Language Learning 40:2,pp.

189-219

Motivational Factors and Persistence

in Foreign Language Study*
Katherine Ramage
S a n Francisco State University

The predictive ability of motivational and attitudinal

factors in continuation of foreign language study beyond
the second level among high-school students was investi-
gated among students in two different geographical areas
in the U.S. Three classes of French and three classes of
Spanish Level 2 high-school students participated in the
study. The data were collected through a survey question-
naire. Discriminant function analyses were used t o ad-
dress the research questions.
The results of the study indicate that motivational and
attitudinal factors in addition to grade level and course
grade successfully discriminate between continuing and
discontinuing students. Interest in culture and in learning
the language thoroughly-including reading, writing, and
speaking it-distinguished continuing students from dis-
continuing students. On the other hand, interest in fulfilling
a college entrance requirement primarily characterized
the discontinuing students.
Grade level when taking the second level of a foreign
language and grade in the foreign language course were
also found to be discriminating variables.
Based upon these findings, profiles of continuing and
discontinuing students were constructed and recommen-
dations are made for interventions that may promote the
-
*This article wasadapted from my doctoral dissertation, StanfordUniversity,
School of Education, 1986. I thank Joseph E. Illick for his helpful comments
in preparing this manuscript.

189
190 Language Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

type of intrinsic interest in language learning indicated by

continuing students.

A rising concern for competence in languages other than

English, particularly in the areas of international diplomacy
and business, has become evident in the United States. Ar-
ticles in popular publications such as The New York Times
(Kobrin, 1985; Lauder, 1985) and the San Francisco Chronicle
(Kanigel, 1988)emphasize the business sector’s need for people
with language skills other than English. This need has not
always been felt by Americans. However, with the United
States dealing in a world economy, living in a n international
political theater, and facing an ever-growing immigrant com-
munity within its borders, the need for people with foreign
language skills is gaining attention.
Despite the need for people proficient in languages other
than English, a monolingual English speaker who acquires
competence in another language is a n exception to the rule.
Simon (1980) presented some impressive statistics as to the
low priority given to foreign language study and the inade-
quacy of our nation in meeting the demand for competency in
languages other than English. Nevertheless, foreign language
study continues to be given low priority in the overall educa-
tional curriculum. For instance, most American high schools
have no foreign language requirement. In those in which
languages are offered, they are usually Latin, French, Spanish,
and German. Languages spoken by members of the immigrant
community, for example, Polish or Chinese, are almost always
neglected. Finally, when a foreign language is studied, there
is seldom enough time or attention devoted to it to allow the
student to develop competence. (Two years is the standard
time spent studying a language; it is inadequate for foreign
language proficiency but satisfies the college entrance require-
ment. The failure to consider proficiency as the criterion of
language study appears to have two explanations. In the early
 Ramage 191

years of the century, foreign language was offered as an

alternative to math because both, it was argued, developed
analytical and problem-solving skills. Secondly, the study of
foreign language was integral to the academic, as opposed to
the vocational, curriculum; it was the symbol of a “higher” type
of education.)
In light of the college entrance requirements, one would
expect that enrollments in high-school foreign language classes
would be fairly stable from first to second level. Recent figures
from secondary schools in Northern California confirm this
expectation. They also indicate that there is a sharp drop in
enrollment in foreign language classes after second level in
secondary school, in fact, generally a 50% decrease from first
level to third level. The implication is that when external
pressures-most obviously the college entrance r e q u i r e m e n t
are removed, half the class is unable to maintain an interest in
continuing language study. We must, therefore, look beyond
external pressure to personal motivation if we are to under-
stand why some students persist in foreign language study and
others do not.
The present study was done in an effort to distinguish
motivations of students who choose to continue foreign lan-
guage study beyond the standard two-year stint from those of
students who do not. The initial step toward this end was to
elicit from the students themselves their motives for taking
and continuing or discontinuing foreign language study be-
yond second level. These student responses, in addition to
materials from other sources, were then developed into a
survey questionnaire that was administered to high-school
students. It was reasoned that identifying students’ motiva-
tions for foreign language study was a prerequisite to develop-
ing interventions that promote interest and continuation in
foreign language study.
192 Language Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

There are a variety of reasons that a student studies, and
persists in studying, a foreign or second language. Only some
of these reasons were initially examined by researchers. The
present study attempts to take the full range of motives into
consideration.
Past research has focused almost exclusively on two motives
for learning a second or foreign language: the integrative
motive, which is based on a desire to become more like valued
members of the target language community (Gardner &
Lambert, 1959, p. 267), and the instrumental motive, which
reflects a determination to acquire another language to achieve
such goals as a good job or social recognition (Clement, Gard-
ner, & Smith, 1977, p. 124).
The integrative-instrumental approach to measuring
motivation was introduced by Gardner and Lambed (1959)
when, up to that time, the emphasis in research had been on
aptitude as a n explanation of language learning. The introduc-
tion of these two affective factors was a step forward in
research, and they continued to be used (Gardner, 1960; h i s -
feld & Lambert, 1961; Spolsky, 1969; Gardner & Lambert,
1972; Lukmani, 1972; Teitelbaum, Edwards, & Hudson, 1975;
Pierson, Fu, & Lee, 1980). The integrative and instrumental
distinction is particularly appropriate to the Canadian context
of second language learning, where it was first used by Gardner
and Lambed.
However, the integrative-instrumental approach is not
adequate for all contexts (Clkment & Kruidenier, 1983). By
imposing this approach, certain motives, which are context
specific, have not been allowed to emerge (Lukmani, 1972;
Teitelbaum, Edwards, & Hudson, 1975; Chihara & Oller, 1978;
Pierson, Fu, & Lee, 1980). Furthermore, difficulty has been
encountered in clarifying which underlying factors comprise
integrative and which comprise instrumental motivations
(Anisfeld & Lambert, 1961; Teitelbaum, Edward, & Hudson,
 Ramage 193

1975). What is needed is a more open-ended approach to

identifying students’ motivations than has been used previ-
ously--one that allows a variety of motives to emerge.
There have been three studies of motivational (and attitu-
dinal) factors associated with persistence in second language
study-one in the U.S. (Bartley, 1970) and two in Canada
(Gardner & Smythe, 1975; Gardner, Smythe, Clement, &
Gliksman, 1976). Bartley administered the Foreign Language
Aptitude Scale, a Likert-type scale, to all eighth grade students
enrolled in modern foreign languages (German, French, and
Spanish) in two junior high schools in one district. The
motivational construct used in the study was instrumental and
intrinsic motivation.
Bartley found that motivational and attitudinal factors
were associated with persistence in foreign language study.
Although insightful, Bartley’s work is of limited generalizabil-
ity because of the heterogeneous nature of her attitude scale
and the absence of any type of componential analysis. A further
limitation is attributable to the nature of the sample that was
taken from two junior high schools in the same district.
The earlier Canadian study by Gardner and Smythe
(1975) found that motivational and attitudinal differences
among ninth, tenth, and eleventh-grade students of French in
London, Ontario, were more consistent in predicting continu-
ation and discontinuation than were dfferences in aptitude.
Unfortunately, no details were provided as to the sociocultural
and linguistic environment of the students in the study. In
addition, because Canada is a second language learning situ-
ation with respect to French and English, factors such as
prestige of the target language, availability of target language
speakers, and other sociocultural factors are likely to have
influenced student motivations for continuing second language
study as such factors have been shown to do when motivations
and attitudes are associated with proficiency.
In the other Canadian study, (Gardner, Smythe, Clement,
& Gliksman, 1976), persistence in second-language study was
194 Language Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

only one of several foci. They found that the composite motiva-
tional measure-including motivational intensity, desire to
learn French, and attitudes toward learning French-corre-
lated the highest with the intention to continue or discontinue
French study the following year.
Although Canada is a second language learning situation,
being a n officially bilingual country, and the U.S. is a foreign
language learning situation for the most part, in both contexts
motivational and attitudinal factors have been found to be
associated with continuation in foreign language study.
The present study departs from the motivational con-
structs used in previous work by taking an open-ended ap-
proach to identifying student motivations for continuing for-
eign language study. No preconceived system of classification,
such as integrative or instrumental, was used in the present
study. Motivations for taking a foreign language and for
continuing to study it were elicited from students in a pilot
study. These responses were then developed into Likert-type
scales and included in a survey questionnaire.
The following three research questions guided the present
study:
1. What are students’ motivations for taking a foreign lan-
guage?
2. Which factors distinguish between students who decide to
continue and those who decide to discontinue foreign
language study? and
3. Using these factors, how are continuing and discontinuing
students characterized?
The first two research questions were addressed by statistical
analyses. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize
secondary foreign language students. Discriminant function
analyses were used to identify the group of variables that
successfully classify continuing and hscontinuing students.
These findings were then used in conjunction with the open-
ended questions related to continuing and discontinuing for-
 Ramage 195

eign language study to develop profiles of continuing and

discontinuing foreign language students.'

METHOD
VARIABLES

This study investigated the predictive ability of motiva-

tional and attitudinal factors in the continuation of foreign
language study beyond second level among high-school stu-
dents. One of the research questions concerns the ability of
motivational and attitudinal factors to distinguish continuing
students from discontinuing students of high-school foreign
language study. The goal of the study was to identify the
optimal number of factors needed to make this distinction
resulting in profiles of continuing and discontinuing students.
The variables included in the study are the following:
1. motivations for studying a foreign language
2. motivations for studying a particular language
3. motivations for continuing or discontinuing foreign lan-
guage study
4. degree of commitment to foreign language study
5. attitudes toward the learning situation
6. parental encouragement in foreign language study
7. situations in which students encounter foreign languages
8. grade in foreign language
9. current grade level
10. foreign languages spoken by parents
11. intention to continue or discontinue foreign language
study beyond Level 2 in high school.
196 Language Learning Vol. 40,No. 2

SUBJECTS

Subjects for the final study were 138 students of second-

level French and Spanish from three different U S . high schools.
Two of the schools were in Northern California and one was in
Arkansas. The two schools in Northern California were se-
lected for differences in the average socioeconomiclevel of their
student populations and for differences in percentage of ethnic
minority students. The school in Arkansas was chosen as rep-
resentative of a different geographic area, and being the only
public high school in the town, it encompassed a wide range of
socioeconomic levels and was racially mixed. One French and
one Spanish class from each school participated in the study.

PROCEDURE

A questionnaire concerned with various aspects of student

motivations and attitudes was developed for use in the study.
As stated above, an open-ended approach was used to identify
student motivations for taking a foreign language. Rather
than imposing preconceived motivational orientations, rea-
sons for foreign language study were initially elicited from
students in a pilot study in a setting similar to those usedin the
final study. I t was thought that in using these responses, as
well as motivations suggested in the literature and by foreign-
language teachers, a more complete description of student
motivation would result, which would be particularly valid for
the population under consideration. These items were then
used to construct four Likert-type scales related to student
motivations for taking a foreign language initially, for selecting
the particular language they were studying, and for continuing
or discontinuing after second level in high school. To confirm
that the Likert-type survey items encompassed all of the
reasons students had given using the free response form of the
instrument, a colleague of the investigator was asked to clas-
sifv the free resDonse items accordmg. to the Likert-twe items.
 Ramage 197

After clarification of five of the Likert-type items, the rater

correctly classified all items. To establish reliability of items
from the free response format to the Likert-type format, re-
sponse agreement was checked for participants in the two
phases of the pilot study.
These scales were then combined with three other sec-
tions: a student profile section, three subscales from the
questionnaire developed by Gardner and Lambert (1959),and
a section designed to identify situations in which students
encounter foreign languages outside of the classroom. These
were developed into a survey questionnaire. A summary of
sections that were included in the questionnaire follows: stu-
dent reasons for taking a foreign language, for studying a
particular language, for continuing and discontinuing, student
commitment to foreign language study, student attitudes toward
their foreign language course and teacher, student perception
of parental encouragement in foreign language study, an open-
ended question for continuing students pertaining to one par-
ticularly strong influence in the decision to continue, an open-
ended question for discontinuing students pertaining to some-
thing that may have changed their decisions to discontinue,
background information such as languages other than English
spoken at home by student and parents, previous language
study by students and parents, parental educational level and
occupation, student ethnicity and gender, previous residence
in other countries, grade level in high school, intention to
attend college, and other demographic factors.
This survey questionnaire was administered to each of the
six participating classes during one class period.
Structured interviews with the teachers ofeach class were
used in interpreting situationally specific details related to the
student responses. The interviews were gathered by the
investigator in one session with each participating teacher
usingeither a cassette recorder or note-taking, as the situation
permitted. The questions pertained to the following areas:
198 Language Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

1. text, supplemental material, and methodology subscribed

to
2. methods of student evaluation
3. basis of student evaluation
4. emphasis of course
5. the teacher’s opinion of a “good”foreign language student
6. the teacher’s impression of student contact with foreign
languages outside of the classroom
7. current enrollment in contrast with past enrollment
8. the administration’s attitude toward foreign languages in
the curriculum
9. teacher evaluation ofjunior-high-school feeder programs.
Grades in foreign language class, math or science, and
English were obtained a t the end of the academic year for each
student who had completed a questionnaire. Grade in foreign
language was used in lieu of a n aptitude measure as an
indicator of the student’s parception of his or her ability.
Grades in math or science and grades in English were used to
determine relative grades.
In the final step of the data collection, a list ofstudents who
had registered for Level-3 language courses was obtained from
each school at the end of the spring semester to validate
students’ intentions to continue or discontinue foreign lan-
guage study the following year. Table 1 shows the number of
students in each language in each school who indicated an
intention to continue foreign language study the following
year. These data were validated against the registration list at
the end of the year. Teachers at all three schools reported that,
based on past years, pre-enrollment figures were a highly
accurate predictor for fall enrollments-between 80%and 90%
correct for continuing students.

ANALYSIS OF DATA
Statistical analyses were used to address the research
 Ramage 199

Table 1
Number of Students Continuing and Discontinuing
French and Spanish

French Spanish
School C D C D

Lower SES California School 19 6 25 9

Higher SES California School 18 3 15 6
Arkansas School 7 11 7 12
C=Continuing; D=Discontinuing; SES=Socioeconomic Status

questions that were concerned with students’ motivations for

talung a foreign language and for continuing or discontinuing
foreign language study after Level 2 in high school. Ten
discriminant function analyses were performed on the data
and one regression analysis. Due to spatial limitations, how-
ever, only two are discussed in the present article. Descriptive
statistics were used to address the question of which motiva-
tions students have for taking foreign languages and for demo-
graphics and background information on students.

DESCRIPTIW STATISTICS

No significant differences were found in demographics or

background information between continuing and discontinu-
ing students. Descriptive statistics did, however, show some of
the following characteristics of foreign language students as a
group. Virtually all foreign language students are college
bound, and the large majority of students (N=138),were from
mid to upper SES (socioeconomic status) families.2 Two-thirds
of these foreign language students were majority students.
Seventy percent of Spanish students’ parents and 72% of
French students’ parents had attended college or graduate
school. Seventy percent of the total sample attributed high
importance to taking a foreign language for the reason of
200 La nguage Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

fulfilling a college entrance or graduation requirement. More

males tended to take Spanish, whereas more females took
French. From these figures, we can conclude that foreign
language study in high school continues to appeal to a n elite
group. It attracts students who are fairly affluent and who
have high academic goals.

DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSES

To address the question of which factors influence the

decision to continue or discontinue foreign language study, a
stepwise discriminant function analysis was performed using
Rao V as the selection ~ r i t e r i o n No
. ~ adjustment was made in
the a priori probability leaving it as a 50/50 split. Nine of the
11 variables were used to perform the first discriminant func-
tion analysis. Two were not appropriate for the analysis
because they discriminated between the two groups by the
nature of the questions: students’ reasons for continuing or
discontinuing and their intentions to continue or discontinue.
The items associated with the nine variables included in the
analysis were reduced to 26. The following four criteria were
used in selecting these items. The first criterion was to exclude
items that appeared weak, meaning those that consistently
elicited either weak responses (1 or less on a scale of 3) or no
response. The second criterion was that if items measured the
same constructs, they were clustered to form one variable. For
example, the 10 items that comprised the scale Level of Com-
mitment to Foreign Language Study were summed to form one
variable (LCTOT). The third criterion used in selecting items
was to include variables that were attributed high importance
by all students or by either continuing or discontinuing stu-
dents. The fourth criterion was to include those items that
have been found to be associated with continuation in past
studies. Table 2 lists the nine variables included in the
discriminant function analysis and the items that were associ-
ated with each of these variables.
 Ramage 201

Table 3 shows the result of the initial discriminant func-

tion analysis using the 26 items listed in Table 2. The percent-
age of continuing and dlscontinuing students correctly classified
by this discriminant function was 80% (80% continuing stu-
dents and 79% discontinuing students correctly classified).
Subsequently, another more parsimonious discriminant
function was performed usingonly the eight items that contrib-
uted the most to the previous discriminant function. Table 4
shows the results from this analysis. The percentage of
continuing and discontinuing students correctly classified using
these eight predictors was 76% (75% continuing students and
77% discontinuing students), four percentage points less than
the one using the 26 items. The findings suggest that students
are more likely to continue to Level 3 if they take Level 2 in
ninth grade rather than eleventh grade, if they have other
reasons for taking a foreign language than simply to fulfill a
requirement for college, if they have a high absolute grade in
foreign language class, if they are taking a foreign language
because of a n interest in culture, and if they have an interest
in mastering the target language, including reading and writ-
ing as well as speaking.
The most significant finding here is that continuers attrib-
uted low importance to fulfilling a requirement as a reason for
taking a foreign language and instead indicated other reasons
such as an interest in culture and a n interest in attaining
proficiency in all language skills. The source of this interest is
unclear within the context of the present study. No data were
collected indicating if this interest was a product of the class,
if it was acquired from other outside influence, or if certain
students had this interest prior to taking the class.
It should be noted here that the coefficient for Attitude
Toward the Language Course was negative (See Table 4).
Because this result was counterintuitive, the mean averages
for continuing and discontinuing students were examined. The
mean for continuing students was found to be higher than was
the mean for discontinuing students suggesting that another
202 Language Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

Table 2
Variables and Items Used in Primary Statistical Analyses

Motivational and Attitudinal Factors

1. Reasons For Taking a Foreign Language (RFTFL)

RFTFLA I hope t o travel, study, or live in a foreign country, and
knowing a foreign language will be useful.
To meet and communicate with people in other countries.
RFTFL4 I’m interested in culture-the way different people in the
world think and live.
RFTFLG To fulfill a college entrance or graduation requirement.
RFTFL7 It will be helpful or useful in future jobs.
RFTFL8 I’m interested in learning t o read and write another lan-
guage.
RFTFLS I want t o learn to speak another language.
RFTFL14 To increase my own knowledge.
RFTFL16 It’s important for a well-rounded education.

2. Level of Commitment to Foreign Language Study (LC)

LCTOT The sum of the 12 items in the Level of Commitment to
foreign language study scale.

3. Attitude Toward the Learning Situation (ATLS)

ATLSTOT The sum of the 14 items in the scale of Attitude Toward
the Learning Situation.

4. Reasons for Studying French or Spanish in Particular (RSL)

RSL5 It’s an important world language.
RSL6 It’s useful for jobs.
RSL7 It will be helpful in college.
RSLl2 I heard it was easier than other languages.
RSLX I’m particularly interested in Spanish-French-speaking
cultures..
I’m particularly interested in the SpanisWFrench lan-
guage-
RSLZ It’s fun.
RSL22 Desire to live in, visit, or study in a Spanish-French-
speaking country.
RSL24 I like Spanishrnrench-speaking people.
RSL31 The teachers are good.
 Ramage 203

Table 2 (continued)
Variables and Items Used in Primary Statistical Analyses

Factors Other Than Motivational and Attitudinal Factors

5. Grade Level

6. Foreign Languages Spoken by Parents (PFL)

7. Parental Encouragement in Foreign Language Study (PETOT)

PETOT The sum of the four items in the ATMB scale called Paren-
tal Encouragement in Foreign Language Study.

8. Situations in Which Students Encounter Foreign Languages

(SHFL)
SHFLl On TV or radio.
SHFLB In restaurants.
SHFLB While walking down the street; from relatives; from other
students;from merchants; at church, synagogue, or temple;
on public transportation; at parties; at work; from service
workers.

9. Grade in Foreign Language

item in the discriminant function was accounting for the same

variance as was this item, thus causing it to enter the discrimi-
nant function as a suppressor variable. In this case, the
negative coefficient would not be interpreted as indicating that
continuing students had a more negative attitude toward the
course than did discontinuing students.
To interpret the results of the discriminant function
analyses, each item that contributed to the discriminant func-
tion analyses was correlated with the outcome--continuing or
discontinuing foreign language study after second level-using
point biserial correlation coefficients. These coefficients are
useful in interpreting the results of the discriminant function
analyses by indicating how each variable in isolation correlates
with the outcome as opposed to the discriminant function
analysis that uses groups of variables.
204 Language Learn ing Vol. 40,No. 2

Table 3
Discriminant Function With All Predictors

Standardized
Canonical Mean
Items Coefficients D C

Grade Level -.59 10.51 9.91

Reasons for Taking a Foreign Language

RFTFL4 Interest in culture .45 1.30 1.77
RFTFL6 Fulfill requirement -.52 2.59 2.42
RE"rFL8 Interest in learning to read .43 1.69 2.24
and write
RFTFL14 To increase own knowledge -.37 2.17 2.29

Reasons for Taking French or Spanish

RSL6 Useful for future jobs- -.33 1.53 1.71
RSL7 Helpful in college .43 2.15 2.38
RSLX Attitude toward language
course -.41 1.35 1.72
RSLZ Particular interest in .39 1.59 2.03
SpanishfFrench culture
and language
RSL24 Positive attitude toward .31 1.07 1.57
SpanishfFrench -speaking
people

Situations in Which Students Encounter

Foreign Languages
SHFL2 In restaurants .24 2.23 3.31

Grade in Foreign Language .56 3.39 4.07

Percentage Correctly Classified 80

Percentage Continuers Correctly Classified 80
Percentage Discontinuers Correctly Classified 79
 Ramage 205

Table 4
Point Biserial Correlations

Standardized
Canonical Mean
Items Coefficients D C

Grade Level -. 70 10.51 9.91

Reasons for Taking a Foreign Language

RFTFL4 Interest in culture .43 1.30 1.77
RFTFL6 Fulfill requirement -.67 2.59 2.42
RFTFL8 Interest in learning to read .26 1.69 2.24
and write
RFTFL14 To increase own knowledge -.37 2.17 2.29

Reasons for Taking French or Spanish

RSL7 Helpful in college .27 2.15 2.38
RSLX Attitude toward language
course -. 34 1.35 1.72
RSLZ Particular interest in .39 1.59 2.03
SpanisWrench culture
and language

Grade in Foreign Language .56 3.39 4.07

Percentage Correctly Classified 76

Percentage Continuers Correctly Classified 75
Percentage Discontinuers Correctly Classified 77

As Table 5 shows, the two variables that correlated most

highly with the decision to continue or discontinue foreign
language study were grade in the foreign language course and
grade level when taking second-level French or Spanish. These
variables were also large contributors to the discriminant
function analyses. Focusing just on the items that contributed
to the second discriminant function analysis because of space
limitations, Interest in Learning to Read and Write the Lan-
guage (RFTFU),A Positive Attitude Toward Taking French or
206 La nguage Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

Spanish (RSLZ), and Interest in Culture (RFTFL4) as a reason

for taking a foreign language correlated in descending order
with the outcome. These findings support the results of the
discriminant function analysis.
The most outstanding variable that contributed to the
discriminant function analysis but individually did not corre-
late highly with the outcome is Taking a Foreign Language to
Fulfill a College Entrance or Graduation Requirement
(RFTFLG). In the discriminant function analysis, the stan-
dardized cannonical coefficient for this variable was negative.
After examining the means, it was evident that discontinuing
foreign language students rated this higher as a reason for
takinga foreign language than did continuing students. There-
fore, in isolation, taking a foreign language to meet a require-
ment would not be expected to correlate highly with the
outcome.
The remaining motivational variables had relatively small
correlation coefficients. These were Taking French or Spanish
Because it Would be Helpful in College (RSL7) and Attitude
Toward Their Language Course (RSLX). These findings sup-
port the results of the discriminant function analysis in that
Taking French or Spanish Because it Would be Helpful in
College (RSL7) had the lowest standardized cannonical
coefficient of all the items that contributed to the analysis. The
small size of the point biserial correlation coefficient lends
support to the explanation, as suggested above, that Attitude
Toward Their Language Course (RSLX) entered the discrimi-
nant function analysis as suppressor variable
In summary, the point biserial correlation coefficients
support the results of the discriminant function analysis in
that a n interest in learning the language thoroughly, including
reading and writing the language with an interest in culture
and having a positive attitude toward taking French or Span-
ish are associated with continuing foreign language study. On
the other hand, taking a foreign language primarily to meet a
requirement was not associated with continuation.
 Ramage 207

Table 5
Point Biserial Correlation of Predictors With Outcome

Point Biserial
Items Correlation Coefficient

Grade level .34

Reasons for Taking a Foreign Language

RFTFL4 Interest in culture .22
RFTFL6 Fulfill requirement .09
RFTFL8 Interest in learning to read amd write .28
RFTFL14 To increase own knowledge .07

Reasons for Taking French or Spanish

RSL6 Useful for future jobs .09
RSL7 Helpful in college .13
RSLX Attitude toward language course .19
RSLZ Particular interest in Spanish/kench .25
culture and language
RSL24 Positive attitude toward Spanish/ .25
French-speaking people

Situations in Which Students Encounter Foreign Languages

SHFL2 In restaurants .28

Grade in Foreign Language .36

DISCUSSION
It has frequently been said that students have little
interest in pursuing foreign language study in this country
because it appears to have little practical value. Based on the
results of the present study, realizing the practical value of
foreign language study does not appear to provide students
with the motivation to continue. Although motivation to
continue is to some extent oriented toward using the language
as a means to other goals (extrinsic), the distinguishing factor
seems to be an interest in the language itself (intrinsic)involv-
208 Language Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

ing a goal of proficiency in speaking, reading, and writing and

interest in learning the culture of the target language popula-
tion. (However, behind the goal of mastery may lie a motive of
wanting to actually use the language in a career or otherwise.)
Both interest in the language for its own sake and interest
in the language as a means to other goals were associated with
continuation beyond Level 2. However, intrinsic motives
emerged as stronger contributors than did extrinsic motives in
the discriminant function analysis when all factors were con-
sidered together, and are attributed more importance by con-
tinuing students than by discontinuing students. The point
biserial correlation coefficients lend support to this finding.
The results suggest that all students, both those who continue
and those who discontinue, have similar motivations for for-
eign language study. The factor that distinguishes one group
from the other is that intrinsic motivations for language study
are attributed more importance by continuing students than
by discontinuing students.
The implications of this are that we need not instill new
motivations in discontinuing students, rather, we need to
strengthen the more latent intrinsic motives (proficiencyin the
language and its benefits) of which they already show signs.
Emphasis should be given to developing intrinsic interest in
foreign language study to encourage continuation, but not to
the exclusion of extrinsic motives. Proficiency in the target lan-
guage and an understanding of what culture is should be
promoted as a goal rather than fulfillment of a requirement.
Students should be given reasonable expectations in terms of
time and effort involved in language learning when proficiency
is the goal. Along the same lines, a thorough understanding of
the culture of the target language cannot be gained in a
classroom or through brief encounters with the culture.
However, an understanding of the depth and complexity of
culture can be gained. This is a realistic goal of the foreign
language classroom.
 Ramage 209

GRADE LEVEL

As noted in Table 4,grade level when taking Level 2 in a

foreign language made the largest contribution to the discrimi-
nant function analysis of any single factor when all possible
factors were entered into the analysis. It also had the second
largest point biserial correlation coefficient. This suggests that
the earlier students start to study a foreign language, the more
likely they are to continue beyond Level 2. However, the positive
influence of an early start on continuation could be interpreted
several different ways. It could be that students who start
earlier could develop an interest in continuing as a result of the
process, but a more likely explanation is that the more highly
motivated students are the ones who start earlier. Or, it could
be that those who start earlier, simply have more time to work
with and manage to take a foreign language at the same time
as meeting other requirements. In any case, some responsibil-
ity lies in the classroom for either instilling the motivation to
continue or maintaining the motivation that is initially there.
It seems, however, that the quality and uniformity of elemen-
tary and junior-high-school programs, as well as the coordina-
tion of presecondary and secondary foreign language programs
are mediating factors in the effectiveness of an early start in
promoting persistence in foreign language s t ~ d y . ~

GRADE IN FRENCH OR SPANISH

Grade in French or Spanish was found to be a strong

predictor of continuation in foreign language study in the
discriminant function analyses, and it had the largest point
biserial correlation coefficient. However, as hypothesized at
the conception of the study, grade alone does not completely
account for the decision to continue or discontinue foreign
language study. This emphasizes the finding that no one factor
is as useful in predicting continuation and discontinuation as
is a combination of factors, including grade in foreign language
210 Language Learn ing Vol. 40, No. 2

class, grade level when taking Level 2, and students’ motiva-

tions and attitudes in foreign language study.

PROFILES
CONTINUING STUDENTS

When all factors are considered together, a continuing

student is more likely to be in the second year of foreign
language study in ninth grade than in eleventh grade. Motiva-
tionally, a continuing student is likely to have both motivations
associated with an interest in learning language for language’s
sake and those associated with interest in learning a language
as a means to other goals, with stronger intrinsic motivation
than have discontinuing students. The intrinsic motives asso-
ciated with continuation are general interest in culture, inter-
est in increasing one’s knowledge, and interest in learning the
language thoroughly, including reading, writing, and speak-
ing. Extrinsic motivations associated with continuing stu-
dents are taking a particular language because of its useful-
ness in college and future jobs. Continuing students also have
a positive attitude toward their particular language class,
feeling that it is fun and challenging. They can also be
characterized as having higher grades than do discontinuing
students in foreign language, as well as in math or science and
English. For continuing students, the reason rated as most
important for taking a foreign language was a desire to learn
to speak another language. Continuing students were aiming
toward a goal of proficiency in the language whereas discon-
tinuing students were primarily concerned with fulfilling a
requirement.
Aside from the factors included in the discriminant func-
tion analysis, the reasons most frequently given as strong
influences in the decision to continue beyond Level 2 in high-
school French or Spanish were interest in learning the lan-
 Ramage 211

guage for its own sake, interest in personal growth due to

language study, positive attitudes toward the language and
teacher, and an extrinsic motivation related to meeting college
requirements. Continuing students indicated more positive
attitudes towards the learning situation and higher levels of
commitment to foreign language study than did discontinuers.
However, it is of interest to note that both continuing and
discontinuingstudents indicated fairly positive attitudes toward
the teacher and course, and more neutrality in their commit-
ment to language study. Continuing students indcated that
they encountered languages other than English more fre-
quently than did discontinuing students in all situations ex-
cept in interactions with computers. They encountered lan-
guages other than English most frequently with teachers and
students, followed by foreign languages on TV and radio, in
restaurants and while walking down the street.

DISCONTINUING STUDENTS

Using the same criteria as for continuing students, a

profile of discontinuing foreign language students can be con-
structed. The only reason for taking a foreign language that
discontinuing students attributed higher importance to than
did continuing students was fulfilling a college requirement.
Other reasons that discontinuers attributed importance to
were similar to those indicated by continuing students such as
studying a foreign language to increase one’s general knowl-
edge because ofits importance in a well-rounded education and
a desire to learn to speak another language. However, the
degree of importance attributed to these as reasons for taking
a foreign language was much less for discontinuing students
than for continuing students, especially in relation to the
degree of importance attributed to meeting a requirement.
Discontinuing students can generally be characterized by
an interest in language learning as a means to other goals with
weaker traces of some intrinsic interest in learning a foreign
212 Language Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

language. Whereas continuing students attribute importance

to a variety of reasons for taking a foreign language, discontin-
uers take a foreign language for one central reason-to fulfill
a college requirement. Although there was not a high degree
of agreement among discontinuing students as to their reasons
for discontinuing, having met the requirement best character-
izes them. Discontinuing students showed a high degree of
consensus on what might have changed their decision to drop
foreign language study after the second year, The majority of
those who responded indicated that they would have continued
if they had had room in their schedule, indicating the low
priority of foreign language study in relation to other subjects.
Discontinuing students’ attitudes toward the learning situ-
ation did not account for their discontinuation because their
attitudes tended to be typically positive-as did continuing
students’.

IMPLICATIONS
It is apparent that students who choose to continue foreign
language study beyond the second year have acquired some
motivations for foreign language study that are not as clearly
or as strongly promoted in their environments as are the
motivations shared by continuing and discontinuing students.
Specifically, they have developed interest in language study for
its own sake rather than being centrally interested in fulfilling
a requirement as are discontinuing students. To give more “air
play” to the reasons for foreign language study subscribed to by
continuing students increases the chances of other students
acquiring them as their reasons for foreign language study.
The power of suggestion is strong as exemplified by several
students’ reasons for continuing: “My teacher told me I should.”
The promotion of motivations and attitudes that can lead to
continuation in foreign language study can be addressed within
the formal educational setting as well as in a broader context.
 Ramage 213

Outside of the educational context, it is more difficult to

recommend strategies for increasing people’s interest in for-
eign language study. However, if widely circulated publica-
tions such as The New York Times continue to give attention to
our foreign language deficit, the general population is likely to
be influenced. Furthermore, if college and high-school require-
ments continue to be reinstated, or instated for the first time as
in some states, the general public is likely to take notice. The
possibility exists that the student population will mirror the
interest in foreign languages as evidenced in their general
environment.
Within the context of formal education, several recom-
mendations present themselves if our goal is to improve our
nation’s foreign language abilities. One possibility is to change
the two-year college requirement to a proficiency requirement.
Proficiency should be evaluated in terms of communicative
ability orally and in writing rather than in terms of mastery of
grammatical structures. This idea is being considered by
ACTFL as a possibility at the secondary and college levels
(Valdman, 1987, p. 3). One of the problems, however, is
developing tests that are equivalent in all languages taught,
not just the commonly taught ones such as French, Spanish,
and German.
Another recommendation that goes hand in hand with the
previous one is that a goal of proficiency be instilled in students
rather than a goal of fulfilling a requirement. However,
students should be given a realistic idea of the amount of time
required to learn a language. Americans tend to be unrealistic
about language learning as illustrated in the following quote
from a n article on foreign languages in the United States
(Kanigel, 1988):
American people tend to be so optimistic and unrealistic
about learning a foreign language. They think, “I have a
French teacher. I will learn by osmosis.” (p. 15)
A third recommendation is to break away from the notion
214 Language Learning Vol. 40,No. 2

that foreign language study is only for those who are college
bound. Because our nation needs people with skills in lan-
guages other than English, it should no longer be associated
with a particular social and educational status. In short, we
need to “de-elitize” foreign language study. Proficiency in
another language can be an asset to individuals in all walks of
life and to the nation as a whole. We have a large pool of people
who speak languages other than English natively. Some
communities maintain their language and culture by sending
their children to language and culture classes after regular
school hours. Others do not. In most cases, however, the public
schools do not capitalize on this rich resource.
If foreign language study were promoted as a step toward
gaining proficiency in a language other than English rather
than as a passport to acceptance in or graduation from college,
we might engage more students in actually learning the lan-
guage. We need to break out of the French-and-Spanish-only
tradition and offer a wider range of useful languages such as
Japanese, Chinese, Russian, Vietnamese, and others. In other
words, we might begin to promote languages that are currently
needed in American business, diplomacy, and education rather
than persisting in a n outdated tradition of offering primarily
Romance languages. French was once considered an essential
ingredient in the education of the elite being second only to
Latin. An effort needs to be made to move away from the notion
that foreign language study is reserved for the privileged.
Let us now turn our attention to strategies that may
promote persistence in foreign Ianguage study in the classroom
context, a task that lies more within the reach of educational
research. The results of the present study imply that develop-
ingintrinsic interest in foreign language study in students may
promote continuation in foreign language study. Emphasis
should be placed on increasing intrinsic interest, but not to the
exclusion of extrinsic motives for foreign language study.
Psychological studies concerned with intrinsic interest
within the framework of cognitive evaluation theory (Deci,
 Ramage 215

1975) have suggested various types of responses to behavior

that may increase or promote intrinsic interest in the task at
hand (decharms, 1976; Cohen, Emrich, & deCharms, 1977;
Swann & Pittman, 1977; Fischer, 1978; Zuckerman, Porac,
Lathin, Smith, & Deci, 1978; Margolis & Mynatt, 1979; Deci &
Ryan, 1980; Deci, Nezlek, & Sheinman, 1981). For instance, a
distinction has been made between a controlling reward (one
that is administered to achieve a particular behavioral out-
come) and a n informational reward (one that offers competence
feedback). Deci and Ryan (1980) suggest that positive compe-
tence feedback should increase intrinsic motivation. Further-
more, when negative feedback implies incompetence, it will
decrease intrinsic motivation. Studies concerned with the
effects of informational versus controlling verbal feedback in
educational settings have suggested that the type of feedback
that is most salient in the teacher’s behavior is reflected in
student motivation (decharms, 1976; Deci, Nezlek, & Shein-
man, 1981). Furthermore, research has suggested that teach-
ers can be trained to use teaching styles that promote personal
causation that has been linked to intrinsic motivation (Cohen,
Emrich, & deCharms, 1977).
The teaching strategies suggested by this theory of moti-
vation fit well into what we already know from previous
research in second language teaching methods. First of all,
competence in language is evaluated based on whether one
communicates meaning successfully. In natural language
interactions, successful communication is verified either in
writing or orally by informational feedback. On the other hand,
controlling feedback indicates the correctness or incorrectness
of a particular response from the student but is not a response
to the content of what is being communicated. For example, if
a student is asked to provide the correct verb form in a blank
in a sentence, controlling feedback would either confirm or
correct the answer. This gives the student no reason to
communicate meaningfully, nor does this type of feedback
provide information as to the student’s competence in commu-
216 Language Learning Vol. 40, No. 2

nicating. The implications for language teaching are twofold.

First of all, the tasks in which we involve our students should
focus on natural and normal communication (Rivers, 1976).
Secondly, the feedback we provide for our students should
respond to their competence in communicating meaning. In
this way, students are more likely to become involved in the
language and culture itself and will want to learn the language
for the purpose of communicating in it. In short, they will
become intrinsically motivated or interested in learning the
language for its own sake.
To take this a step further, being intrinsically interested
in language no doubt involves some knowledge about the
nature of language: its power; how it can place one socially,
educationally, professionally; how social relationships are
expressed through language; how one can be dominant or
subordinate depending upon language use; how business deals
are made or lost through language; how propriety is main-
tained or breached through language; and so on. In summary,
intrinsic interest in language is likely to be heightened by
teaching about language-what learning a language is about-
in addition to teaching the structure.
Although the results of the present study suggest that
these strategies may be appropriate in the foreign language
classroom, further research is needed to identify specific teach-
ing strategies that are successful in giving competence feed-
back rather than those that are controlling in nature. Investi-
gation of specific interventions suggested in this paper and
elsewhere for promoting motivations associated with continu-
ation in language study is needed before widespread use of
these strategies can be advocated. And finally, further studies
carried out in a variety of contexts and among different groups,
and different types of students, in terms of ethnicity and goals,
would be useful in further understanding the relationship of
contextual factors, student age, and educational level and
motivations associated with continuation in foreign language
study.
 Ramage 21 7

NOTES
’ The open-ended questions were included in the questionnaire: one for
continuing students related to something that may have particularly influenced
them in deciding to continue, and the other was for discontinuing students
concerning something that might have changed their decision to discontinue.
Socioeconomicstatus was based on student estimation of family income and
student report of parent occupations.
Rao V is a generalized distance measure. In short, the variable selected for
entrance into the discriminant function analysis a t each step is the one that
contains the largest amount ofinformation not already included in previously
selected variables.
The teacher interviews indicated that in a t least one school presecondary
language study could work as a deterrent in continuing foreign language
study. They explained that Spanish was taught in junior high schools in
Arkansas, but that the amount of material covered by the various programs
and quality of instruction varied greatly. The result was that students who
took Spanish before entering the high school program were either over
prepared and bored in high school foreign language classes or ill preparedand
left behind. In this case, the students who took Spanish in junior high were
just the ones who were most likely to discontinue. Therefore, care must be
taken in recommending presecondary foreign language study as a factor that
promotes persistence.

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