂ spacingÂ (generally 10 to 15 ft) than a
standard sonic tool. The rock near the borehole is sometimes altered by drilling fluids, stress relief, or both,
causing a thin zone whose velocity is lower than that of the true formation. With standard spacings, the wave
traveling through the altered zone may arrive first at the receiver, since this zone is closer to both transmitter and
receiver. The increased spacing permits the wave traveling through the true formation to arrive first and be
measured. The depth of investigation varies with slowness and transmitter-receiver spacing but is of the order of 2
to 3 ft. An increased transmitter-to-receiver spacing also allows better separation of waveforms relating to
different acoustic waves, such as compressional, shear and Stoneley arrivals.
See: full waveform, sonic log, sonic measurement
longitudinal relaxation
During a nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, the loss of energy by hydrogen atoms in a rock as they align
themselves with the static magnetic field. The atoms behave like spinning bar magnets so that when a static
magnetic field is applied, they initially precess about the field. Then, through interactions with nuclei and
electrons, they lose energy, or relax, and align themselves with the magnetic field. The relaxation of the hydrogen
atoms does not occur immediately but grows exponentially with a time constant T1. There are two mechanisms for
longitudinal relaxation, surface relaxation and bulk relaxation.
See: relaxation time, transverse relaxation
long-spacing sonic log
Log recorded by aÂ sonicÂ tool with a longer transmitter-to-receiverÂ spacingÂ (generally 10 to 15 ft) than a
standard sonic tool. The rock near the borehole is sometimes altered by drilling fluids, stress relief, or both,
causing a thin zone whose velocity is lower than that of the true formation. With standard spacings, the wave
traveling through the altered zone may arrive first at the receiver, since this zone is closer to both transmitter and
receiver. The increased spacing permits the wave traveling through the true formation to arrive first and be
measured. The depth of investigation varies with slowness and transmitter-receiver spacing but is of the order of 2
to 3 ft. An increased transmitter-to-receiver spacing also allows better separation of waveforms relating to
different acoustic waves, such as compressional, shear and Stoneley arrivals.
See: full waveform, sonic log, sonic measurement
m
The exponent of porosity, m, in the relation of formation factor, F, to porosity, phi. In the Archie
equation, F = 1 / phim, H. Guyod termed m the cementation exponent because m was observed to be
higher in cemented rock. The more general term is porosity exponent.
Reference:Guyod H: Fundamental Data for the Interpretation of Electric Logs, The Oil Weekly 115, no.
38 (October 30, 1944): 21-27.
magnetic mud
A drilling mud with a significant magnetic susceptibility. The magnetic susceptibility may affect the response of
some logging measurements, mainly the induction X signal and nuclear magnetic resonance logs. The most
common magnetic muds contain iron filings or magnetite. Other paramagnetic minerals such as hematite and
ilmenite may contribute, although their magnetic susceptibility is considerably less.
magnetic resonance
1. n. [Reservoir Characterization, Formation Evaluation]

A phenomenon by which a nucleus absorbs electromagnetic radiation of a specific frequency in the presence of a
strong magnetic field. Isidor Isaac Rabi (1898 to 1988), an American physicist born in Austria, first detected
magnetic resonance in 1938. Since then, magnetic resonance has been applied to the detection of light atoms
(such as hydrogen in hydrocarbons) and as a nondestructive way to study the human body.
Alternate Form: NMR
maximum recorded temperature
The highest temperature recorded on a logging run. It is usually taken to be the bottomhole temperature for use in
log interpretation. However, on the first logging run or runs after circulation, the mud may be hottest some
distance above the bottom of the hole.
measure point
The position on a logging tool that best represents the center of the vertical response of the measurement. For a
simple single transmitter-single receiver measurement, the measure point is half-way between the transmitter and
receiver.
See: first reading, reference point
The point on a logging tool at which it is considered the logging measurement is made. It is the center of the
vertical response, or in some cases an alternative, more suitable point. For measurements that must be recorded
over a significant time period, there is a difference between the static and dynamic measure point, known as the
lag.
See: vertical resolution
measurement after drilling
Measurements made by measurements-while-drilling (MWD) tools subsequent to the initial bit run. MWD logs are
recorded while drilling the well. However, these tools can also record logs at later times when the drillstring is in
the hole. This may be while pulling out after drilling, or on a subsequent bit run or circulating trip. The latter is also
known as logging while tripping.
See: formation exposure time
measurement error
The difference between the true value and that which is reported from a measurement.
See: accuracy, random error, sampling error, systematic error
measurement range
The range of values for a quantity for which the error of a measuring instrument is intended to lie within specified
limits. Within this range, the measurement has a well-defined accuracy or applicability. Outside the range, it does
not. It is distinct from the operating range, within which the instrument will provide a measurement but the error
is not well-defined.
See: repeatability, reproducibility
medium induction
A particular type of induction log designed to read an intermediate distance into the formation while maintaining
good vertical resolution. The medium-induction array of eight coils (IM) is produced by three transmitters and five
receivers running at 20 kHz. A small fourth transmitter coil was added in tools built since 1968. The midpoint of the
integrated radial geometrical factor is 30 in. [76 cm] in radius. The vertical resolution is about 4 ft [1.2 m] but varies
with conditions. The IM is combined with a deep-induction log on the same sonde to produce a dual induction log.
Alternate Form: IM
See: resistivity log
membrane potential
The electromagnetic force generated across an ion-selective membrane when solutions on either side of the
membrane have different salinities. Shales and clays are cationic membranes, since they allow the passage of
cations, such as Na+, but not anions, such as Cl-. When the drilling mud in the borehole and the formation water
have different salinities, a membrane potential is generated at the boundary between a shale and a permeable
formation. This potential is one component of the electrochemical potential, from which the spontaneous
potential (SP) log is derived. The other, much smaller component is the liquid-junction potential. The membrane
potential is reduced if the shale is not a good cationic membrane, or in other words has a low cation-exchange
capacity. A membrane potential may also be generated across the mudcake if there is no flushed zone; for
example if the mud filtrate has moved vertically since invasion took place, and by clay within a shaly sand, but with
the opposite polarity to the normal SP potentials. The membrane potential is also used in core analysis to
determine the cation-exchange capacity of a sample. In this case, the clay within the sample is the ion-selective
membrane, and the potential generated across it is related to the cation-exchange capacity per unit pore volume,
Qv. As a method of measuring Qv, the technique is faster than the multiple salinity method, and more
representative of the in-situ value than destructive methods such as conductometric titration. However, care is
needed in making the measurement and deriving the appropriate Qv.
See: electrokinetic potential, K coefficient, static spontaneous potential
mercury displacement method
A technique for measuring the bulk volume of a core sample by observing the displacement of mercury in a
chamber. The chamber is first filled to a reference level and the volume recorded. The sample is introduced and
the new volume recorded. The difference is the bulk volume of the sample. If the sample is weighed, its bulk
density can also be calculated. Mercury is used because it is strongly nonwetting and therefore does not enter the
pore space.
See: Boyle's Law Double Cell, Boyle's Law Single Cell, buoyancy, core plug, liquid saturation method, porosimeter,
routine core analysis, summation of fluids method
microcylindrical log
An electrode device with small spacings from which the current flow, and hence the measurement, is focused a
short distance into the formation. The microcylindrical log measures the resistivity of the flushed zone with
minimum influence from the mudcake or the undisturbed zone. The electrodes are mounted on a pad that is
pressed against the borehole wall. The current is focused both parallel and perpendicular to the tool axis. Three
measurements are made, each with a different depth of investigation. These measurements are combined to solve
for the mudcake and flushed-zone resistivity.
See: electrode resistivity, flushed zone, microresistivity
microlaterolog
short distance into the formation. Introduced in 1953, the microlaterolog measures the resistivity of the flushed
zone with minimum influence from the mudcake or the undisturbed zone. The central current emitting electrode
(A0) is surrounded by a guard electrode that emits sufficient current to focus the current from A0 a certain
distance into the formation. The electrodes are mounted on a pad that is pressed against the borehole wall. In a
typical tool design, 90% of the signal comes from within 3 in. [7.6 cm] of the pad, ensuring that the undisturbed
zone rarely has an effect.
See: electrode resistivity, flushed zone, microresistivity
microlog
An unfocused electrode device with small spacings, mounted on a pad and pressed against the borehole wall. The
typical microlog has one current-emitting electrode and two measure electrodes in line above it, one at 1 in. [2.5
cm], the other at 2 in. [5 cm]. The potential at the 2-in. electrode gives a 2-in. micronormal log. The difference in
potential between the two measure electrodes gives a 1-in. x 1-in. microinverse log. The micronormal reads
deeper than the microinverse. Introduced in 1948, the microlog is used to detect permeable zones across which a
mudcake has formed. Since the mudcake is usually less resistive than the invaded zone, the microinverse will read
less than the micronormal opposite permeable zones. If the resistivity and thickness of the mudcake are known, it
is possible to estimate the resistivity of the flushed zone. The log is usually presented on a linear scale, chosen to
emphasize the lower readings often seen opposite permeable zones with mudcake.
See: lateral, microresistivity, normal
microporosity
That part of the pore space that has a characteristic dimension less than 1 micron. In general, this includes not only
very small pores but also the porosity associated with surface roughness. The water in this pore space is part of the
capillary-bound water and the small-pore water. Water in micropores is not expected to flow on production. The
term is also defined as porosity that cannot be seen at magnifications less than 50x.
See: effective porosity, small-pore water, total porosity
microresistivity
Related to a log of the resistivity of the flushed zone recorded by a wireline electrode device. The device is
mounted on a pad and pressed against the borehole wall. Several designs exist, for example microlog,
microlaterolog, proximity log, microspherical log and microcylindrical log. The microlog, being unfocused, is a more
qualitative measurement. The other measurements are focused. They try to minimize the effect of mudcake and
rugose hole, while reading as short a distance as possible into the formation, to remain unaffected by the
undisturbed zone. They are usually combined with a laterolog or induction log to correct the latter for the effects
of invasion and for saturation determination in quick-look ratio methods. The logs are presented on a logarithmic
scale from, for example 0.2 to 2000 ohm-m.
See: electrode resistivity, flushed zone, microcylindrical log, microspherical log, proximity log, spherical focusing,
undisturbed zone
microspherical log
short distance into the formation. The microspherical log measures the resistivity of the flushed zone with
minimum influence from the mudcake or the undisturbed zone. The principle of spherical focusing is used. The
electrodes are mounted on a pad that is pressed against the borehole wall. In a typical tool design, 90% of the
signal comes from within 3 in. [7.6 cm] of the pad, ensuring that the undisturbed zone rarely has an effect.
See: electrode resistivity, microresistivity
minute mark
An annotation made on a log print once every minute. By reading the depth interval between each minute mark, it
is possible to check the logging speed. Minute marks are typically made by blanking out the vertical grid line on the
far left of the print for a short interval every minute.
monopole

Describing a type of acoustic transducer that emits or receives energy in all directions. Monopole transducers are
used in standard sonic logs, and also in array-sonic logs to record shear and Stoneley waves.
See: acoustic mode, dipole, S-wave, sonic measurement, Stoneley wave
moveable hydrocarbons
The volume of hydrocarbons per unit volume of rock that can be moved on production, measured in
volume/volume or porosity units. Typically only primary and secondary production methods are considered when
estimating moveable hydrocarbons. Moveable hydrocarbons are not necessarily the same as moved hydrocarbons,
which are those hydrocarbons that have been moved by invasion.
See: flushed-zone water saturation, moved hydrocarbons, residual oil, water saturation
moved hydrocarbons
The volume of hydrocarbons per unit volume of rock that have been moved by invasion, measured in
volume/volume or porosity units. Moved hydrocarbons are not necessarily the same as moveable hydrocarbons,
which are those hydrocarbons that can be moved on primary and secondary production.
See: flushed-zone water saturation, residual oil, water saturation
mud filtrate
1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Drilling Fluids]

The liquid that passes through a filter cake from a slurry held against the filter medium, driven by differential
pressure. Dynamic or static filtration can produce a filtrate.
See: bridging material, calcium test, chloride test, dynamic filtration, filtrate volume, formaldehyde, high-pressure,
high-temperature filtration test, low-pressure, low-temperature filtration test, potassium ion, relative filtrate
volume, spurt loss, total hardness test
mudcake

Synonyms: filter cake
See: deflocculated mud, drilling fluid, dynamic filtration, filter-cake quality, filter-cake thickness, filtrate, filtrate
volume, openhole completion, relative filtrate volume, resin, static filtration
multiple salinity
A technique used for the determination of the electrical properties of a shaly core sample. The sample is flushed
with brines of different salinities, and the conductivity determined after each flush. A plot of the conductivity of
the sample (C0) versus the conductivity of the brine (Cw) gives the excess conductivity caused by clays and other
surface conductors. Then, using a suitable model (Waxman-Smits, dual water, SGS) it is possible to determine the
intrinsic formation factor and porosity exponent, and the cation-exchange capacity.
See: cation-exchange capacity, conductometric titration, dual water, formation factor, porosity exponent
The exponent, n, in the relation of water saturation, Sw, to resistivity index, I (I = Sw-n) for a sample of rock. It
expresses the effect on the resistivity of desaturating the sample, or replacing water with a non-conductive fluid. In
petrophysically simple, water-wet rocks (Archie rocks), n is constant for different values of Sw, and a single average
n can be found for a particular reservoir or formation. A typical value is 2. In more complex rocks, n changes with
Sw, although often being about 2 near Sw = 1. In rocks with conductive minerals, such as shaly sands, n becomes
increasingly lower as Sw is reduced. This change is negligible for high-salinity waters, but increases as the salinity is
reduced. In shaly-sand saturation equations, such as Waxman-Smits, dual water, SGS and CRMM, n is the intrinsic
n, determined with high-salinity water or with the clay effects removed. The variation of I with Sw is then
predicted, with varying success, by the different equations. In carbonates with multiple pore types, such as
fractures, vugs, interparticle porosity and microporosity, n may change as each pore type is desaturated. A
different n may be used for a different range of Sw. In all cases, n increases if any pores are oil-wet. Values up to 8
have been reported in very oil-wet rocks.
native state core
A core taken so as to preserve the in-situ water saturation of the rock. A native-state core is usually drilled with oil-
base mud or crude oil from the same reservoir.
See: fresh core, restored state core, water saturation
natural gamma ray spectroscopy

The technique of measuring the spectrum, or number and energy, of gamma rays emitted as natural radioactivity
by the formation. There are three sources of natural radioactivity in the Earth: 40K, 232Th and 238U, or potassium,
thorium and uranium. These radioactive isotopes emit gamma rays that have characteristic energy levels. The
quantity and energy of these gamma rays can be measured in a scintillation detector. A log of natural gamma ray
spectroscopy is usually presented as a total gamma ray log and the weight fraction of potassium (%), thorium
(ppm) and uranium (ppm). The primary standards for the weight fractions are formations with known quantities of
the three isotopes. Natural gamma ray spectroscopy logs were introduced in the early 1970s, although they had
been studied from the 1950s.
See: carbonate gamma ray, gamma ray log
neutron capture
A neutron interaction in which the neutron is absorbed by the target nucleus, producing an isotope in an excited
state. The activated isotope de-excites instantly through the emission of characteristic gamma rays. Neutron
capture, also called thermal capture, usually occurs at low thermal energies at which the neutrons have about the
same energy as the surrounding matter, typically below 0.4 eV (0.025 eV at room temperature). Some elements
are better thermal absorbers than others. Neutron capture is an important principle behind the pulsed neutron
capture log, the elemental capture spectroscopy log, the pulsed neutron spectroscopy log and the thermal neutron
porosity measurement.
Synonyms: thermal capture
See: chemical neutron source, fast-neutron reaction, inelastic neutron scattering, neutron generator, neutron
interactions
neutron generator
A device for producing high-energy neutrons by using a charged particle accelerator. Neutron generators are used
in various pulsed neutron devices and some neutron porosity measurements. In a typical device, deuterium (2D)
and tritium (3T) ions are accelerated towards a target also containing the same isotopes. When 2D and 3T collide,
they react to produce a neutron with an energy of about 14.1 MeV. The first neutron generators were built in the
late 1950s and soon led to the first pulsed neutron capture log.
Synonyms: accelerator source
See: activation log, chemical neutron source, neutron interactions, neutron porosity, pulsed neutron spectroscopy
log
neutron interactions
Phenomena involving the transfer of energy from neutrons to nuclei. The reaction rate of neutrons with matter
depends on the density of neutrons, their velocity, the nuclear density and the particular interaction cross section.
There are four principal neutron interactions that affect formation evaluation: elastic neutron scattering, inelastic
neutron scattering, fast-neutron reactions and neutron capture.
See: chemical neutron source, elastic neutron scattering, fast-neutron reaction, inelastic neutron scattering,
neutron capture, neutron generator
neutron log
Normally synonymous with a neutron porosity log. However, the term is sometimes broadened to include an
activation log.
See: activation log, chemical neutron source, neutron generator, neutron porosity
neutron porosity

Referring to a log of porosity based on the effect of the formation on fast neutrons emitted by a source.
Hydrogen has by far the biggest effect in slowing down and capturing neutrons. Since hydrogen is found
mainly in the pore fluids, the neutron porosity log responds principally to porosity. However, the matrix
and the type of fluid also have an effect. The log is calibrated to read the correct porosity assuming that
the pores are filled with fresh water and for a given matrix (limestone, sandstone or dolomite). It is
presented in units of porosity (vol/vol or p.u.) for the matrix chosen. Older logs were presented in counts
per second or API units. The depth of investigation is several inches, so that the log reads mainly in the
flushed zone. The neutron porosity log is strongly affected by clay and gas. Hydrogen occurs in clays and
hydrated minerals as well as pore fluids. Gas has a low hydrogen density, so that gas zones have a very
low apparent porosity. The measurement is based on either thermal or epithermal neutron detection.
Thermal neutrons have about the same energy as the surrounding matter, typically less than 0.4 eV, while
epithermal neutrons have higher energy, between about 0.4 and 10 eV. Being a statistical measurement,
the precision is greatest at high count rates, which in this case occurs at low porosity. Neutron porosity
logs were introduced in the early 1940s. The first tools were known as neutron-gamma tools, since the
detector measured the gamma rays emitted on capture. Neutron-neutron tools, using a thermal neutron
detector were introduced in about 1950.
See: alpha processing, compensated neutron log, epithermal neutron porosity measurement, excavation
effect, flushed zone, hydrogen index, limestone porosity unit, limestone-compatible scale, thermal
neutron porosity measurement
More Details:
• Neutron Porosity Logging Revisited
• Defining Porosity: How Porosity Is Measured
NMR
1. n. [Geophysics]
Pertaining to a measurement of the nuclear magnetic properties of formation hydrogen. The basic core
and log measurement is the T2 decay, presented as a distribution of T2 amplitudes versus time at each
sample depth, typically from 0.3 ms to 3 s. The T2 decay is further processed to give the total pore
volume (the total porosity) and pore volumes within different ranges of T2. The most common volumes
are the bound fluid and free fluid. A permeability estimate is made using a transform such as the Timur-
Coates or SDR permeability transforms. By running the log with different acquisition parameters, direct
hydrocarbon typing and enhanced diffusion are possible.
Alternate Form: nuclear magnetic resonance
See: magnetic resonance
More Details:
• Trends in NMR Logging
sample depth, typically from 0.3 ms to 3 s. The T2 decay is further processed to give the total pore
volume (the total porosity) and pore volumes within different ranges of T2. The most common volumes
are the bound fluid and free fluid. A permeability estimate is made using a transform such as the Timur-
Coates or SDR permeability transforms. By running the log with different acquisition parameters, direct
Alternate Form: nuclear magnetic resonance
More Details:
normal

Referring to a type of conventional electrical log in which the current emitting electrode (A) and the measure
electrode (M) are placed close together on the sonde, and the current return electrode (B) and the measure
reference electrode (N) far away. The response is determined mainly by the distance between A and M. The larger
AM, the deeper the measurement, but the poorer the bed boundary response. Although many distances have
been used, the most common are 16 in. [40 cm], known as the short normal, and 64 in. [162 cm], known as the
long normal.
See: electrical log
normal mode
A type of acoustic energy that propagates in one direction while being confined in the other two directions, in this
case by the borehole wall. Normal modes are propagated as reflections off the borehole wall, and exist only in
hard rock. They are highly dispersive, starting with the formation shear velocity at a certain cutoff frequency and
decreasing at high frequencies to the borehole fluid velocity. Below the cutoff frequency, they do not exist. Normal
mode #0 is often considered to be the tube wave and starts at zero frequency. Normal mode #1 is called the
pseudoRayleigh, and starts at around 5 kHz. The other normal modes start at increasingly higher frequencies.
See: acoustic mode, flexural mode, hard rock, leaky mode, normal, Stoneley wave
nuclear magnetic resonance
1. n. [Reservoir Characterization, Formation Evaluation]

A phenomenon by which a nucleus absorbs electromagnetic radiation of a specific frequency in the
presence of a strong magnetic field. Isidor Isaac Rabi (1898 to 1988), an American physicist born in
Austria, first detected magnetic resonance in 1938. Since then, magnetic resonance has been applied to
the detection of light atoms (such as hydrogen in hydrocarbons) and as a nondestructive way to study the
human body.
Alternate Form: NMR
sample depth, typically from 0.3 ms to 3 s. The T2 decay is further processed to give the total pore volume
(the total porosity) and pore volumes within different ranges of T2. The most common volumes are the
bound fluid and free fluid. A permeability estimate is made using a transform such as the Timur-Coates or
SDR permeability transforms. By running the log with different acquisition parameters, direct
Alternate Form: NMR
More Details:
nuclear magnetic resonance measurement
A measurement of the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) properties of hydrogen in the formation. There
are two phases to the measurement: polarization and acquisition. First, the hydrogen atoms are aligned in
the direction of a static magnetic field (B0). This polarization takes a characteristic time T1. Second, the
hydrogen atoms are tipped by a short burst from an oscillating magnetic field that is designed so that they
precess in resonance in a plane perpendicular to B0. The frequency of oscillation is the Larmor frequency.
The precession of the hydrogen atoms induces a signal in the antenna. The decay of this signal with time
is caused by transverse relaxation and is measured by the CPMG pulse sequence. The decay is the sum of
different decay times, called T2. The T2 distribution is the basic output of a NMR measurement. The
NMR measurement made by both a laboratory instrument and a logging tool follow the same principles
very closely. An important feature of the NMR measurement is the time needed to acquire it. In the
laboratory, time presents no difficulty. In a log, there is a trade-off between the time needed for
polarization and acquisition, logging speed and frequency of sampling. The longer the polarization and
acquisition, the more complete the measurement. However, the longer times require either lower logging
speed or less frequent samples.
See: dephasing, diffusion relaxation, echo spacing, logging tool, longitudinal relaxation, nuclear magnetic
resonance, polarization time, relaxation time
More Details:
oil wet
1. adj. [Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

Pertaining to the preference of a solid to be in contact with an oil phase rather than a water or gas phase. Oil-wet
rocks preferentially imbibe oil. Generally, polar compounds or asphaltenes deposited from the crude oil onto
mineral surfaces cause the oil-wet condition. Similar compounds in oil-base mud also can cause a previously water-
wet rock to become partially or totally oil-wet.
See: drainage, imbibition, water-wet, wettability
oilfield battery
An electrochemical source that provides electrical power to a downhole or surface tool used for determining the
location or assisting in the extraction of hydrocarbons. Unlike a conventional battery, an oilfield battery must
safely provide power sufficient to enable a tool to perform as specified, even on extended jobs. Designed with
rugged external packaging to fit within a confined tool space, it must tolerate extreme temperatures while
withstanding high shock and vibration. Its internal chemistry must also accommodate a long shelf life.
oil-wet
1. adj. [Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

Pertaining to the preference of a solid to be in contact with an oil phase rather than a water or gas phase. Oil-wet
rocks preferentially imbibe oil. Generally, polar compounds or asphaltenes deposited from the crude oil onto
mineral surfaces cause the oil-wet condition. Similar compounds in oil-base mud also can cause a previously water-
wet rock to become partially or totally oil-wet.
See: drainage, imbibition, water-wet, wettability
oxide closure model
A model for converting relative elemental yields from a pulsed neutron spectroscopy log to absolute weight
concentrations using the assumption that the sum of all oxides in the rock matrix is 1. The model is based on the
observation that, with few exceptions, sedimentary minerals are oxides, so that the sum of the dry weight percent
of all oxides must be 100%. The weight percent of an oxide can be calculated from the dry weight percent of the
cation by knowing the chemical formula (for example, SiO2 from Si). The absolute dry weight percent, W, of
element i is given by Wi = F * Yi / Si where F is the unknown normalization factor, Yi is the measured spectral
gamma ray yield and Si is the tool sensitivity to that element, measured in the laboratory. The dry weight percent
of the oxide is then Oi = F* Xi * Yi / Si where Xi is the oxide association factor, given by the chemical formula. Since
the sum of all Oi equals 1, it is possible to calculate F and determine each Wi .
See: elemental capture spectroscopy, geochemical log, natural gamma ray spectroscopy
oxide-closure model
A model for converting relative elemental yields from a pulsed neutron spectroscopy log to absolute weight
concentrations using the assumption that the sum of all oxides in the rock matrix is 1. The model is based on the
observation that, with few exceptions, sedimentary minerals are oxides, so that the sum of the dry weight percent
of all oxides must be 100%. The weight percent of an oxide can be calculated from the dry weight percent of the
cation by knowing the chemical formula (for example, SiO2 from Si). The absolute dry weight percent, W, of
element i is given by Wi = F * Yi / Si where F is the unknown normalization factor, Yi is the measured spectral
gamma ray yield and Si is the tool sensitivity to that element, measured in the laboratory. The dry weight percent
of the oxide is then Oi = F* Xi * Yi / Si where Xi is the oxide association factor, given by the chemical formula. Since
the sum of all Oi equals 1, it is possible to calculate F and determine each Wi .
See: elemental capture spectroscopy, geochemical log, natural gamma ray spectroscopy
pad
1. n. [Drilling]
A temporary drilling site, usually constructed of local materials such as gravel, shell or even wood. For some long-
drilling-duration, deep wells, such as the ultradeep wells of western Oklahoma, or some regulatory jurisdictions
such as The Netherlands, pads may be paved with asphalt or concrete. After the drilling operation is over, most of
the pad is usually removed or plowed back into the ground.
2. n. [Drilling]
A fluid used to initiate hydraulic fracturing that does not contain proppant.
That part of a wireline logging tool that is pressed firmly against the borehole wall. The pad holds sensors that are
focused in one direction and must be as close as possible to the borehole wall. The density detectors and the
microresistivity electrodes are examples of sensors that must be placed on pads. Some pads are a rigid part of the
logging tool. Others have articulated joints attaching them to the logging tool, with a backup arm to press the pad
against the borehole wall.
See: sidewall, sonde, wireline log
pair production
A gamma ray interaction in which the gamma ray, or photon, is converted into an electron and a positron when
the gamma ray enters the strong electric field near the nucleus of an atom. The gamma ray energy must equal at
least the rest mass of an electron and a positron (1.022 MeV) for the interaction to be possible. Following pair
production, the positron will annihilate with an electron, emitting two gamma rays of 0.511 MeV. The highest
probability of occurrence is at high gamma ray energy, above 10 MeV, and in a material of high atomic number.
See: Compton scattering, photoelectric effect, scintillation detector
parallel resistivity
The resistivity of a formation measured by flowing current parallel to the bedding planes. In anisotropic
formations, the parallel and perpendicular resistivities are different.
See: electrical anisotropy, horizontal resistivity, vertical resistivity
pass
With reference to logging, an operation in which a logging tool is lowered into a borehole and then retrieved from
it while recording measurements.
See: composite log, logging run
PEF
A log of photoelectric absorption properties. The log measures the photoelectric absorption factor, Pe, which is
defined as (Z/10) 3.6 where Z is the average atomic number of the formation. Pe is unitless, but since it is
proportional to the photoelectric cross section per electron, it is sometimes quoted in barns/electron. Since fluids
have very low atomic numbers, they have very little influence, so that Pe is a measure of the rock matrix
properties. Sandstones have low Pe, while dolomites and limestones have high Pe. Clays, heavy minerals and iron-
bearing minerals have high Pe. Thus, the log is very useful for determining mineralogy. In interpretation, PEF is
normally converted to the simpler volumetric cross section, U in barns/cm3, by taking the product of PEF and
density. The log is recorded as part of the density measurement. The depth of investigation is of the order of one
inch, which is normally in the flushed zone. PEF can be affected by heavy minerals such as barite in the mudcake or
mud filtrate. PEF logs were introduced in the late 1970s.
See: azimuthal density, density measurement, flushed zone, photoelectric effect
permanent datum
The level to which all subsurface depths in an area are referred, normally the mean sea level. In individual wells,
the depth is measured from the depth reference. However, in order to compare data between wells it is important
to have a valid, area wide reference for comparison. This is the permanent datum level.
See: depth wheel, first reading, last reading, log
permeameter
An apparatus for measuring the permeability of a core sample. Measurements are made either by placing the
sample in a chamber (also known as a core holder), or by placing a probe on the surface of the sample. Core-holder
measurements are made either with gas or liquid, and either in steady state or unsteady-state conditions. Other
variables include the confining pressure and the direction of measurement, which can be axial (along the axis of a
cylindrical core sample), transverse (perpendicular to the axis), or radial (to the center of a hollow cylinder). In
probe measurements, gas is injected into the sample under either steady- or unsteady-state conditions. Probe
permeameters are also known as minipermeameters.
See: core plug, inertial resistance, routine core analysis, steady state, unsteady state, whole core
permittivity
1. n. [Geophysics]
The ability of a material to store a charge from an applied electrical field without conducting electricity.
Synonyms: electrical permittivity
See: dielectric, electromagnetic method
The degree to which a medium resists the flow of electric charge, defined as the ratio of the electric displacement
to the electric field strength. It is more common to use the relative dielectric permittivity.
Synonyms: dielectric constant, dielectric permittivity
See: dielectric propagation log, electromagnetic propagation, propagation resistivity
perpendicular resistivity
The resistivity of a formation measured by flowing current perpendicular to the bedding planes. In anisotropic
formations, the parallel and perpendicular resistivities are different.
See: electrical anisotropy, horizontal resistivity, vertical resistivity
phase shift
The change in position of the peaks of a sinusoidal electromagnetic wave as it passes through the formation. If the
sinusoidal wave picked up by two receivers a certain distance apart in a formation are compared, it is found that
the wave has been attenuated and shifted in time. The shift is known as a phase shift. The term is used in
particular with reference to the propagation resistivity log and the electromagnetic propagation log.
See: electromagnetic propagation measurement, phase-shift resistivity, propagation resistivity measurement
phase shift resistivity
The ability of the formation to resist electrical conduction, as derived from the change in position of the peaks of
an electromagnetic wave generated in a propagation resistivity measurement. At the frequencies used, the phase
shift depends mainly on the resistivity of the material with a small dependence on dielectric permittivity,
particularly at high resistivity. Common practice is to transform the phase shift to resistivity assuming that the
dielectric permittivity is related to resistivity by a simple algorithm. The transform also depends on
transmitter/receiver spacings and tool design. For a 2-MHz measurement, a typical measurement range is 0.2 to
200 ohm-m. Above 200 ohm-m, the dielectric effects become too variable and it is preferable to use the dielectric
resistivity.
See: attenuation resistivity, dielectric resistivity, phase shift, polarization horn, propagation resistivity
phase-shift resistivity
The ability of the formation to resist electrical conduction, as derived from the change in position of the peaks of
an electromagnetic wave generated in a propagation resistivity measurement. At the frequencies used, the phase
shift depends mainly on the resistivity of the material with a small dependence on dielectric permittivity,
particularly at high resistivity. Common practice is to transform the phase shift to resistivity assuming that the
dielectric permittivity is related to resistivity by a simple algorithm. The transform also depends on
transmitter/receiver spacings and tool design. For a 2-MHz measurement, a typical measurement range is 0.2 to
200 ohm-m. Above 200 ohm-m, the dielectric effects become too variable and it is preferable to use the dielectric
resistivity.
See: attenuation resistivity, dielectric resistivity, phase shift, polarization horn, propagation resistivity
photoelectric effect
A gamma ray interaction in which the gamma ray is fully absorbed by a bound electron. If the energy transferred
exceeds the binding energy to the atom, the electron will be ejected. Normally, the ejected electron will be
replaced within the material and a characteristic X-ray will be emitted with an energy that is dependent on the
atomic number of the material. The highest probability for this effect occurs at low gamma ray energy and in a
material of high atomic number. The photoelectric effect is the principle behind the PEF log, which identifies
lithology.
See: Compton scattering, cross section
Pickett plot
A double logarithmic plot of a resistivity measurement on the x-axis versus a porosity measurement on the y-axis.
The plot is named after G.R. Pickett. The plot is based on taking the logarithm of the Archie equation. Points of
constant water saturation (Sw) will plot on a straight line with negative slope of value m. Water zones define the
lowermost line on the plot. Since Sw = 1, the water resistivity can be determined from a point on the line. Once the
water line is established, other parallel lines can be drawn for different Sw, assuming a constant n (usually 2). Other
data can then be plotted and interpreted in terms of Sw. The same technique can be applied to the flushed zone,
using flushed-zone measurements. See Pickett GR: "A Review of Current Techniques for Determination of Water
Saturation from Logs," paper SPE 1446, presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Denver, Colorado,
USA, May 23-24, 1966; SPE Journal of Petroleum Technology (November 1966): 1425-1435.
See: Archie equation, flushed zone, water saturation
pickup
The depth at which the tool string is picked up off the bottom of the well during a wireline logging survey. Pick-up
can be observed by an increase in cable tension and by the start of activity in the log curves. When the logging tool
is lowered to the bottom of the well, it is common practice to spool in some extra cable. When the cable is pulled
back out, the tool remains stationary before it is picked up off the bottom. During this time the log readings are
static but the depth, which is recorded by the movement of the cable, is changing.
See: depth wheel, first reading, wireline log
pick-up
The depth at which the tool string is picked up off the bottom of the well during a wireline logging survey. Pick-up
can be observed by an increase in cable tension and by the start of activity in the log curves. When the logging tool
is lowered to the bottom of the well, it is common practice to spool in some extra cable. When the cable is pulled
back out, the tool remains stationary before it is picked up off the bottom. During this time the log readings are
static but the depth, which is recorded by the movement of the cable, is changing.
See: depth wheel, first reading, wireline log
play back
To generate a log from digital data some time after the actualÂ acquisitionÂ of the data. This log is distinct from
theÂ acquisition log. Some of the parameters forÂ processingÂ the log may or may not be different from those of
the acquisition log.
playback
A log that has been generated from digital data some time after the actual acquisition of the data. It is distinct
from the acquisition log. Some of the parameters for processing the log may or may not be different from those of
the acquisition log.
polarization horn
The effect on a propagation resistivity or induction log of charge buildup at the boundary between two formation
layers with different dielectric properties. In a vertical well with horizontal layers, the current loops generated by
the tool in the formation are parallel to the layers and do not cross bed boundaries. However, with an apparent dip
between borehole and formation, the loops cross the bed boundaries and generate a charge buildup at the
boundaries. The charge buildup acts like a secondary transmitter that increases the measured resistivity. The result
is a spike to high resistivity as the tool crosses the bed boundary. In deviated or horizontal wells, polarization horns
on measurements-while-drilling propagation logs often are used to detect a bed boundary. The spike increases
with apparent dip and resistivity contrast between beds. The magnitude of polarization spikes varies with tool type
and spacing, being larger for the propagation tools.
See: attenuation resistivity, dielectric resistivity, phase-shift resistivity, propagation resistivity measurement,
relative dielectric permittivity
polarization time
The time allotted for the alignment of hydrogen atoms with the static magnetic field during a nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) measurement. The alignment of hydrogen atoms follows an exponential rule such that after a
polarization time PT the percentage aligned is 100*(1 ? e-PT/T1) where T1 is their longitudinal relaxation time. An
infinite polarization time is therefore needed to align every hydrogen atom, but 95% are aligned after a time of
3*T1. Typical polarization times for a standard NMR log are between 1 and 4 s.
See: nuclear magnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, wait time
pore throat
In an intergranular rock, the small pore space at the point where two grains meet, which connects two larger pore
volumes. The number, size and distribution of the pore throats control many of the resistivity, flow and capillary-
pressure characteristics of the rock.
See: effective porosity, microporosity, small-pore water, total porosity
porosimeter
An instrument for measuring the pore volume, and hence the porosity, of a core sample. The term is also used for
some instruments that actually measure grain volume, such as the Boyle?s Law Double-Cell method. Pore volume
is then obtained from the difference between bulk volume and grain volume. Pore volume is most commonly
measured directly by Boyle's Law Single-Cell method, summation of fluids or liquid saturation. Bulk volume is most
commonly measured by buoyancy, mercury displacement or a physical measurement of size (calipering); grain
volume by Boyle?s law Double-Cell method or disaggregation of the sample. Except for disaggregation, all
techniques determine the effective porosity, in the sense of all but the isolated pores.
See: core plug, effective porosity, routine core analysis, whole core
porosity exponent
The exponent, m, in the relation of formation factor (F) to porosity (phi). For a single sample, F is related to phi
using the Archie equation F = 1 / phim, with m being the only coefficient needed. In this case, m has been related to
many physical parameters, but above all to the tortuosity of the pore space. In theory, it can range from 1 for a
bundle of tubes to infinity for porosity that is completely unconnected. For a simple packing of equal spheres, m =
1.5. With a more tortuous pore space or more isolated pores, m increases, while with fractures or conductive
solids, m decreases. As a general average for typical reservoir rocks, m is often taken as 2. For a group of rock
samples, it is common practice to find a relationship between F and phi that uses two coefficients (F = a / phim). In
this case m, like a, becomes an empirical constant of best fit between F and phi, and may take a wide range of
values. In complex formations, such as shaly sands or carbonates with multiple pore types, a constant m does not
give good results. One solution is to vary m, with the variability related to parameters such as porosity, shaliness,
or rock texture, or else determined directly from logs in zones where the water saturation is known or can be
computed from a nonresistivity measurement such as electromagnetic propagation. In shaly sands, the preferred
solution is to use a saturation equation, such as Waxman-Smits, dual water, SGS or CRMM, in which m is defined as
the intrinsic m, determined from the intrinsic formation factor at high salinities or after correction for the effect of
shale. In carbonates with multiple pore types, such as fractures, vugs, interparticle porosity and microporosity, one
solution is to use equations with different porosity exponents for each pore type. The volume of each pore type
must then be determined from logs or borehole images.
See: Archie equation, dual water
porosity unit
A unit equal to the percentage of pore space in a unit volume of rock. It is abbreviated to p.u. and lies between 0
and 100.
See: effective porosity, isolated porosity, microporosity, total porosity
porous plate technique
A method for desaturating a core sample by placing one end in capillary contact with a porous plate and applying
gas or oil under pressure to the remaining surfaces. The liquid in the original fully saturated sample is expelled
through the porous plate. At different pressure stages, the sample is weighed to determine the loss of liquid, and
the gas or oil pressure increased. Desaturation continues until no more weight loss is observed, at which time the
sample is at irreducible water saturation. Core samples are desaturated to measure, for example, capillary
pressure, irreducible water saturation, resistivity index or nuclear magnetic resonance response.
See: centrifuge, nuclear magnetic resonance, resistivity index
potassium
An element with an atomic number of 19. The 40K isotope is radioactive, decaying with the emission of a single
gamma ray of 1.46 MeV with a half-life of 1.3 * 109 years to give a stable isotope of argon. Potassium is the largest
source of natural radioactivity. It occurs in illite, alkali feldspars, micas and some evaporite minerals. It also occurs
in some drilling mud systems. The 40K isotope is only a small fraction, about 0.012%, of the total potassium, the
main isotope being 39K, which has an abundance of about 1.7% in the Earth's crust. For the purposes of logging, the
total potassium is calculated from the measured quantity of 40K and scaled in percent by weight. It is a valuable aid
in determining the mineral content of a formation.
See: gamma ray log, natural gamma ray spectroscopy, thorium, uranium
precision
The closeness of agreement between the results obtained by applying a measurement procedure several times on
identical materials and under prescribed measurement conditions. The smaller the random part of experimental
error, the more precise the measurement procedure. (ISO) In logging, the term usually describes the repeatability
of a statistical measurement, such as a nuclear log. The precision must then refer to a particular set of conditions,
for example, the speed of logging and the formation properties.
See: accuracy, alpha processing, reproducibility
preserved core
A core that has been preserved in the same state as when it was brought to the surface. The term implies that the
core has been stored for a period before analysis. If this has not been the case, it is known as fresh core. The goal
of preservation is to maintain the original fluid content, fluid distribution, rock wettability and mechanical
integrity. Preserved cores are typically sealed and protected from mechanical damage. Depending on the core and
the objective, they may also be frozen or placed in humidity ovens. Preservation may be wet, in which the core is
submerged in a suitably prepared brine, or dry, without any fluid.
See: native state core, restored state core, routine core analysis
propagation resistivity
A measurements-while-drilling log of formation resistivity. The log normally contains at least one attenuation and
one phase-shift resistivity reading. In many cases there will be multiple curves of both, the difference being the
depth of investigation. For the same nominal depth of investigation, the attenuation resistivity reads deeper than
the phase-shift resistivity and is less affected by invasion, but more affected by surrounding beds and apparent dip.
The attenuation measurement has a poorer vertical resolution and is less affected by anisotropy. Depths of
investigation and vertical resolution of both measurements vary with the average formation resistivity. Although
depths of investigation are less than with wireline resistivity logs, the invasion at the time of measurement is
usually small and it is possible to derive the resistivity of the undisturbed zone.
See: attenuation resistivity, depth of investigation, dielectric resistivity, electromagnetic propagation, horizontal
resistivity, phase-shift resistivity, propagation resistivity measurement, resistivity log, undisturbed zone, vertical
resistivity, vertical resolution
propagation resistivity measurement
A measurement of the formation resistivity made on drillpipe at a frequency in the range of 100 kHz to 10 GHz,
most commonly 2 MHz. The basic measurement is accomplished using a transmitter and two receivers. At these
frequencies, the response is best explained as the propagation of a wave. Thus, the phase shift and attenuation of
the wave between the receivers are measured and transformed to give the phase shift and the attenuation
resistivity. In practice, multiple transmitters may be used to obtain different depths of investigation and achieve
borehole compensation. The wavelength is such that the borehole has a minor effect, but one for which correction
may be needed.
See: attenuation resistivity, dielectric resistivity, horizontal resistivity, phase shift, phase-shift resistivity,
polarization horn, propagation resistivity, relative dielectric permittivity, resistivity log, vertical resistivity
propagation time
A measurement of the high frequency (about 1 GHz) dielectric properties of the formation. In a typical tool, a
microwave transmitter is placed a few inches below two receivers separated by 4 cm [1.6 in.]. At this frequency,
the response is best explained as the propagation of a wave. Thus the phase shift and attenuation of the wave
between the receivers are measured and transformed to give the log measurements of propagation time and
attenuation. Because of the short spacings, the measurement has excellent vertical resolution and reads within
inches of the borehole wall except at high resistivity. Different transmitter and receiver spacings and orientations
are used, leading to different arrays, such as the endfire array and the broadside array. An ideal measurement
would give the plane wave properties of the formation. However, the geometry of the measurement precludes
this, so that a correction, known as the spreading-loss correction, is needed for the attenuation and to a much
smaller extent for the propagation time. The measurement is also affected by the dielectric properties and
thickness of the mudcake. Borehole compensation is used to correct for sonde tilt or a rough borehole wall.
Synonyms: electromagnetic propagation measurement
See: conductivity, electromagnetic propagation, filter cake, relative dielectric permittivity, spreading loss
proximity log
short distance into the formation. The proximity log measures the resistivity of the flushed zone with minimum
influence from the mudcake or the undisturbed zone. The central current-emitting electrode (A0) is surrounded by
a guard electrode that emits sufficient current to focus the current from A0 a certain distance into the formation.
The electrodes are mounted on a pad that is pressed against the borehole wall. In a typical tool design, 90% of the
signal comes from within 5 to 10 in. [13 to 25 cm] of the pad. This is deeper than the microlaterolog, which ensures
that the mudcake has less effect but means that the proximity log is more often affected by the undisturbed zone.
See: electrode resistivity, flushed zone, microresistivity, undisturbed zone
pseudogeometrical factor
The response of a logging measurement as a function of distance from the tool. The pseudogeometrical factor is
normally radial, reflecting the response perpendicular to the tool. It can be a differential factor, which is the
contribution to the signal at a particular distance, but is more normally integrated, which is the sum of all signals
from the tool to a particular distance. The pseudogeometrical factor developed from the concept of the
geometrical factor, and is expressed in the same way. For example, for a radial distance x from the tool, the
integrated radial pseudogeometrical factor, Jx, can be written as: Jx = (Ux - Ut) / (Uxo - Ut) where Ut is the log reading
of the undisturbed zone (or, alternatively, the reading with no invasion), Uxo is the log reading of the flushed zone
(or, alternatively, the reading with infinite invasion), and Ux is the log reading with a step profile invasion to depth
x. Unlike the geometrical factor, Jx depends on the values of both Uxo and Ut. Pseudogeometrical factors are a
useful way to express the radial response (or vertical response) in typical conditions. The physics of each
measurement determines how much Jx varies with Uxo and Ut. Pseudogeometrical factors are often used to express
the response of nuclear and resistivity logs, but are not appropriate for acoustic and electromagnetic propagation
logs (where the response is too dependent on the contrast in properties), or nuclear magnetic resonance logs
(where the response is too localized).
See: depth of investigation, radial resolution, resistivity log, vertical resolution
pseudostatic spontaneous potential
The ideal spontaneous potential (SP) that would be observed opposite a shaly, permeable bed if the SP currents
were prevented from flowing. In the middle of a thick, permeable bed whose resistivity is not too high, the SP
reads close to the pseudostatic spontaneous potential (PSP). In other conditions, however, the SP may be
significantly less than the PSP. The PSP ignores other potential sources and assumes that a surrounding shale is a
perfect cationic membrane. The ratio of the PSP to the static spontaneous potential is known as the SP reduction
factor, alpha. Alpha is less than 1 and is a function of the shaliness, or cation-exchange capacity, within the sand.
The higher this cation-exchange capacity, the larger the internal membrane potential. The latter has the opposite
polarity to the liquid-junction potential and reduces the SP. The PSP, and alpha, are reduced when hydrocarbons
are introduced into shaly sands, because the cation-exchange capacity in the sands is forced into a smaller
conductive pore volume and therefore has a larger relative effect.
Synonyms: SP
Alternate Form: PSP
See: cation-exchange capacity, electrokinetic potential, hydrocarbon, liquid-junction potential, membrane
potential, shale baseline, spontaneous potential
PSP
A mnemonic for the pseudostatic spontaneous potential.
See: pseudostatic spontaneous potential
pulse echo
A technique in which an ultrasonic transducer, in transmit mode, emits a high-frequency acoustic pulse towards
the borehole wall, where it is reflected back to the same transducer operating in receive mode. The measurement
consists of the amplitude of the received signal, the time between emission and reception, and sometimes the full
waveform received. Tools that use this technique either have multiple transducers, facing in different directions, or
rotate the transducer while making measurements, thereby obtaining a full image of the borehole wall. Pulse-echo
techniques are used in the borehole televiewer. In cased hole, the waveform is analyzed to give indications of
cement-bond quality and casing corrosion.
See: ultrasonic measurement
pulsed neutron spectroscopy log
A wireline log of the yields of different elements in the formation, measured using induced gamma ray
spectroscopy with a pulsed neutron generator. The elemental yields are derived from two intermediate results:
the inelastic and the capture spectrum. The inelastic spectrum is the basis for the carbon-oxygen log, and can also
give information on other elements. The capture spectrum depends on many elements, mainly hydrogen, silicon,
calcium, iron, sulfur and chlorine. Since the elemental yields give information only on the relative concentration of
elements, they are normally given as ratios, such as C/O, Cl/H, Si/(Si + Ca), H/(Si + Ca) and Fe/(Si + Ca). These ratios
are indicators of oil, salinity, lithology, porosity and clay, respectively. To get absolute concentrations, it is
necessary to calibrate to cores or, more often, use a model such as the oxide-closure model. The depth of
investigation of the log is several inches into the formation. It can be run in open or cased hole. Pulsed neutron
spectroscopy logs were introduced in the mid 1970s after a decade or more of investigation.
See: activation log, alpha processing, elemental capture spectroscopy, geochemical log, induced gamma ray
spectroscopy, neutron interactions, oxide-closure model, pulsed neutron spectroscopy measurement, wireline log
pulsed neutron spectroscopy measurement
A measurement of the spectrum of gamma rays emitted by a formation bombarded by high-energy neutrons.
Neutrons are emitted by a high-energy neutron generator (14.1 MeV). The neutrons interact with different nuclei,
which may emit characteristic gamma rays through inelastic neutron scattering, fast-neutron reactions and
neutron capture. When pulses from a neutron generator are used, it is possible to separate the different
interactions in time after each neutron pulse. Inelastic and fast-neutron interactions occur very soon after the
neutron burst, while most of the capture events occur later. The two types can therefore be separated to give a so-
called inelastic spectrum and a capture spectrum. The spectra are analyzed either by counting gamma rays in
windows placed at the main peaks for the elements concerned, or by comparison with spectral standards, or by
combining the two (alpha processing). The resultant logs are known as pulsed neutron spectroscopy logs, the most
common of which are the carbon-oxygen log and the elemental capture spectroscopy log.
See: activation log, geochemical log, neutron interactions, oxide-closure model, pulsed neutron spectroscopy log
pulse-echo
A technique in which an ultrasonic transducer, in transmit mode, emits a high-frequency acoustic pulse towards
the borehole wall, where it is reflected back to the same transducer operating in receive mode. The measurement
consists of the amplitude of the received signal, the time between emission and reception, and sometimes the full
waveform received. Tools that use this technique either have multiple transducers, facing in different directions, or
rotate the transducer while making measurements, thereby obtaining a full image of the borehole wall. Pulse-echo
techniques are used in the borehole televiewer. In cased hole, the waveform is analyzed to give indications of
cement-bond quality and casing corrosion.
See: ultrasonic measurement
quadrant density
A log of formation density from one of the quadrants of an azimuthal density tool.
quick look
1. n. [Geophysics]
A subset of a 3D seismic survey comprising low fold or simplified processing (such as omitting dip moveout
processing) that can be evaluated soon after acquisition.
See: acquisition, borehole seismic data, dip moveout, fold, processing, three-dimensional survey
2. n. [Geophysics]
Borehole seismic data processed on site in the field
See: borehole seismic data
A log, or a display of several logs, that has been generated by a simple computation of log data. The quicklook is
intended to make it easy to identify particular features in a section of log. The term is used for single curves
designed, for example, to identify hydrocarbon zones, estimate porosity or identify lithology. Examples are Rwa,
crossplot porosity, ratio method and apparent matrix density. The term is also used for a complete log containing
some combination of quicklook curves, original logs and lithology display. In all cases the computations are based
on simple models.
quicklook
1. n. [Geophysics]
A subset of a 3D seismic survey comprising low fold or simplified processing (such as omitting dip moveout
processing) that can be evaluated soon after acquisition.
See: acquisition, borehole seismic data, dip moveout, fold, processing, three-dimensional survey
2. n. [Geophysics]
Borehole seismic data processed on site in the field
See: borehole seismic data
A log, or a display of several logs, that has been generated by a simple computation of log data. The quicklook is
intended to make it easy to identify particular features in a section of log. The term is used for single curves
designed, for example, to identify hydrocarbon zones, estimate porosity or identify lithology. Examples are Rwa,
crossplot porosity, ratio method and apparent matrix density. The term is also used for a complete log containing
some combination of quicklook curves, original logs and lithology display. In all cases the computations are based
on simple models.
R signal
The resistive (R) signal, or that part of the alternating signal at the receiver of an induction-logging tool that is in
phase with the transmitter current. This signal depends on the formation conductivity and is the main or, in older
tools, the only source of the induction log. It must be separated from the out-of-phase, or reactive (X) signal, which
depends in a different way on formation conductivity and may contain a large component from direct coupling
between transmitter and receiver.
See: 6FF40, skin effect
radial processing
The inversion of resistivity logs with differing depths of investigation into a model of the formation invasion profile.
For dual induction and dual-laterolog tools, this was done graphically with a tornado chart and assuming a step
profile. Array tools have built-in inversion algorithms, and several formation models into which the data can be
inverted.
radial resolution
A distance that characterizes the ability of a logging measurement to resolve changes in the formation
perpendicular to the tool. Alternatively, the term refers to the smallest distance for which a significant change can
be detected. The resolution is a feature of the radial response, which is often summarized by a geometrical or
pseudogeometrical factor. A measurement with good or high radial resolution will have a sharp peak in the radial
differential geometric factor at some distance from the tool.
See: radius of investigation
radial response
The response of a logging measurement as a function of the distance perpendicular to the tool. Radial responses
are determined by computer simulation or laboratory measurement. For some measurements, mainly resistivity,
the radial response can be shaped as desired through signal processing. In general, the radial response depends on
the formation properties throughout the measurement volume. Most quoted radial responses have been
determined in formations that are vertically homogeneous and have small radial changes. They can then be
summarized by a geometrical factor or a pseudogeometrical factor. These factors are appropriate for volumetric
measurements such as nuclear and resistivity measurements, but not for others such as acoustic propagation.
See: depth of investigation, radial resolution, vertical response
radius of investigation
A distance that characterizes how far a logging tool measures into the formation from the axis of the tool or
borehole. The term is similar to depth of investigation, but is more appropriate for certain azimuthally symmetric
measurements, mainly resistivity. The radius of investigation summarizes the radial response of the measurement
in one or more distances, and should be associated with the percentage of signal received from within that depth,
typically either 50% or 90%. Most quoted depths of investigation assume a homogeneous formation with certain
properties, such as a given resistivity or fluid content. The radius of investigation can vary considerably in
inhomogeneous conditions, and at different values of the properties concerned. It should be considered only a
qualitative guide to tool response.
See: radial response
The calculated maximum radius in a formation in which pressure has been affected during the flow period of a
transient well test. While not absolutely accurate, the value has meaning in relation to the total volume of
reservoir that is represented by calculated reservoir parameters, such as kh, the permeability thickness. This may
also be termed transient drainage radius.
Synonyms: transient drainage radius
See: permeability thickness
random error
A nonreproducible error that is generally imputable to the physics of the measurement. For example, the statistical
errors in nuclear measurements are random errors.
See: measurement error, repeatability, sampling error, systematic error
real time data
With reference toÂ measurements-while-drillingÂ (MWD) and logging while drilling, the data
transmitted to surface shortly after being recorded. These are distinct from the data recorded into memory.
Only a subset of the recorded data can be transmitted as real-time data because of the limitedÂ data
rateÂ of MWDÂ telemetryÂ systems. This reduces the number of channels, theÂ sample interval, or
both, in the real-time data.
More Details:
• In-Time Data Delivery
real-time data
With reference to measurements-while-drilling (MWD), the data transmitted to surface shortly after being
recorded. These are distinct from the recorded data. Only a subset of the recorded data can be transmitted
as real-time data because of the limited data rate of MWD telemetry systems. This reduces the number of
channels, the sample interval, or both, in the real-time data.
More Details:
• In-Time Data Delivery
recorded data
With reference to measurements-while-drilling (MWD), the data recorded by the logging tools and stored in a
downhole electronic memory. These data are subsequently retrieved when the tools are brought to surface.
Recorded data are distinct from real-time data. Depending on the time between trips, the amount of data storage
may affect the number of channels recorded, the sample interval, or both.
See: data rate, run, telemetry
recorder
Â Also called camera, the device used in early logging to record logging measurements on photographic film. The
camera consisted of a light shining on galvanometers, which reflected the light to produce a trace on one or more
films. The galvanometers deflected according to the log measurement to give the log reading. The films were
turned by the depth wheel, which gave the depth axis of the log.
Synonyms: camera
reference point
The position on a logging tool string that is used as the reference for depth measurements. Each measurement has
a different measure point. In normal practice, each measurement is shifted in depth by the distance between the
measure point and the reference point. This ensures that all measurements are recorded at the same depth. For a
wireline tool, the reference point is normally the bottom of the tool string. For measurements-while-drilling, the
reference is the bit (the driller's depth). The term is sometimes used to mean the depth reference.
See: depth wheel, first reading, pick-up
relative dielectric constant
The degree to which a medium resists the flow of electric charge divided by the degree to which free space resists
such charge. The degree, or dielectric constant, is defined as the ratio of the electric displacement to the electric
field strength. The term is also known as the relative dielectric permittivity. However, at high frequencies, it is no
longer constant and decreases withÂ frequency. Relative dielectric permittivities, which are unitless, vary from
about 4 to 400 inÂ rock, but in rare cases may reach several thousand.
See: dielectric resistivity, electromagnetic propagation, propagation resistivity, relative dielectric permittivity
relative dielectric permittivity
The degree to which a medium resists the flow of electric charge divided by the degree to which free space resists
such charge. The degree, or dielectric permittivity, is defined as the ratio of the electric displacement to the
electric field strength. The term is also known as the relative dielectric constant. However, at high frequencies, it is
no longer constant and decreases with frequency. Relative dielectric permittivities, which are unitless, vary from
about 4 to 400 in rock, but in rare cases may reach several thousand.
See: dielectric propagation log, dielectric resistivity, electromagnetic propagation measurement
relaxation time
In a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurement, the characteristic time for a loss of coherent energy, or
relaxation, by protons in rocks. There are two types of relaxation: longitudinal relaxation, which is the time (T1)
needed to align protons in a static magnetic field; and transverse relaxation, which is the time (T2) needed for
protons to lose their coherent energy in an NMR measurement. Relaxations are exponential decays, for which T1
and T2 are the time constants. Different mechanisms contribute to T1 and T2. Surface relaxation and bulk relaxation
contribute to both T1 and T2. Surface, bulk and diffusion relaxation contribute to T2.
remaining oil saturation
1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Reservoir Characterization]
Fraction of pore volume occupied by oil at any location in a reservoir at any time during its life.
Remaining oil saturation has no petrophysical significance beyond an assessment of the amount of oil
remaining in the rock. Considered a snapshot of the reservoir, this assessment depends on the location in
the reservoir and time of the measurement. This saturation is measured without regard to the displacement
process or processes that produced it.
Remaining oil saturation (ROS) may be calculated from 1 − Sxo, where Sxo is the invaded zone, or flushed
zone, water saturation.
Alternate Form: ROS

See: residual oil saturation
repeat section
An interval of log that has been recorded for a second time. The repeat section is typically 200 ft [60 m] long. The
purpose is to judge the repeatability of the measurement by recording it twice over the same interval with the
same recording parameters. Strictly speaking, the repeatability can be judged properly only if the depth
measurement is the same on both runs, if the tool takes the same path in the borehole and if there have been no
changes in the borehole or formation. In practice, the repeat section gives a good overall picture of the
repeatability of the log. There can be more than one repeat section.
See: accuracy, precision, reproducibility, uncertainty
repeatability
The closeness of agreement between independent results obtained in the normal and correct operation of the
same method on identical test material, in a short space of time, and under the same test conditions (such as the
same operator, same apparatus, same laboratory). (ISO) The repeatability of core and log measurements can be
checked properly in the laboratory. The repeatability of a downhole log is checked by recording a repeat section
(or repeat stations for stationary measurements). The term repeatability is used even though it is not possible to
ensure that the same test material is used. On two separate runs, the tool may not take the same path in the
borehole, and therefore may not measure the same volume of formation.
See: accuracy, precision, reproducibility, uncertainty
The representative parameters of the dispersion of the population that may be associated with the results are
qualified by the term repeatability, for example "repeatability standard deviation," or "repeatability variance."
(ISO)
The quantitative value that is equal to or below the absolute difference between two test results, within a
probability of 95%. (ISO) In a test of repeatability, the results are obtained independently by the normal and
correct operation of the same method on identical test material, in a short space of time, and under the same test
conditions (such as the same operator, same apparatus, same laboratory).
reproducibility
The closeness of agreement between individual results obtained in the normal and correct operation of the same
method on identical test material, but under different test conditions (such as different operators, different
apparatus, different laboratories). (ISO) The reproducibility of core and log measurements can be checked properly
in the laboratory. However, it is difficult to check the reproducibility of downhole log measurements because of
the problem of ensuring that the same test material is used, in other words that the same volume of formation is
measured each time, or that the formation fluids have not changed.
See: accuracy, precision, repeat section, repeatability, uncertainty
The representative parameters of the dispersion of the population which may be associated with the results are
qualified by the term reproducibility, for example "reproducibility standard deviation," "reproducibility variance."
(ISO)
The quantitative value that is equal to or below the absolute difference between two test results obtained by
operators in different laboratories, using the standard test method, within a probability of 95%. (ISO)
residual oil

Oil that does not move when fluids are flowed through the rock in normal conditions, for example primary and
secondary recovery, and invasion.
See: moveable hydrocarbons, moved hydrocarbons
residual oil saturation
Fraction of pore volume occupied by oil at the end of oil displacement that used a specific fluid. This
reservoir engineering quantity signifies the ultimate recovery under a given displacement process and
represents the endpoint of the relative permeability curves in reservoir simulation. The residual oil
saturation quantity is the saturation achieved after an infinite number of pore volumes of the displacing
fluid have flowed through a particular portion of reservoir rock. To define residual oil saturation, the
displacement method and the type, volume, direction and velocity of the displacing fluid must be known.
Residual oil saturation is the ratio of the immobile residual oil volume divided by the effective porosity.
Alternate Form: Sor, SOR

See: remaining oil saturation, residual oil, effective porosity
resistive invasion
A situation in which the resistivity of the flushed zone is greater than the resistivity of the undisturbed zone. Such a
setting generally favors the use of induction devices, which respond to conductivity, rather than electrode
resistivity devices (laterologs, ring resistivity), which respond to resistivity.
Antonyms: conductive invasion
See: true resistivity, undisturbed zone
resistivity
The ability of a material to resist electrical conduction. It is the inverse of conductivity and is measured in ohm-m.
The resistivity is a property of the material, whereas the resistance also depends on the volume measured. The
two are related by a system constant, which in simple cases is the length between the measurement electrodes
divided by the area. In the general case, the resistivity is the electric field divided by the current density and
depends on the frequency of the applied signal.
See: dielectric permittivity
resistivity index
The ratio of the true resistivity to the resistivity of the same rock filled with water. The resistivity index can be
expressed as I = Rt / Ro, where Ro is the water filled resistivity and Rt is the true resistivity. It is related to the water
saturation by the saturation exponent, n (I = Sw-n), and is a key component of the Archie equation.
resistivity log
A log of the resistivity of the formation, expressed in ohm-m. The resistivity can take a wide range of values, and,
therefore, for convenience is usually presented on a logarithmic scale from, for example, 0.2 to 2000 ohm-m. The
resistivity log is fundamental in formation evaluation because hydrocarbons do not conduct electricity while all
formation waters do. Therefore a large difference exists between the resistivity of rocks filled with hydrocarbons
and those filled with formation water. Clay minerals and a few other minerals, such as pyrite, also conduct
electricity, and reduce the difference. Some measurement devices, such as induction and propagation resistivity
logs, may respond more directly to conductivity, but are presented in resistivity.
See: bit resistivity, dielectric propagation log, electrical log, electromagnetic propagation, fresh water, ring
resistivity, saturation equation
A log of the resistivity of the formation made by an electrode device such as a laterolog. In this sense the term is
used to distinguish the log from an induction measurement, which responds more directly to conductivity.
resolution matched

Relating to two or more logging measurements that have the same resolution. The term normally refers to vertical
resolution, but could also be used for azimuthal or radial resolution.
See: response matched, vertical response
response matched

Relating to two or more logging measurements that have the same response. The term normally refers to vertical
resolution, but could also be used for azimuthal or radial resolution. The term implies that all the features of the
vertical response are matched, ideally in all conditions. In practice, it is used to describe a more detailed matching
of the vertical response than with resolution-matched curves.
See: vertical resolution
restored state core
A core that has been cleaned but then flushed with reservoir fluids to reestablish the in situ condition of the rock.
The main purpose of a restored state core is to measure the wettability and related properties such as relative
permeability.
See: fresh core, native state core, preserved core
retort method
A technique for measuring the fluid saturations in a core sample by heating the sample and measuring the volumes
of water and oil driven off. The sample is crushed and weighed before being placed in the retort. It is then heated
in stages or directly to 650oC [1200oF] during which the fluids are vaporized, collected, condensed and separated.
Plateaus in the rise of the cumulative water volume with temperature are sometimes analyzed to indicate when
free water, surface clay-bound water and interlayer clay-bound water have been driven off. The volumes of water
and oil are measured directly, but corrections are needed to account for alterations in the oil. The volume of gas
also is needed for accurate results. This is measured on a separate, adjacent sample by injecting mercury under
pressure and measuring the volume absorbed. Before injection, the sample is weighed and its bulk volume
determined by mercury displacement. The total pore volume is then the sum of the volumes of gas, oil and water.
The saturation of each component is the ratio of its volume to the total pore volume.
See: core plug, Dean-Stark extraction, routine core analysis
RH
The water content of air compared to the water content that the air could hold if it were saturated, expressed as a
percentage. Air in equilibrium with fresh water is saturated with water vapor, so its RH = 100%. Air above a
saturated NaCl solution has RH = 75%. Air above a saturated CaCl2 solution has RH = 31%. RH can, therefore, be
used as an indicator of the water activity of a solution with which air is in equilibrium. RH can also reflect the
aqueous-phase activity of an oil-emulsion mud, the basis for the Chenevert Method for testing oil muds.
Alternate Form: relative humidity
ring resistivity
The resistivity measured by the ring of a measurements-while-drilling (MWD) toroid device. The ring resistivity is a
focused measurement with a depth of investigation and a vertical resolution of a few inches. It is not azimuthal.
The measurement is similar to a wireline laterolog except that toroids are used instead of electrodes for
transmitting and monitoring. Like a laterolog, the signal is proportional to resistivity, and is thus most effective at
high resistivities, high formation to mud-resistivity contrast and in the presence of conductive invasion. It is usually
combined with the bit resistivity, and possibly also with the button resistivities. In the same way as a laterolog, two
transmitter toroids are used to force current to flow approximately perpendicularly into the formation at the ring.
Other toroids measure the current flow and to balance the currents emitted by the two transmitters.
ROS
Abbreviation for remaining oil saturation. Fraction of pore volume occupied by oil at any location in a
reservoir at any time during its life. Remaining oil saturation has no petrophysical significance beyond an
assessment of the amount of oil remaining in the rock. Considered a snapshot of the reservoir, this
assessment depends on the location in the reservoir and time of the measurement. This saturation is
measured without regard to the displacement process or processes that produced it.
Remaining oil saturation (ROS) may be calculated from 1 − Sxo, where Sxo is the invaded zone, or flushed
zone, water saturation.
Alternate Form: remaining oil saturation

See: residual oil saturation
routine core analysis
The set of measurements normally carried out on core plugs or whole core. These generally include
porosity, grain density, horizontal permeability, fluid saturation and a lithologic description. Routine core
analyses often include a core gamma log and measurements of vertical permeability. Measurements are
made at room temperature and at either atmospheric confining pressure, formation confining pressure, or
both. Routine core analysis is distinct from special core analysis (SCAL). Recommended practices for
routine core analysis are available in the API document RP40.
See: core plug, sidewall core, whole core
More Details:
• Core Truth in Formation Evaluation
R-signal
The resistive (R) signal, or that part of the alternating signal at the receiver of an induction-logging tool that is in
phase with the transmitter current. This signal depends on the formation conductivity and is the main or, in older
tools, the only source of the induction log. It must be separated from the out-of-phase, or reactive (X) signal, which
depends in a different way on formation conductivity and may contain a large component from direct coupling
between transmitter and receiver.
See: 6FF40, skin effect
rugose

Pertaining to a borehole wall that is rough.
See: bad hole, rugosity
rugosity
A qualitative description of the roughness of a borehole wall. Alternatively, the term pertains to a borehole whose
diameter changes rapidly with depth. The term usually refers to changes at the scale of logging measurements, a
few inches to a few feet, and to the effect this has on logging tool responses. Rugosity can be observed on caliper
logs, image logs and by its effect on measurements with a small depth of investigation.
See: bad hole
run
With reference to logging, an operation in which a logging tool is lowered into a borehole and then retrieved from
it while recording measurements.
See: composite log, logging run
Rv
Abbreviation for vertical resistivity.
See: vertical resistivity
Rwa
The apparent resistivity of the formation water, calculated from log measurements of porosity (phi) and resistivity
(Rt) and using the Archie equation with Sw = 1, so that Rwa = phim * Rt. Rwa is a quick-look method of determining if
there are hydrocarbons. In a hydrocarbon zone, Rwa will be higher than the actual resistivity of the formation water
(Rw), which must be known. A typical rule of thumb is that if Rwa > 3 * Rw, then there are producible hydrocarbons.
Rwa is often calculated and output as a quicklook log.
sampling error
The error introduced by the sampling process caused by making measurements on only a limited portion of a
formation.
See: measurement error, random error, systematic error
sampling interval
The depth or time between successive measurements by a sensor. For measurements-while-drilling (MWD) logs,
the sampling interval is most commonly a time. For wireline measurements, it is most commonly a depth.
sandstone compatible scale
values providing the matrix is pure quartz and the pores are filled with fresh water. The most common overlay
spans two tracks, with the density reading from 1.9 to 2.9 g/cm3, and the neutron in sandstone porosity units from
0.45 to −0.15 vol/vol.
See: limestone porosity unit, limestone-compatible scale, neutron porosity, sandstone porosity unit
sandstone porosity unit
A transform from raw log data chosen so that a log recorded in these units will give the correct porosity of the
formation providing the matrix is pure quartz and the pores are filled with fresh water. The unit, which may be in
vol/vol or p.u., is most commonly used for neutron porosity logs but may also be used for density and acoustic
logs. The definition is strictly true only if all borehole and other environmental corrections have been applied.
See: limestone porosity unit, limestone-compatible scale, neutron porosity, sandstone-compatible scale
sandstone-compatible scale
values providing the matrix is pure quartz and the pores are filled with fresh water. The most common overlay
spans two tracks, with the density reading from 1.9 to 2.9 g/cm3, and the neutron in sandstone porosity units from
0.45 to −0.15 vol/vol.
See: limestone porosity unit, limestone-compatible scale, neutron porosity, sandstone porosity unit
saturation equation
An equation for calculating the water saturation from resistivity and other logs. There are many saturation
equations. Practical equations are all extensions of the Archie equation, which is valid for a rock with very little
clay, or very high salinity water, and with a regular pore structure. The majority deal with the problem of shaly
sands, and can be divided into two main groups?those that treat the shale as a volume of conductive material (Vsh
models), and those that analyze the effect of clay counter-ions. Vsh models take many forms. Typical examples are
the Simandoux, laminated sand and Indonesian equations. The other group includes the Waxman-Smits, Dual
Water and SGS equations. Most nonshaly sand equations deal with the problem of mixed pore types, for example
combinations of fractures, isolated pores and intergranular pores.
See: isolated porosity
saturation exponent
The exponent, n, in the relation of water saturation, Sw, to resistivity index, I (I = Sw-n) for a sample of rock. It
expresses the effect on the resistivity of desaturating the sample, or replacing water with a non-conductive fluid. In
petrophysically simple, water-wet rocks (Archie rocks), n is constant for different values of Sw, and a single average
n can be found for a particular reservoir or formation. A typical value is 2. In more complex rocks, n changes with
Sw, although often being about 2 near Sw = 1. In rocks with conductive minerals, such as shaly sands, n becomes
increasingly lower as Sw is reduced. This change is negligible for high-salinity waters, but increases as the salinity is
reduced. In shaly-sand saturation equations, such as Waxman-Smits, dual water, SGS and CRMM, n is the intrinsic
n, determined with high-salinity water or with the clay effects removed. The variation of I with Sw is then
predicted, with varying success, by the different equations. In carbonates with multiple pore types, such as
fractures, vugs, interparticle porosity and microporosity, n may change as each pore type is desaturated. A
different n may be used for a different range of Sw. In all cases, n increases if any pores are oil-wet. Values up to 8
have been reported in very oil-wet rocks.
saturation unit
A unit equal to the percentage of a given fluid in the total volume of a pore space. The term is abbreviated to s.u.
and lies between 0 and 100.
See: flushed-zone water saturation, water saturation
scintillation detector
A device for measuring the number and energy of gamma rays. The device consists of a crystal and a
photomultiplier. In the crystal, an incident gamma ray imparts energy to electrons through Compton scattering,
photoelectric absorption and pair production. The electrons excite the detector crystal lattice. Crystal de-excitation
emits visible or near-visible light, the scintillation, which is detected by the photomultiplier and transformed into
an electrical pulse. The frequency and amplitude of the electric pulse are related to the number of gamma rays and
their respective energy levels, and are recorded in a log. Scintillation detectors are used in all natural gamma ray,
induced gamma ray and density logging devices.
See: activation log, density measurement, gamma ray log, natural gamma ray spectroscopy, photoelectric effect
secondary porosity index
An indicator of the porosity that does not contribute to a sonic measurement of interval transit time. The transit
time is little affected by vugs, fractures and other irregular events because the sonic wave finds a faster path
around them. Spherical pores such as oomolds also have less effect on traveltime than oblate pores. Thus, when
the sonic porosity is less than some measurement of the total porosity, the difference can be attributed to the
presence of post-depositional, or secondary, porosity. The sonic porosity is usually derived from the Wyllie time-
average equation, or some other suitable transform, and the total porosity taken as the density-neutron crossplot
porosity.
See: sonic log
secondary-porosity index
An indicator of the porosity that does not contribute to a sonic measurement of interval transit time. The transit
time is little affected by vugs, fractures and other irregular events because the sonic wave finds a faster path
around them. Spherical pores such as oomolds also have less effect on traveltime than oblate pores. Thus, when
the sonic porosity is less than some measurement of the total porosity, the difference can be attributed to the
presence of post-depositional, or secondary, porosity. The sonic porosity is usually derived from the Wyllie time-
average equation, or some other suitable transform, and the total porosity taken as the density-neutron crossplot
porosity.
See: sonic log
shale baseline
The average reading of the spontaneous potential (SP) log opposite the shale layers in a well. Opposite shales, the
SP is relatively constant and changes only slowly with depth. This is the shale baseline. The log is normally adjusted
by the logging engineer to read near zero at the baseline. Sharp shifts in the baseline can sometimes be observed,
for example when two permeable beds with different formation water salinities are separated by a shale that is
not a perfect cationic membrane, or when the formation water salinity changes within a permeable bed.
See: bimetallism, fish
shifted spectrum
A technique in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging based on the shift in the T2 distributions, or spectra,
acquired with different echo spacings. The technique is usually used to detect gas or light oil. These fluids have a
significant diffusion relaxation. A measurement made with a standard short echo spacing will give a signal from
these fluids at a certain T2. A measurement made with a long echo spacing will cause more diffusion relaxation and
a shorter T2. Other fluids, with minor contribution from diffusion, will not be changed. Gas and light oil can
therefore be identified by the shift between the two T2 distributions.
See: differential spectrum, diffusion relaxation, direct hydrocarbon typing, echo spacing, nuclear magnetic
resonance measurement, transverse relaxation
shoulder bed
A formation layer above or below the layer being measured by a logging tool. The term is used in particular in
resistivity logging to describe the layers above and below a reservoir. Some resistivity tools, such as induction and
laterolog devices, can sense beds located tens of feet from the measure point and can be significantly affected by
shoulder beds even when the reservoir is thick. The term is more commonly used for vertical wells, and is derived
from the typical picture of resistivity log response across a reservoir: a high resistivity reservoir (the head) with two
low-resistivity shales above and below (the shoulders). The term also may be used in horizontal wells, although in
that context the term surrounding bed is more common. The term adjacent bed is used in both cases.
Synonyms: adjacent bed
See: deconvolution, surrounding bed, vertical resolution
sidewall

Relating to being held against, or taken from, the side of the borehole. The term also describes a measurement
that must be made by pressing the sonde against the side of the borehole in order to minimize borehole effects,
as, for example, a sidewall epithermal neutron log.
See: pad, sidewall core
sidewall core
A core taken from the side of the borehole, usually by a wireline tool. Sidewall cores may be taken using
percussion or mechanical drilling. Percussion cores are taken by firing hollow bullets into the formation.
The bullets are attached to the tool by fasteners, and are retrieved, along with the core inside, by pulling
up the tool and the fasteners. Percussion coring tools typically hold 20 to 30 bullets, but two or three tools
can be combined on one run in the hole. Mechanical tools use hollow rotary drills to cut and then pull out
core plugs. Up to 75 plugs can be recovered on one run. With full recovery, cores from typical percussion
tools are 1 in. [2.5 cm] in diameter by 1 3/4 in. [4.4 cm] long, while those from mechanical tools are 0.91
in. [2.3 cm] in diameter by 2 in. [5 cm] long. The latter are also known as rotary sidewall cores.
See: core plug, whole core
More Details:
sieve analysis
The process of analyzing the size distribution of a sand or gravel sample. In sand-control applications, a sample of
formation sand is shaken through a series of sieves of known size. The resulting distribution is then used to design
an appropriate treatment that will retain the sand, while causing a minimal restriction to production.
A technique for analyzing the grain-size distribution of a core sample. A cleaned, weighed core sample is
disaggregated and agitated through a series of stacked screens with progressively smaller openings. The material
left on each screen is weighed in order to give a distribution of quantity versus sieve size. Sieve analysis may be
done dry, wet or a combination of both. Wet analysis is necessary for analyzing any clay fraction.
See: laser diffraction
sigma
The macroscopic cross section for the absorption of thermal neutrons, or capture cross section, of a volume of
matter, measured in capture units (c.u.). Sigma is also used as an adjective to refer to a log of this quantity. Sigma
is the principal output of the pulsed neutron capture log, which is mainly used to determine water saturation
behind casing. Thermal neutrons have about the same energy as that of the surrounding matter, typically less than
0.4 eV.
See: neutron capture, time-lapse
skin effect
The loss in amplitude and change in phase of an electromagnetic field as it penetrates into a conductive medium.
In an induction log, the skin effect causes a reduction of the R-signal (in-phase) and an increase in the X-signal (out-
of-phase) at the receiver. It has a significant effect on the 6FF40 array, particularly below 1 ohm-m. Since the
magnitude of the reduction depends on the conductivity, the skin effect can be corrected for by using a fixed
function of the measured conductivity. A much improved method is to estimate the correction from the X-signal
measured in balanced arrays.
See: balanced array, induction
An increase or decrease in the pressure drop predicted with Darcy's law using the value of permeability thickness,
kh, determined from a buildup or drawdown test. The difference is assumed to be caused by the "skin." Skin effect
can be either positive or negative. The skin effect is termed positive if there is an increase in pressure drop, and
negative when there is a decrease, as compared with the predicted Darcy pressure drop. A positive skin effect
indicates extra flow resistance near the wellbore, and a negative skin effect indicates flow enhancement near the
wellbore. The terms skin effect and skin factor are often used interchangeably. In this glossary, the term skin effect
refers to the numerical value of the skin factor.
See: buildup test, drawdown test, permeability thickness, skin factor
slow formation
A formation in which the velocity of the compressional wave traveling through the borehole fluid is greater than
the velocity of the shear wave through the surrounding formation. In such conditions, there is no critical refraction
of the shear wave and no shear head wave generated, so that standard techniques based on monopole
transducers cannot be used to measure formation shear velocity. Instead, it is necessary to use dipole sources to
excite the flexural mode. The velocity of the latter is closely related to that of the shear wave. In very slow
formations, such as in high-porosity gas sands, the formation compressional velocity also may be less than the
borehole fluid velocity, causing no compressional head wave. In such cases, it is possible to estimate the formation
compressional velocity from the low-frequency end of a leaky mode.
Antonyms: fast formation
See: acoustic mode, compressional wave, head wave, shear wave, sonic log, sonic measurement
slowing-down length
A parameter used to characterize neutron interactions in bulk material above the thermal region. The slowing-
down length (Ls) is proportional to the root-mean-square distance from the point of emission of a high-energy
neutron to the point at which its energy has decreased to the lower edge of the epithermal energy region. The
slowing-down length is the physical parameter that best describes the response of an epithermal neutron porosity
measurement, and describes a large part of the response of a thermal neutron porosity measurement. Thermal
neutrons have about the same energy as the surrounding matter, typically less than about 0.4 eV, while epithermal
neutrons have higher energy, between about 0.4 and 10 eV.
See: epithermal neutron porosity measurement, neutron interactions, slowing-down time, thermal diffusion
length, thermal neutron porosity measurement
slowing-down time
With reference to pulsed neutron logging, the characteristic time for the decay of the epithermal neutron
population. The slowing-down time of a formation is strongly dependent on the porosity. In openhole pulsed
neutron logging, it is also dependent on the standoff between tool and borehole wall. Epithermal neutrons have
energies above that of the surrounding matter, between about 0.4 eV and 10 eV.
See: epithermal neutron porosity measurement, slowing-down length
slowness

Also called interval transit time, The amount of time for a wave to travel a certain distance, proportional to the
reciprocal of velocity, typically measured in microseconds per foot by an acoustic log and symbolized by t or DT. P-
wave interval transit times for common sedimentary rock types range from 43 (dolostone) to 160 (unconsolidated
shales) microseconds per foot, and can be distinguished from measurements of steel casing, which has a
consistent transit time of 57 microseconds per foot.
Synonyms: delta t, interval transit time
See: acoustic, drift, P-wave
slowness time coherence
A technique used for identifying and measuring the slowness and time of arrival of coherent acoustic energy
propagating across an array of receivers. The different packets of coherent energy can then be identified in terms
of their origin, for example compressional, shear, Stoneley or other arrivals. In formation evaluation slowness-time
coherence is used in conjunction with an array-sonic tool in which the full waveforms at each receiver have been
recorded. The technique consists in passing a narrow window across the waveforms and measuring the coherence
within the window for a wide range of slownesses and times of arrival.
See: full waveform, sonic log, sonic measurement, Stoneley wave
slowness-time coherence
A technique used for identifying and measuring the slowness and time of arrival of coherent acoustic energy
propagating across an array of receivers. The different packets of coherent energy can then be identified in terms
of their origin, for example compressional, shear, Stoneley or other arrivals. In formation evaluation slowness-time
coherence is used in conjunction with an array-sonic tool in which the full waveforms at each receiver have been
recorded. The technique consists in passing a narrow window across the waveforms and measuring the coherence
within the window for a wide range of slownesses and times of arrival.
See: full waveform, sonic log, sonic measurement, Stoneley wave
small pore water
Water in microporosity or other small pores. The term usually refers to the nuclear magnetic resonance signal of
such water, which occurs at very short times and overlaps the signal from clay-bound water.
See: clay-bound water, effective porosity, nuclear magnetic resonance, total porosity
small-pore water
Water in microporosity or other small pores. The term usually refers to the nuclear magnetic resonance signal of
such water, which occurs at very short times and overlaps the signal from clay-bound water.
See: clay-bound water, effective porosity, nuclear magnetic resonance, total porosity
sonde
The section of a logging tool that contains the measurement sensors, as distinct from the cartridge, which contains
the electronics and power supplies.
sonde error
The measurement of an induction tool in a nonconducting medium before correction. Electronic offsets and
coupling within the tool cause a signal in the receivers even in a nonconducting medium such as air. This signal is
cancelled either electronically or in software. Sonde errors change with temperature and pressure downhole. This
can be allowed for by characterizing the sonde's response to temperature and pressure on the surface. Sonde
error is measured by placing the tool far from the ground in air. Ideally measurements are made at two distances,
since the ground signal can then be determined from the difference and eliminated. Originally, sonde error
referred only to the R-signal, since this was the only signal being used. The term now refers to both R- and X-
signals.
See: calibration, R-signal, X-signal
sonic measurement
A technique for recording the formation compressional slowness based on the transit time between transmitter
and receiver. In the most basic wireline sonic measurement, an acoustic transducer emits a sonic signal, of
between about 10 and 30 kHz, which is detected at two receivers farther up the hole. The time between emission
and reception is measured for each receiver, and subtracted to give the traveltime in the interval between the two
receivers. If the receivers are two feet apart, then this time is divided by two to give the interval transit time, or
slowness, of the formation. This type of measurement is also known as first motion detection. This technique
works because the first arrival at the receiver is a wave that has traveled from the transmitter to the borehole wall,
where it has generated a compressional wave in the formation. Some of this wave is critically refracted up the
borehole wall, generating head waves in the borehole fluid as it progresses. Some of these strike the receiver,
arriving in most cases well before any signal traveling directly through the mud. Furthermore, if the logging tool is
parallel to the borehole wall, the traveltime in the mud is cancelled by taking the difference between the
traveltime to the two receivers. Problems of irregular hole or a tilted tool are avoided by using borehole
compensation. The depth of investigation depends on the slowness, the transmitter-to-receiver spacing and the
presence or absence of an altered zone. It is generally within the invaded zone, and of the order of several inches.
See: acoustic transducer, altered zone, borehole compensation, delta-t stretch, depth of investigation, first break,
head wave, interval transit time, invaded zone, long-spacing sonic log, monopole, P-wave, sonic log, ultrasonic
measurement
The technique for recording a borehole sonic log, in the sense of measurement of any of the acoustic properties in
and around the borehole. The standard sonic measurement, based on first motion detection, normally can be used
only to determine formation compressional slowness. For all other sonic measurements, such as shear, flexural
and Stoneley slownesses and amplitudes, it is necessary to record the full waveform using an array-sonic tool and
process with a technique such as slowness-time coherence.
See: acoustic mode, array sonic, flexural mode, slow formation, slowness-time coherence, sonic log, Stoneley wave
Sor
Abbreviation for residual oil saturation.
SOR
Abbreviation for residual oil saturation. Fraction of pore volume occupied by oil at the end of oil
displacement that used a specific fluid. This reservoir engineering quantity signifies the ultimate recovery
under a given displacement process and represents the endpoint of the relative permeability curves in
reservoir simulation. The residual oil saturation quantity is the saturation achieved after an infinite
number of pore volumes of the displacing fluid have flowed through a particular portion of reservoir rock.
To define residual oil saturation, the displacement method and the type, volume, direction and velocity of
the displacing fluid must be known. Residual oil saturation is the ratio of the immobile residual oil
volume divided by the effective porosity.
Alternate Form: residual oil saturation, Sor

See: remaining oil saturation, residual oil, effective porosity
Soxhlet extractor
An apparatus for cleaning core samples using the distillation extraction method. In the Soxhlet apparatus (also
called extractor, or chamber), the sample soaks in hot solvent that is periodically siphoned off, distilled and
returned to the sample. The process continues until the siphoned-off solvent becomes clear. In the Soxhlet
apparatus, the sample soaks in the solvent, while in the Dean-Stark apparatus, the solvent flows through the
sample from top to bottom.
See: centrifuge, Dean-Stark extraction, distillation extraction
SP
1. n. [Geophysics]
One of a number of locations or stations at the surface of the Earth at which a seismic source is activated.
See: acquisition, amplitude variation with offset, common midpoint method, depth migration, dropout, fold,
migration, offset, receiver, seismic record, seismogram, shot depth, spacing, spread, synthetic seismogram
2. n. [Geophysics]
Naturally occurring (static) electrical potential in the Earth. Spontaneous potentials are usually caused by charge
separation in clay or other minerals, by the presence of a semipermeable interface impeding the diffusion of ions
through the pore space of rocks, or by natural flow of a conducting fluid (salty water) through the rocks. Variations
in SP can be measured in the field and in wellbores to determine variations of ionic concentration in pore fluids of
rocks.
Alternate Form: spontaneous potential
An abbreviation of spontaneous potential.
Alternate Form: spontaneous potential
spectrum
1. n. [Geophysics]
Generally, a display of entities or properties according to magnitude. In geophysics, spectrum refers to a display of
characteristics of a wavetrain or trace as a function of frequency, wavenumber, or arrival time. A common display
of spectrum is amplitude as a function of frequency.
See: amplitude, arrival, frequency, phase, trace
The distribution of gamma ray energies, or the number of gamma rays as a function of gamma ray energy.
See: activation log, geochemical log, induced gamma ray spectroscopy, neutron interactions, pulsed neutron
spectroscopy measurement
spherical focusing
A technique for focusing an electrode device based on maintaining a spherical equipotential surface centered at
the main current electrode. Unlike the laterolog, which tries to maintain equipotential lines parallel to the sonde,
spherical focusing tries to maintain the spherical equipotential lines that would exist in a homogeneous formation
with no borehole. This is achieved with a particular arrangement of current-emitting electrode, current-return
electrodes and monitor electrodes. This arrangement creates two spherical equipotential spheres with a constant
voltage drop between them. The resistivity is determined from the current flowing between the spheres and the
voltage drop. The depth of investigation is determined by the radii of the two spheres. Spherical focusing is used to
produce shallow-reading resistivity logs and the pad-based microspherical log.
See: microresistivity
spine and ribs plot
For a two-detector density tool, the plot of long-spacing versus short-spacing count rates for different formation
densities, mudcake densities and mudcake thicknesses. The plot takes its name from the spine, which is the locus
of points with no mudcake, and the ribs, which show the effect of mudcake at certain fixed formation densities.
The plot illustrates graphically that for a given formation density there is only one rib for all normal mudcake
densities and thicknesses. Thus, although there are three unknowns, it is possible to make a correction using two
measurements.
See: azimuthal density, compensated-density log, delta rho, density measurement
spiral borehole
Another term for corkscrew hole, the result of certain drilling conditions that cause the borehole to take the shape
of a corkscrew. Most logging tools are much longer than the wavelength of the corkscrew, and therefore see it as a
change in standoff or a change in hole size. For this reason, the corkscrew is often observed as a wave on the
caliper log. A corkscrew hole affects measurements sensitive to standoff, such as induction and neutron porosity,
and may affect pad tools, if they cannot follow the changes.
Synonyms: corkscrew hole
See: bad hole, cave effect
spontaneous potential
1. n. [Geophysics]
Naturally occurring (static) electrical potential in the Earth. Spontaneous potentials are usually caused by charge
separation in clay or other minerals, by the presence of a semipermeable interface impeding the diffusion of ions
through the pore space of rocks, or by natural flow of a conducting fluid (salty water) through the rocks. Variations
in SP can be measured in the field and in wellbores to determine variations of ionic concentration in pore fluids of
rocks.
Alternate Form: SP
See: diffusion
A log of the natural difference in electrical potential, in millivolts, between an electrode in the borehole and a fixed
reference electrode on the surface. The most useful component of this difference is the electrochemical potential
since it can cause a significant deflection opposite permeable beds. The magnitude of the deflection depends
mainly on the salinity contrast between drilling mud and formation water, and the clay content of the permeable
bed. The spontaneous potential (SP) log is therefore used to detect permeable beds and to estimate formation
water salinity and formation clay content. The SP log cannot be recorded in nonconductive mud. The SP can be
affected by several factors that make interpretation difficult. First, there are other possible sources of electrical
potential not related to the electrochemical effect, for example, the electrokinetic potential and bimetallism. Many
of these are small and constant throughout the log, and can be lumped together in the shale baseline. Second, the
SP can measure only the potential drop in the borehole, and not the full electrochemical potential. The ideal SP
opposite a clean bed is known as the static spontaneous potential (SSP), and opposite a shaly bed as the
pseudostatic spontaneous potential (PSP). The SP is always less than the SSP or the PSP and more rounded at the
boundaries between shales and permeable beds. The SP was first recognized by C. Schlumberger, M. Schlumberger
and E.G. Leonardon in 1931, and the first published examples were from Russian oil fields.
See: differential SP, fish, liquid-junction potential, membrane potential
spreading loss
The additional loss in amplitude of an electromagnetic wave emitted by an electromagnetic propagation or
dielectric propagation measurement compared to that of a plane wave. The spreading loss depends on the
geometry of the transmitter-receiver array and also on the dielectric properties of the formation. The same effect
also causes a small correction to the propagation time.
See: attenuation, broadside array, dielectric propagation log, electromagnetic propagation, electromagnetic
propagation measurement, endfire array, plane wave
square log
A log in which the changes in reading with depth only occur abruptly, with no transition. A square log is often an
approximation of a real log, in which the continuously varying input log has been approximated by constant values
and abrupt changes. A square log contains less data than a real log but can be useful for further processing.
SSP
A mnemonic for the static spontaneous potential.
See: static spontaneous potential
standoff
1. n. [Perforating]
The space between the shaped charge and the internal surface of the perforating gun body. The standoff is
generally sufficient to allow the shaped charge jet to form before exiting the gun body.
See: perforating gun
The distance between the external surface of a logging tool and the borehole wall. This distance has an important
effect on the response of some logging measurements, notably induction and neutron porosity logs. For resistivity
tools, the effect of standoff is taken into account in the borehole correction. In the neutron porosity tool, it is
usually corrected for separately. In a smooth, regular hole, the standoff is constant and determined by the
geometry of the logging tool string and the borehole. In rugose or irregular holes, standoff varies with depth.
See: borehole correction, cave effect, neutron porosity
A piece of material designed to hold a logging tool a certain distance away from the borehole wall. It is usually
made of hard rubber and consists of four to six fins of the desired length.
static spontaneous potential
The ideal spontaneous potential (SP) that would be observed opposite a permeable bed if the SP currents were
prevented from flowing and any shaliness in the bed were ignored. The static spontaneous potential (SSP) is equal
to the electrochemical potential. When current is flowing, the SP measures only that fraction of the potential drop
that occurs in the borehole. In normal conditions, this potential drop is much higher than the drop in the formation
because the cross-sectional area of the borehole is much smaller, and hence its resistance much higher. It is for
this reason that in the middle of a thick, clean bed whose resistivity is not too high, the SP reads close to the SSP.
However, in other conditions the SP is significantly less than the SSP. As well as ignoring shaliness in the sand, the
SSP ignores other sources of potential and assumes a surrounding shale that is a perfect cationic membrane.
See: electrokinetic potential, liquid-junction potential, membrane potential, pseudostatic spontaneous potential,
shale baseline
steady state

A system that has reached equilibrium for the measurement or phenomenon concerned. In the case of
permeability measurements on core samples, a steady state is reached when the flow rate, the upstream and the
downstream pressures no longer change with time. At this point the permeability can be calculated from the flow
rate and pressures and applying Darcy's equation. If gas is used, the inertial resistance and gas slippage
(Klinkenberg effect) should be corrected for.
Antonyms: unsteady state
See: core plug, permeameter, routine core analysis
step profile
With reference to invasion, an abrupt change from the flushed zone to the undisturbed zone, with no transition
zone or annulus. This simple model is used most commonly in connection with older resistivity logs since it allows
the invasion to be represented by three parameters: flushed-zone resistivity, undisturbed-zone resistivity and
diameter of invasion. The model assumes equal invasion at all azimuths. Newer array logs allow more complex
invasion models to be interpreted.
See: array induction, array laterolog, array propagation resistivity, diameter of invasion, filtrate slump, flushed
zone, radial response, undisturbed zone
stick and slip
The irregular movement of a logging tool up a well due to it being stuck at some point and then being released. In
normal operation, the cable is pulled smoothly out of the well and the logging tool follows. However, the tool can
become stuck by differential pressure or an irregular hole. The cable stretches, and its tension increases, until the
tool is freed. At this point it moves, or slips, quickly up the hole until the normal movement is resumed. Since the
depth measurement is driven by the cable, the log readings opposite a zone of stick and slip are displayed at
incorrect depths. Furthermore, since each measurement has a different measure point, the zone of stick and slip
shows up at a different depth on each measurement.
See: depth wheel
Stoneley permeability
The ability of fluid to move through a rock, as measured by the reduction in amplitude or increase in slowness of
the acoustic Stoneley wave generated in the borehole. The velocity and amplitude of the Stoneley wave are
reduced by the presence of mobile fluids in the formation. Physically, the effect can be seen as a coupling of the
Stoneley energy into a formation wave known as the slow wave, as predicted by the Biot theory. The amount of
reduction is a complicated function of this mobility (or permeability divided by viscosity), the properties of the
borehole fluid, the pore fluid and the mudcake, the elastic properties of the rock and the frequency. Since all these
factors are measured or estimated from logs, it is possible to determine formation mobility. In practice, the
mobility needs to be reasonably high for the method to be accurate.
See: Biot theory, Stoneley wave
stress induced anisotropy
A situation in which theÂ formationÂ shear-waveÂ velocityÂ varies azimuthally around theÂ borehole,
because unequal stresses in the formation have caused azimuthal variations in theÂ stress concentrations
around the borehole. These stress concentrations change the shear-wave speeds in the region surrounding
the well from those in the far field, such that a characteristic response is observed in the dispersion of
theÂ dipoleÂ flexural mode.
See: azimuthal, flexural mode, S-wave
More Details:
• The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy
stress-induced anisotropy
A situation in which theÂ formationÂ shear-waveÂ velocityÂ varies azimuthally around theÂ borehole,
because unequal stresses in the formation have caused azimuthal variations in theÂ stress concentrations
around the borehole. These stress concentrations change the shear-wave speeds in the region surrounding
the well from those in the far field, such that a characteristic response is observed in the dispersion of
theÂ dipoleÂ flexural mode.
See: azimuthal, flexural mode, S-wave
More Details:
• The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy
structural shale
A particular type of shale distribution in which the shale exists as grains within a rock framework, in contrast to
dispersed shale and laminar shale. The term also refers to a formation model or saturation equation based on this
distribution.
See: saturation equation
summation of fluids method
A technique for measuring the effective porosity of a core sample by summing the volumes of the fluids recovered
from it. The volumes of the gas, oil and water in the sample usually are determined by the retort method, which
also determines the bulk volume. The porosity is then the ratio of the total fluid volume to the bulk volume.
See: Boyle's Law Double Cell, Boyle's Law Single Cell, buoyancy, core plug, liquid saturation method, mercury
displacement method, porosimeter, retort method, routine core analysis
surrounding bed
A formation layer above or below the layer being measured by a logging tool. The term is used in particular to
describe the adjacent layers above or below a horizontal well. In a vertical well, the term shoulder bed is more
common. The term adjacent bed is used in both cases.
Synonyms: adjacent bed
See: depth of investigation, iterative forward modeling, radial resolution, shoulder bed
survey
1. n. [Geophysics]
A data set measured and recorded with reference to a particular area of the Earth's surface, such as a seismic
survey.
See: accelerometer, base station, baseline, baseline, benchmark, benchmark, cultural noise, depth point, drift,
electromagnetic method, free-air correction, gravity, gravity survey, magnetics, monument, perpendicular offset,
salt proximity survey, seismic, side-scan sonar, telluric-current method
2. vb. [Geophysics]
To measure and record data according to location on the Earth's surface. In geophysics, the term is used in the
context of acquiring seismic, electrical, gravity or magnetic data to evaluate the subsurface.
See: acquisition
3. n. [Drilling]
A completed measurement of the inclination and azimuth of a location in a well (typically the total depth at the
time of measurement). In both directional and straight holes, the position of the well must be known with
reasonable accuracy to ensure the correct wellbore path and to know its position in the event a relief well must be
drilled. The measurements themselves include inclination from vertical, and the azimuth (or compass heading) of
the wellbore if the direction of the path is critical. These measurements are made at discrete points in the well,
and the approximate path of the wellbore computed from the discrete points. Measurement devices range from
simple pendulum-like devices to complex electronic accelerometers and gyroscopes used more often as MWD
becomes more popular. In simple pendulum measurements, the position of a freely hanging pendulum relative to
a measurement grid (attached to the housing of the tool and assumed to represent the path of the wellbore) is
captured on photographic film. The film is developed and examined when the tool is removed from the wellbore,
either on wireline or the next time pipe is tripped out of the hole.
See: azimuth, deviation survey, directional drilling, directional survey, inclination, measurements-while-drilling,
total depth, tripping pipe
4. n. [Drilling]
A precise and legally binding measurement of surface locations, referenced to known benchmark locations.
5. vb. [Drilling]
To make the measurements as in definitions 1 or 2.
The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical quantities in or around a well. In early
years, the term was used more often than log.
Syno
systematic error
A reproducible inaccuracy of measurement introduced by either faulty design, failing equipment, inadequate
calibration, inferior procedure or a change in the measurement environment.
See: accuracy, measurement error, random error, sampling error
T1
In a nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, the characteristic time for longitudinal relaxation. In rocks,
longitudinal relaxation is the inverse sum of the surface relaxation and bulk relaxation. T1 is not normally measured
in NMR logging, but is an important parameter in deciding the polarization time and hence the logging speed. T1 is
closely related to the transverse relaxation time, T2. The ratio T1/T2 in water-filled rocks is typically between 1.5
and 2.5. In light hydrocarbons and gas, the ratio increases up to 10 and more as the viscosity decreases.
See: bulk relaxation, longitudinal relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, relaxation time,
transverse relaxation
T2
In nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging, the characteristic time for transverse relaxation. In rocks, there are
three components of the transverse relaxation: surface, Ts; bulk, Tb; and diffusion relaxation, Td. T2 is the inverse
sum of each component for each fluid, as follows: 1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td. Because of the reciprocal sum, the
smallest of the three types of relaxations is the most important in determining the final T2 for each fluid. There is
not one single value of T2 for a rock but a wide distribution of values lying anywhere between fractions of a
millisecond and several seconds. The distribution of T2 values is the principal output of an NMR log.
See: bulk relaxation, longitudinal relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, relaxation time, T1
tail
The last page or pages on a log print, which may contain data about the well, the recording parameters and the
calibration of the measurements.
See: heading, insert, repeat section
tapered cutoff
In a nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, the use of a gradual rather than a sharp cutoff to distinguish
between bound water and free water. A sharp cutoff at, for example T2 = 33 ms in sandstones, is normally used to
distinguish free water (all T2s above 33 ms) from bound water (all T2s below 33ms). In a water-filled rock, in the
fast diffusion limit, T2 is directly related to pore size. The distinction between bound and free water is based on the
assumption that all free water resides in large pores, and all bound water in small pores. However, in rocks with
large pores, a significant volume of bound water exists on the surface of the grains around a large pore. Being part
of a large pore, it gives a long T2 and will be incorrectly counted as free water. One solution is the tapered cutoff, in
which the bound water is the sum of all the T2 below a minimum, for example 5 ms, and is then a progressively
smaller fraction of the volume at T2s up to a maximum, for example 500 ms. All signal above 500 ms represents
free water. The form of the taper is usually empirical, but is based on some model of pore shape, such as a bundle
of tubes. See Kleinberg RL and Boyd A: 'Tapered Cutoffs for Magnetic Resonance Bound Water Volume' paper SPE
38737, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA, October 5-8,
1997.
See: bound fluid, bound water, free water, irreducible water, nuclear magnetic resonance measurement
telemetry
A system for converting the measurements recorded by a wireline or measurements-while-drilling
(MWD) tool into a suitable form for transmission to the surface. In the case of wireline logging, the
measurements are converted into electronic pulses or analog signals that are sent up the cable. In the case
of MWD, they are usually converted into an amplitude or frequency-modulated pattern of mud pulses.
Some MWD tools use wirelines run inside the drillpipe. Others use wireless telemetry, in which signals
are sent as electromagnetic waves through the Earth. Wireless telemetry is also used downhole to send
signals from one part of an MWD tool to another.
See: cartridge, mud pulse telemetry, sonde
More Details:
• Wellbore Imaging Goes Live
terrain correction
The positive gravity correction that accounts for the deviation of the topography from the horizontal slab of
infinite extent assumed in the Bouguer correction. Local topographic features always decrease the gravity
measurement because the attractive force of the topography above the station is away from the Earth, and the
effect of topography below the station is negative because of the absence of attractive material.
See: borehole gravity, borehole gravity meter, Bouguer correction, elevation correction
thermal capture
A neutron interaction in which the neutron is absorbed by the target nucleus, producing an isotope in an excited
state. The activated isotope de-excites instantly through the emission of characteristic gamma rays. Thermal
capture, also called neutron capture, usually occurs at low thermal energies at which the neutrons have about the
same energy as the surrounding matter, typically below 0.4 eV (0.025 eV at room temperature). Some elements
are better thermal absorbers than others. Neutron capture is an important principle behind the pulsed neutron
capture log, theÂ elemental capture spectroscopyÂ log, the pulsed neutron spectroscopy logÂ and theÂ thermal
neutron porosity measurement.
Synonyms: neutron capture
See: chemical neutron source, fast-neutron reaction, inelastic neutron scattering, neutron generator, neutron
interactions
thermal diffusion length
A parameter used to characterize thermal neutron interactions in bulk material. Thermal diffusion length (Ld) is the
characteristic distance between the point at which a neutron becomes thermal and the point of its final capture. It
is related to the quantity of thermal absorbers in the formation, and therefore is an important factor in the
thermal neutron porosity measurement. Thermal neutrons have about the same energy as the surrounding
matter, typically less than 0.4 eV (0.025 eV at room temperature).
See: chemical neutron source, neutron capture, neutron interactions
thermal neutron absorber
An element, or mineral, that is particularly effective in absorbing thermal neutrons (neutrons with about the same
energy as the surrounding matter, typically less than 0.4 eV). The elements gadolinium, boron, chlorine, hydrogen
and iron are thermal absorbers (in decreasing order of effectiveness). The effect of chlorine is used in a pulsed
neutron capture log to distinguish salty water from hydrocarbons. In a thermal neutron porosity measurement, the
effect of hydrogen is important, while boron and iron affect the response in shales.
See: neutron capture, neutron interactions, thermal diffusion length
thermal neutron porosity measurement

A measurement of the slowing down and capture of neutrons between a source and one or more thermal neutron
detectors. The neutron source emits high-energy neutrons that are slowed mainly by elastic scattering to near
thermal levels. Thermal neutrons have about the same energy as the surrounding matter, typically less than 0.4
eV. The slowing-down process is dominated by hydrogen. At thermal levels, the neutrons diffuse through the
material until they undergo thermal capture. Capture is dominated by chlorine, hydrogen and other thermal
neutron absorbers. Typical thermal neutron measurements use a chemical neutron source and two thermal
neutron detectors. An accelerator source (neutron generator) is sometimes used. Some, mainly earlier, devices
measure the gamma rays emitted by thermal capture, rather than thermal neutrons.
See: chemical neutron source, elastic neutron scattering, epithermal neutron porosity measurement, excavation
effect, hydrogen index, limestone porosity unit, limestone-compatible scale, neutron capture, neutron
interactions, slowing-down length, slowing-down time, thermal diffusion length
thorium
An element with an atomic number of 90. The 232Th isotope is radioactive and decays with a half-life of 1.4 * 1010
years through a series of intermediate isotopes to a stable isotope of lead. The intermediate isotopes emit a wide
range of gamma rays, the most prominent being that of thallium, 208Tl. It is assumed that formations are in secular
equilibrium; that is, the relative proportions of parent and daughter isotopes remain constant, and the measured
spectrum is directly related to the amount of 232Th. The concentration in the Earth's crust is about 12 parts per
million, ppm, by weight. Thorium-bearing minerals are rare. Thorium is a trace element associated with clays and
heavy minerals. It is very immobile so that quantity measured today probably was present at the time of
deposition. A log of thorium is presented in parts per million. It is often a good measure of clay content.
See: gamma ray log, natural gamma ray spectroscopy, potassium, uranium
tick mark
In logging while drilling, a mark associated with each measurement indicating when a sample was taken. It is
usually presented as a short bar in the depth track. Widely spaced tick marks indicate a low sampling rate. In
wireline logging, a tick mark indicates the cumulative volume of some quantity, such as hole volume or traveltime.
The term is sometimes spelled tic mark.
See: logging while drilling
time after bit

The time that has elapsed between the bit first penetrating a formation and a log being recorded opposite it. In
logging while drilling, this time is different for each log, since it depends on the drilling rate and the distance
between the bit and the particular logging sensor.
Synonyms: formation exposure time
time lapse

Pertaining to techniques in which the same quantity is measured at different times in the life of a reservoir.
Normally the only change in a time-lapse measurement orÂ surveyÂ will be due to changes in water or
gasÂ saturation. Thus, a comparison of two logsÂ runÂ at different times, such as a year apart, should simply
reflect the change in fluid saturations in theÂ poreÂ space. The most common time-lapse logs are made with
pulsedÂ neutron capture, pulsed neutron spectroscopy andÂ boreholeÂ gravity measurements.
See: acid effect, pulsed neutron spectroscopy log, sigma, time-lapse seismic data
time-lapse

Pertaining to techniques in which the same quantity is measured at different times in the life of a reservoir.
Normally the only change in a time-lapse measurement or survey will be due to changes in water or gas saturation.
Thus, a comparison of two logs run at different times, such as a year apart, should simply reflect the change in fluid
saturations in the pore space. The most common time-lapse logs are made with pulsed neutron capture, pulsed
neutron spectroscopy and borehole gravity measurements.
See: acid effect, pulsed neutron spectroscopy log, sigma, time-lapse seismic data
tool string
The downhole hardware needed to make a log. Measurements-while-drillingÂ (MWD)Â loggingÂ tools, in some
cases known asÂ logging while drillingÂ (LWD) tools, are drill collars into which the necessary sensors and
electronics have been built. WirelineÂ logging tools are typically cylinders from 1.5 to 5 in. [3.8 to 12.7 cm] in
diameter. Since the total length is more than can be conveniently handled in one piece, the logging tool is divided
into different sections that are assembled at the wellsite. These sections consist of cartridges and sondes. Different
measurements can be combined to make up a tool string. The total length of a tool string may range from 10 to
100 ft [3 to 30 m] or more. Flexible joints are added in long tool strings to ease passage in the borehole, and to
allow different sections to be centralized or eccentralized. If the total length is very long, it is often preferable to
make two or more logging runs with shorter tool strings.
See: bridle, cable, drill collar, head, log, torpedo
top log interval
The top of the interval recorded on the log, or the shallowest point at which the log readings are valid. If the top of
the log is at the casing shoe, the last valid reading of many logs will be a short distance below. However, it is
common to give the depth of the casing shoe as the top log interval.
Antonyms: bottom log interval
See: casing shoe, last reading
tornado chart
A plot representing the effect of invasion on resistivity measurements that have different depths of investigation.
The plot assumes a step-profile model of invasion and determines true resistivity, flushed zone resistivity and
diameter of invasion from ratios of deep-, medium- and shallow-resistivity measurements. Strictly speaking, when
both resistive invasion and conductive invasion are plotted, the chart is called a butterfly chart. When only one is
plotted, it is known as a tornado chart.
See: butterfly chart, conductive invasion, depth of investigation, diameter of invasion, flushed zone, resistive
invasion, step profile, true resistivity
torpedo
The connection between the wireline logging cable and the bridle. The torpedo consists of an outer mechanical
connection enclosing electrical connections between the conductors.
See: head, logging tool
tortuosity
A measure of the geometric complexity of a porous medium. Tortuosity is a ratio that characterizes the
convoluted pathways of fluid diffusion and electrical conduction through porous media. In the fluid
mechanics of porous media, tortuosity is the ratio of the length of a streamline—a flow line or path—
between two points to the straight-line distance between those points. Tortuosity is thus related to the
ratio of a fluid's diffusion coefficient when it is not confined by a porous medium to its effective diffusion
coefficient when confined in a porous medium. Tortuosity is also related to the formation factor, which is
the ratio of electrical resistivity of a conductive fluid in a porous medium to the electrical resistivity of the
fluid itself.
In some literature, tortuosity denotes the square of the ratio defined above, whereas in other literature, the
term tortuosity factor is used for the square of the ratio.
See: a, formation factor
2. n. [Geology, Drilling, Reservoir Characterization]

A measure of deviation from a straight line. It is the ratio of the actual distance traveled between two points,
including any curves encountered, divided by the straight line distance. Tortuosity is used by drillers to describe
wellbore trajectory, by log analysts to describe electrical current flow through rock and by geologists to describe
pore systems in rock and the meander of rivers.
total porosity
The total pore volume per unit volume of rock. It is measured in volume/volume, percent or porosity units. The
total porosity is the total void space and as such includes isolated pores and the space occupied by clay-bound
water. It is the porosity measured by core analysis techniques that involve disaggregating the sample. It is also the
porosity measured by many log measurements, including density, neutron porosity and nuclear magnetic
resonance logs.
See: bound water, effective porosity, free water, microporosity, small-pore water
trace
1. n. [Geophysics]
The seismic data recorded for one channel. A trace is a recording of the Earth's response to seismic energy passing
from the source, through subsurface layers, and back to the receiver.
Synonyms: seismic trace
See: bin, brute stack, channel, coherent, coherent noise, common-offset, common-receiver, dilatation, fold,
Fourier transform, gather, group, mute, one-dimensional seismic data, random noise, rarefaction, Ricker wavelet,
seismic record, seismic section, seismogram, signature deconvolution, spectrum, stack, static correction, synthetic
seismogram, two-dimensional seismic data, two-dimensional seismic data, zero crossing
The presentation on hard copy of log data from a single measurement versus depth. The term originated with the
early optical recorders in which log data were recorded on film using an optical trace. Now the term curve is more
common.
See: coding, track
track
A vertical section of a log presentation over which one particular set of data is displayed. The track divides the
presentation into different sections, each with a certain set of log curves or other data, such as depth numbers.
The section is vertical in the sense that it is along the depth or time axis of the log. The curves are usually blanked
off when they run outside their allotted track. Tracks are typically numbered from left to right across the page
(when viewed with depth or time increasing towards the bottom of the page).
See: heading, insert, repeat section, tail
transition zone
1. n. [Geophysics]
An area in which water is too shallow for acquisition of marine seismic data with towed streamers, such as near
the shoreline, marshes and lagoons. In some cases, source explosives can be rammed into the unconsolidated
sediments of transition zone environments rather than drilling more costly shot holes. Likewise, hydrophones can
be placed by ramming to couple the receiver to the Earth better and to save time and money during survey
acquisition.
See: acquisition, coupling
With reference to invasion, the volume between the flushed zone and the undisturbed zone in which the mud
filtrate has only partially displaced the moveable formation fluids. One common model of invasion assumes a
smooth transition in resistivity and other formation properties from the flushed to the undisturbed zone. Based on
this assumption, the inner and outer diameters of invasion can be determined from array resistivity logs. Another
common invasion model, which does not assume a smooth transition, is the annulus.
See: step profile
transmission tomography

A technique used in crosswell seismic and electromagnetic tomography for recording the direct signal
from the source or transmitter in one well to the receiver array in another well. This technique is used for
mapping the distribution of acoustic velocity and attenuation or electromagnetic resistivity between wells.
See: tomography
More Details:
transverse relaxation
The loss of coherent energy by protons in a rock while precessing about a static magnetic field during a nuclear
magnetic resonance measurement. The loss of coherent energy, or relaxation, due to the free induction decay is
corrected by the CPMG pulse sequence. This leaves three mechanisms for relaxation: surface relaxation, bulk
relaxation and diffusion relaxation, all of which depend on formation properties. Transverse relaxation is
characterized by an exponential decay of time constant T2.
See: free-induction decay, longitudinal relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance measurement, relaxation time, T1
true resistivity
With reference to log analysis, the resistivity of the undisturbed formation. It is derived from a resistivity log that
has been corrected as far as possible for all environmental effects, such as borehole, invasion and surrounding bed
effects. Hence, it is taken as the true resistivity of the undisturbed formation in situ and is called Rt.
See: in situ, water-filled resistivity
With reference to core analysis, the resistivity of a sample only partially filled with water. Called Rt, it is used in
contrast to the resistivity of a sample completely filled with water, Ro. The water may be replaced by any
nonconductive fluid, usually air or dead oil.
See: dead oil
UCS

Abbreviation for unconfined compressive strength, or uniaxial compressive strength.
Alternate Form: unconfined compressive strength, uniaxial compressive strength
ultra-long spaced electrical log
A conventional electrical log with very long electrode spacing. The ultralong-spaced electrical log (ULSEL) is a
normal device with a distance between the current-emitting electrode and the measure electrode of between
about 75 ft [23 m] and 1000 ft [305 m]. The long spacings are designed to locate objects within tens of feet of the
borehole. These objects may be a salt dome or casing, in the case of a relief well.
See: electrode device, resistivity log, salt dome
ultrasonic measurement
In the context of borehole logging, measurements of acoustic signals that are in the hundreds of kilohertz to the
low-megahertz range. Such ultrasonic instruments are mostly of the pulse-echo type, and are used in the borehole
televiewer, and in various cased-hole devices to determine corrosion and cement-bond quality.
See: acoustic transducer, sonic measurement
uncertainty
Result of the evaluation aimed at characterizing the range within which the true value of a quantity is estimated to
lie, generally with a given likelihood. (ISO) The uncertainty is the amount of possible inaccuracy. It is often a
statistical estimate of this range, such as the half-width of a gaussian distribution. The quantity may have been
measured or derived from an equation.
See: accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibility
2. n. [Reservoir Characterization]
The degree to which a data set may be in error or stray from predicted values. Sometimes quantified in terms of
variance or standard deviation, uncertainty exists in data because of a variety of problems, such as poor calibration
or contamination or damage to rocks prior to measurement. Uncertainty is the cause of many problems, which
occasionally can be overcome by normalizing the data.
unconfined compressive strength

A measure of a material’s strength. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial
compressive stress that a right-cylindrical sample of material can withstand under unconfined
conditions—the confining stress is zero. It is also known as the uniaxial compressive strength of a
material because the application of compressive stress is only along one axis—the longitudinal axis—of
the sample.
Alternate Form: UCS, uniaxial compressive strength
More Details:
• Rocks Matter: Ground Truth in Geomechanics
undisturbed zone
The part of the formation that has not been affected by invasion.
Synonyms: virgin zone
See: annulus, flushed zone, step profile, transition zone
undrained test
An undrained test is one in which the fluid in the sample is not able to flow and equilibrate to imposed pore
pressure conditions; the fluid mass remains the same while the fluid volume and pressure will vary.
See: drained test
uniaxial compressive strength

A measure of a material’s strength. The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial
compressive stress that a right-cylindrical sample of material can withstand before failing. It is also
known as the unconfined compressive strength of a material because confining stress is set to zero.
Alternate Form: UCS, unconfined compressive strength
More Details:
• Rocks Matter: Ground Truth in Geomechanics
unsteady state
A system that is in a transient state at the time of a measurement. In the case of permeability measurements on
core samples, two transient techniques are used. In the pressure falloff method, the sample is at atmospheric
pressure, either in a chamber or under a probe. Fluid at a higher pressure is released into one end of the sample.
The decay of pressure with time at that end of the sample is recorded and analyzed by techniques similar to those
used for transient well tests. In the pulse-decay method, the sample is held in a chamber and connected to two
reservoirs, all of which are filled with a fluid at high pressure. The pressure in one of the reservoirs is increased a
small amount and then re-connected to the sample. The change in pressure with time of this sample is recorded
and analyzed using flow equations.
Antonyms: steady state
See: core plug, inertial resistance, permeameter, retort method, routine core analysis
uranium
An element with an atomic number of 92. The 238U isotope is radioactive and decays with a half-life of 4.4 * 109
years through a series of intermediate isotopes to a stable isotope of lead. The intermediate isotopes emit a wide
range of gamma rays, the most prominent being that of bismuth, 214Bi. It is assumed that formations are in secular
equilibrium; that is, the relative proportions of parent and daughter isotopes remain constant, and the measured
spectrum is directly related to the amount of 238U. The concentration in the Earth?s crust is about 4 ppm by
weight. Uranium-bearing minerals are rare. Uranium is a soluble trace element that is transported easily and can
be precipitated far from its source. It is most frequently found in carbonates and organic materials. A log of
uranium is presented in parts per million, ppm. It is useful for detecting organic material, but is otherwise
considered not useful for quantitative evaluation. In the corrected gamma ray log, the uranium contribution is
removed to differentiate carbonates from shales.
See: gamma ray log, natural gamma ray spectroscopy, potassium, thorium
variable-density log
A presentation of the acoustic waveform at a receiver of a sonic or ultrasonic measurement, in which the
amplitude is presented in color or the shades of a gray scale. The variable-density log is commonly used as an
adjunct to the cement-bond log, and offers better insights into its interpretation; in most cases microannulus and
fast-formation-arrival effects can be identified using this additional display. In openhole, it may be displayed
alongside the sonic log transit-time as a qualitative presentation of the acoustic wave train, and is sometimes used
for fracture detection by examination of the chevron patterns given by Stoneley wave reflections (and other wave
reflections) at fractures crossing the borehole.
See: acoustic wave, cement bond log, Stoneley wave, transit time
verification
A check performed at the wellsite to establish whether a logging measurement is functioning properly. Verification
is also known as an operational check. The verification may be done before or after the survey and may be
presented with the log. Verification is distinct from calibration.
See: calibration
verification listing
A description of the contents of a digital record.
vertical resistivity
The resistivity of a formation measured by flowing current in a vertical plane. In anisotropic formations, the
horizontal and vertical resistivities are different. In a vertical well, wireline induction logs and measurements-
while-drilling propagation logs measure the horizontal resistivity, whereas laterologs measure the horizontal
resistivity with some component of the vertical. In deviated and horizontal wells, all these logs measure some
mixture of both vertical and horizontal resistivity.
Antonyms: horizontal resistivity
See: electrical anisotropy, parallel resistivity, perpendicular resistivity
vertical resolution
A distance that characterizes the ability of a logging tool to resolve changes parallel to the tool axis. The word
vertical implies a vertical well, but the term is used at other wellbore deviations. The vertical resolution
summarizes the vertical response of the measurement in one or more distances. Most quoted vertical resolutions
assume a homogeneous formation with stated properties. Vertical resolutions can vary considerably in more
complex conditions, and at different values of the properties concerned. They should be considered only a
qualitative guide to tool response. There are several different definitions of the vertical resolution distance. First,
and most commonly, it is the interval within which a large percentage, typically 90%, of the vertical response
occurs. Second, it is the minimum bed thickness needed for the measurement to read within a small percentage,
typically 10%, of the true value at the center of the bed. Third, it may refer to the smallest bed thickness for which
a significant change can be detected by the measurement. For acoustic and electromagnetic propagation
measurements, it is taken, with reasonable accuracy, as the span of the receiver array. For nuclear and nuclear
magnetic resonance measurements, which must be acquired during a significant time interval, the vertical
resolution also depends on the logging speed and the precision required.
See: alpha processing, electromagnetic propagation measurement, geometrical factor, nuclear magnetic
resonance measurement, radial response
vertical response
The response of a logging measurement as a function of distance parallel to the tool axis. The word vertical implies
a vertical well, but the term is used at other wellbore deviations. Vertical responses are determined by computer
simulation or laboratory measurement. For some measurements, mainly resistivity, the vertical response can be
shaped as desired through signal processing. In general, the vertical response depends on the formation properties
throughout the measurement volume. Most quoted vertical responses have been determined in formations that
are radially homogeneous and have small vertical changes. They can then be summarized by a geometrical factor
or a pseudogeometrical factor. These factors are appropriate for volumetric measurements such as nuclear and
resistivity, but not for others such as acoustic propagation.
See: radial response, vertical resolution
virgin zone
The part of theÂ formationÂ that has not been affected byÂ invasion.
See: annulus, flushed zone, step profile, transition zone, undisturbed zone
volumetric cross section
The cross section of a material to photoelectric absorption, in barns/cm3. The volumetric cross section, U, is from
the product of the photoelectric factor, PEF or Pe , and the electron density. In practice, U is usually calculated
using the bulk density instead of the electron density. U is a volumetric quantity, whereas Pe is not. U is more
useful in log interpretation since it can be used in a linear mixing law in terms of the volumes of the formation
components.
See: density measurement, Z/A effect
wait time
The time allotted for the alignment of protons with the static magnetic field during a nuclear magnetic resonance
measurement. The term is used more generally with reference to logging tools, and is synonymous with the more
general term polarization time.
Synonyms: polarization time
See: nuclear magnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance measurement
wall cake

Synonyms: mudcake
See: deflocculated mud, drilling fluid, dynamic filtration, filter-cake quality, filter-cake thickness, filtrate volume,
openhole completion, relative filtrate volume, resin, static filtration
water filled resistivity
TheÂ resistivityÂ of a sample completely filled with water. Called Ro, it is used in contrast to the resistivity of a
sample only partially filled with water, Rt. The ratio RtÂ / RoÂ is called theÂ resistivity index, I.
See: quicklook, true resistivity
water saturation
The fraction of water in a given pore space. It is expressed in volume/volume, percent or saturation units. Unless
otherwise stated, water saturation is the fraction of formation water in the undisturbed zone. The saturation is
known as the total water saturation if the pore space is the total porosity, but is known as effective water
saturation if the pore space is the effective porosity. If used without qualification, the term usually refers to the
effective water saturation.
Synonyms: effective water saturation
See: flushed-zone water saturation, moveable hydrocarbons, moved hydrocarbons, residual oil
water wet
1. adj. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Well Completions]

Pertaining to the adhesion of a liquid to the surface of a solid. In water-wet conditions, a thin film of water coats
the surface of theÂ formationÂ matrix, a condition that is desirable for efficient oil transport. Treatments that
change theÂ wettabilityÂ of the formation from water-wet toÂ oil-wetÂ can significantly impair productivity.
Describing the preference of a solid to be in contact with a water phase rather than an oil or gas phase. Water-wet
rocks preferentially imbibe water. Generally, sandstones and carbonates are water-wet before contact
withÂ crude oil, but may be altered by components of the crude oil to becomeÂ oil-wet. Certain minerals, as well
as different crystallographic faces of the sameÂ mineral, may be variably prone to being oil- or water-wet.
See: drainage, fluid contact, imbibition, wettability
water-filled resistivity
The resistivity of a sample completely filled with water. Called Ro, it is used in contrast to the resistivity of a sample
only partially filled with water, Rt. The ratio Rt / Ro is called the resistivity index, I.
See: quicklook, true resistivity
water-wet
1. adj. [Well Completions, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

Pertaining to the adhesion of a liquid to the surface of a solid. In water-wet conditions, a thin film of water coats
the surface of the formation matrix, a condition that is desirable for efficient oil transport. Treatments that change
the wettability of the formation from water-wet to oil-wet can significantly impair productivity.
Describing the preference of a solid to be in contact with a water phase rather than an oil or gas phase. Water-wet
rocks preferentially imbibe water. Generally, sandstones and carbonates are water-wet before contact with crude
oil, but may be altered by components of the crude oil to become oil-wet. Certain minerals, as well as different
crystallographic faces of the same mineral, may be variably prone to being oil- or water-wet.
See: drainage, fluid contact, imbibition, wettability
weak point
A piece of steel cable placed inside a logging head that is designed to break at a predetermined tension. If the
logging tool becomes stuck in the borehole, there is a danger that the logging cable will break at surface, since this
is the place of maximum tension. It is difficult to fish a long length of tangled cable in the borehole. The weak point
is designed to break before the cable, so that the latter can be retrieved, leaving only the logging tool and head in
the borehole.
See: bridle, torpedo
well log
The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical quantities in or around a well.
The term comes from the word "log" used in the sense of a record or a note. Wireline logs are taken
downhole, transmitted through a wireline to surface and recorded there. Measurements-while-
drilling (MWD) and logging while drilling (LWD) logs are also taken downhole. They are either
transmitted to surface by mud pulses, or else recorded downhole and retrieved later when the instrument
is brought to surface. Mud logs that describe samples of drilled cuttings are taken and recorded on
surface.
See: real-time data, recorded data
More Details:
• Defining Logging: Discovering the Secrets of the Earth
The display of one or more log measurements on a strip of paper or film (a hard copy) with depth in one
axis. In this sense, the term refers to the display not only of the measurement but of other relevant
information. A typical log is presented on folded paper of indeterminate length, but about 8.5-in. [21.5-
cm] wide. It consists of aÂ heading, well sketch,Â logging toolÂ sketch,Â insert, main log,Â repeat
sectionÂ andÂ tail. When the term is used in this sense, each log measurement is usually referred to as
aÂ curve.
wet clay porosity
The proportion of a wet clay that is clay-bound water. A formation that has 100% clay would have a porosity equal
to the wet-clay porosity (WCLP), all of it being clay-bound water, and a volume of dry clay equal to (1 - WCLP). The
concept is used to relate the volume of clay-bound water, CBW, to the volume of dry clay, Vdcl, in an actual rock,
since the ratio of the two is the same and equal to:
CBW / Vdcl = WCLP / (1 - WCLP).
See: dual water, electrical double layer
wet-clay porosity
The proportion of a wet clay that is clay-bound water. A formation that has 100% clay would have a porosity equal
to the wet-clay porosity (WCLP), all of it being clay-bound water, and a volume of dry clay equal to (1 - WCLP). The
concept is used to relate the volume of clay-bound water, CBW, to the volume of dry clay, Vdcl, in an actual rock,
since the ratio of the two is the same and equal to:
CBW / Vdcl = WCLP / (1 - WCLP).
See: dual water, electrical double layer
wettability
1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Formation Evaluation]

The preference of a solid to contact one liquid or gas, known as the wetting phase, rather than another.
The wetting phase will tend to spread on the solid surface and a porous solid will tend to imbibe the
wetting phase, in both cases displacing the nonwetting phase. Rocks can be water-wet, oil-wet or
intermediate-wet. The intermediate state between water-wet and oil-wet can be caused by a mixed-wet
system, in which some surfaces or grains are water-wet and others are oil-wet, or a neutral-wet system, in
which the surfaces are not strongly wet by either water or oil. Both water and oil wet most materials in
preference to gas, but gas can wet sulfur, graphite and coal. Wettability affects relative permeability,
electrical properties, nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation times and saturation profiles in the reservoir.
The wetting state impacts waterflooding and aquifer encroachment into a reservoir. Reservoir wetting
preference can be determined by measuring the contact angle of crude oil and formation water on silica or
calcite crystals or by measuring the characteristics of core plugs in either an Amott imbibition test or a
USBM test.
See: core plug, drainage, imbibition, magnetic resonance, relaxation time
More Details:
• Fundamentals of Wettability
whole core
A complete section of a conventionally drilled core. The section may be up to about 2 feet [0.6 m] in
length, with typical core diameters lying between 1.75 and 5.25 in. [4.4 and 13.3 cm]. The term full-
diameter core is also used, but generally refers to shorter sections of about 6 in. [15 cm]. The advantage of
whole core analysis is that it measures properties on a larger scale, closer to that of the reservoir. This is
particularly important for heterogeneous formations such as many carbonates or fractured materials.
See: core plug, routine core analysis, sidewall core
More Details:
wireline

Related to any aspect of logging that employs an electrical cable to lower tools into the borehole and to transmit
data. Wireline logging is distinct from measurements-while-drilling (MWD) and mud logging.
2. n. [Well Workover and Intervention]
A general term used to describe well-intervention operations conducted using single-strand or multistrand wire or
cable for intervention in oil or gas wells. Although applied inconsistently, the term commonly is used in association
with electric logging and cables incorporating electrical conductors. Similarly, the term slickline is commonly used
to differentiate operations performed with single-strand wire or braided lines.
wireline log
1. n. [Reservoir Characterization, Formation Evaluation, Drilling]

A continuous measurement ofÂ formationÂ properties with electrically powered instruments to infer
properties and make decisions about drilling andÂ productionÂ operations. The record of the
measurements, typically a long strip of paper, is also called a log. Measurements include electrical
properties (resistivity andÂ conductivityÂ at various frequencies),Â sonicÂ properties, active and passive
nuclear measurements, dimensional measurements of the wellbore,Â formation
fluidÂ sampling,Â formation pressureÂ measurement, wireline-conveyedÂ sidewallÂ coring tools, and
others. For wireline measurements, theÂ loggingÂ tool (or sonde) is lowered into the open wellbore on a
multiple conductor, contra-helically armored wireline cable. Once the tool string (link to ID 2964) has
reached the bottom of the interval of interest, measurements are taken on the way out of the wellbore.
This is done in an attempt to maintain tension on theÂ cableÂ (which stretches) as constant as possible
forÂ depth correlationÂ purposes. (The exception to this practice is in certain hostile environments in
which the tool electronics might not survive the downhole temperatures for long enough to allow the tool
to be lowered to the bottom of the hole and measurements to be recorded while pulling the tool up the
hole. In this case, "down log" measurements might be conducted on the way into the well, and repeated
on the way out if possible.) Most wireline measurements are recorded continuously while the sonde is
moving. Certain fluid sampling and pressure-measuring tools require that the sonde be stopped,
increasing the chance that the sonde or the cable might become stuck.Â Logging while drillingÂ (LWD)
tools take measurements in much the same way as wireline-logging tools, except that the measurements
are taken by a self-contained tool near the bottom of theÂ bottomhole assemblyÂ and are recorded
downward (as the well is deepened) rather than upward from the bottom of the hole.
See: hostile environment, log
More Details:
• Real-Time Openhole Evaluation
X signal
The reactive (X)Â signal, or that part of the alternating signal at theÂ receiverÂ of anÂ inductionÂ loggingÂ tool
that is out ofÂ phaseÂ with the transmitter current. This signal, also known as the quadrature signal, is less
sensitive toÂ formationÂ conductivityÂ and must be separated from theÂ R-signal, which is the main or, in older
tools, the only source of the induction log. In a simple two-coilÂ array, a large component of the X-signal is caused
by directÂ couplingÂ between transmitter and receiver coils. This direct signal is largely eliminated by use of
aÂ bucking coil. The X-signal provides a first-order correction to theÂ skin effectÂ of the R-signal.
X-radiography
A technique for imaging a core by moving a source of X-rays along a core and recording the attenuated X-rays on
the other side on a suitable photographic film.
See: computed tomography, core image, fluoroscopy
X-ray diffraction
A technique for the semiquantitative mineralogical analysis of a sample of rock by measuring the diffraction peaks
in X-rays diffracted by the sample. The position of the diffraction peaks is a measure of the distance between
discrete crystallographic diffracting planes within minerals, while their intensity indicates the quantity of the
mineral. The technique is only semiquantitative because the size and shape of the diffraction peak are strongly
influenced by the geometry of the measurement, for example orientation of the minerals, and sample preparation.
Fine particles such as clays must be separated from larger particles and measured separately if they are to be
detected properly. To reduce errors associated with preferred orientation of minerals, samples are most
commonly ground to a powder before analysis, a technique known as powder X-ray diffraction.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
A technique for elemental analysis of samples based on the characteristic fluorescence given off by different
elements subjected to X-rays. In core analysis, X-ray fluorescence often is used to help determine mineral content.
The elemental volumes are inverted to mineral volumes by assuming certain standard formulae for mineral
composition.
X-signal
The reactive (X) signal, or that part of the alternating signal at the receiver of an induction logging tool that is out
of phase with the transmitter current. This signal, also known as the quadrature signal, is less sensitive to
formation conductivity and must be separated from the R-signal, which is the main or, in older tools, the only
source of the induction log. In a simple two-coil array, a large component of the X-signal is caused by direct
coupling between transmitter and receiver coils. This direct signal is largely eliminated by use of a bucking coil. The
X-signal provides a first-order correction to the skin effect of the R-signal.
Z/A effect
The ratio of the electron density to the bulk density. The electron density is equal to the bulk density multiplied by
2Z/A where Z is the average atomic number and A is the average atomic weight of the formation. The density log
actually responds to electron density, whereas the desired measurement is the bulk density. Although for most
rocks 2Z/A is close to 1, it is not practical to adjust 2Z/A for each formation. Instead the electron density is scaled
to give the correct bulk density in limestone filled with fresh water. Then it is found that in the majority of
sedimentary rocks, the log reads the bulk density within 1%. The main exceptions are halite, sylvite and low-
pressure gas, because the 2Z/A of chlorine and hydrogen are not close to 1.
See: density measurement, photoelectric effect

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6FF40

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

aluminum activation log

array propagation resistivity

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

borehole gravity meter

bottom log interval

Boyle's Law Double Cell

Boyle's Law Single Cell

1. n. [Drilling Fluids, Formation Evaluation]

capillary pressure curve

cation exchange capacity

cement bond log

chemical neutron source

clay bound water

compensated density log

compensated neutron log

conductive rock matrix model

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Shale Gas]

core gamma log

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

crosswell electromagnetic tomography

crosswell reflection tomography

crosswell seismic tomography

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Geophysics]

1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Formation Evaluation, Geophysics]

1. n. [Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

dielectric propagation log

direct hydrocarbon typing

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

1. n. [Geology, Geophysics, Formation Evaluation]

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

effective water saturation

elastic neutron scattering

electrical double layer

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

electromagnetic propagation measurement

elemental capture spectroscopy

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

epithermal neutron porosity measurement

1. adj. [Formation Evaluation]

equivalent water resistivity

estimated ultimate recovery

1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Formation Evaluation, Shale Gas]

fast formation arrival

fast neutron reaction

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Drilling Fluids]

flushed zone water saturation

flushed-zone water saturation

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Shale Gas]

formation exposure time

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

free induction decay

gamma ray interactions

gamma ray log

1. n. [Formation Evaluation, Enhanced Oil Recovery]

in situ fluid analysis

in situ viscosity evaluation

induced gamma ray spectroscopy