Juãh ab `hmfrhtfrdf vdrtuh` Ef >

Bxtrhggd÷e ab qubrhtdeh be p`uchs ab hvbs pfr b` cätfaf su`nurf ab
sfadf
Mdf`fjãh Gb`u`hr 

Ahvda Ofsä ]fglh Jècbz

Jrd`mde Ofsä Wèbez N`÷rbz
Bvbr ]farãjubz Wd`vh

Ehdehads [hf`h Hrävh`f ^d``h`mh

[rfnbsfr 
]f`heaf Lbreèeabz @hzf

@dgbegdhturh be gdbegdhs ehturh`bs y baughgd÷e hcmdbeth`

Redvbrsdaha [fpu`hr ab` Gbshr 
^h``bauphr-Gbshr 
=;=;
 

Qhm`h ab gfetbedaf

- Detrfauggd÷e
- Fmobtdvf
- Cbtfaf`fjãh
-- [
[rrf
[rbjgbueth
bjueadth
cdab
betprfn
f fnue
pr uead
adzh
zhgd
gd÷e
÷e
- Mdm`dfjrhnãh

Detrfauggd÷e
 

@fs nd`hcbetfs detbrcbadfs sfe ndmrhs prftbdghs rbsdstbetbs, phrbgdahs h

gubrahs, qub absbcpbøhe ueh nuegd÷e bstrugturh` f cbgèedgh be `h gä`u`h.

- Adècbtrf?
rf? 8; h 8= ec
ec.
- [f
[fssbb 78
78;; hcde
hcdefè
fègd
gdaf
afs.
s.

-- N
Hefrg`ha
Heg` chafs
hefsuehhgfc
grfcp`
bap`bo bofsfs ab ueued÷
d÷ee
- H` hhjr
jrup
uphr
hrsb
sb ppdb
dbra
rabebe ``h
h pf
pf`h
`hrd
rdah
aha.a.
- B` be
beshcm
shcm`ho`hob-a
b-absbe
bsbeshc shcm`hm`hob
ob ab `fs nd`h
nd`hcbe
cbetfstfs detbr
detbrcba
cbadfs
dfs tdbeb
tdbeb `u
`ujhr 
jhr 
- cb
cbadadhe
hetb
tb `h nfsn
nfsnfr
frd`d`hg
hgd÷
d÷e.
e.
- Wb l lh
h bstdch
bstdchaf af ququb b pub
pubabeabe bst
bstdrhr
drhrsb
sb betrb
betrb uuee =2; y ue 7 72;
2; % aab
b su
- `fe
`fejdt
jdtua
ua ddedg
edgdh`
dh` guh
guheaf eaf sb ssfcbfcbtbetbe h nu
nubrzh
brzhss ab tbe
tbesd÷
sd÷e.
e.
- Det
Detbrhg
brhggdf
gdfehe
ehe adadrbgt
rbgthcbhcbetbetb gfe
gfe frjè
frjèeu`
eu`fs fs gfcf?
gfcf? gf gfcp`
cp`bof
bof ab J Jf`j
f`jd,d,
- cdtfg
cdtfgfear
feardhs
dhs y `d`dsfsf
sfsfchs chs p pfr
fr `f ququb
b puba
pubabe be hnb
hnbgth
gthrr h su nuegdf
nuegdfehcd
ehcdbet betf.
f.
- Lhy trbs
trbs jrheab
jrheabss nhcdnhcd`dh`dhss ab nd`hcb
nd`hcbetf
etfss detb
detbrcb
rcbadfs
adfs??
- Nd`
Nd`hcbe
hcbetfstfs ab q qubrh
ubrhtdetdehh be `hs gä`u
gä`u`hs
`hs bpdtb`
bpdtb`dh`
dh`bs.
bs.
- Nd`
Nd`hcbe
hcbetfstfs rb`
rb`hgd
hgdfeh
fehafsafs ggfefe ``h
h vd
vdcbe
cbetdetdeh,
h, qub
qub hphphrb
hrbgbe
gbe be
be `hs

-- gä`
gä`u`h
Ebuu`hs
Eburfnsd`hcbe
ab`
rfnd`h tbod
tbodaf
cbetfs af, gf
tfs, gfeou
queouetd
qub etdvf,
b sb vf,
b
beguggä`u
ä`u`hs
egubet `hs
rhecusgu
betrhe cbusgu`hr
be
e `hs`hrbs
bs
gä` yseb
gä`u`h
u`hsebrvdf
rvdfshs
shs
ebrvdf
ebrvdfshs
shs..

Nuegd÷e

- Hpfyf bbsstrugturh`
- Ndohe b` eÿg`bf
- Wu
Wucdcded
edst
strh
rhe
euueh
eh gfeb
gfebxd
xd÷e
÷e hah
hahpt
pthm`
hm`bb
- [rfp
[rfpfr
frgd
gdfe
fehe
he u
uee ch
chrg
rgf
f bs
bstr
trug
ugtu
turh
rh``
Bstèe nfrchafs pfr? ghmbzh j`fmu`hr y gf`h j`fmu`hr y afcdedf gbetrh`
h`hrjhaf. Wb frjhedzhe hsã? cfe÷cbrf, aãcbrf, tbtrècbrfs, fgtècbrfs, uedaha
nueahcbeth` ab beshcm`hob y nd`hcbetf detbrcbadf.
Bstèe nfrchafs pfr? ghmbzh j`fmu`hr y gf`h j`fmu`hr y afcdedf gbetrh`
h`hrjhaf.
- Wb fr
frjhed
jhedzhe
zhe h
hsã?
sã? c
cfe÷
fe÷cbr
cbrf,
f, aãcbr
aãcbrf,
f, tb
tbtrè
trècbr
cbrfs,
fs, fgtèc
fgtècbrf
brfs,
s, uedaha
uedaha
nueahcbeth` ab beshcm`hob y nd`hcbetf detbrcbadf.

Xubrhtdeh
 

Be b` pb`f, `h ghabeh pf`dpbptãadgh sb berf``h be ueh lä`dgb θ abxtr÷jdrh qub

sb bsthmd`dzh pfr pubetbs ab ldar÷jbef. Guhtrf lä`dgbs sb berf``he ab nfrch
`bv÷jdrh hucbetheaf `h rbsdstbegdh y nfrcheaf ueh prftfndmrd``h, bsthmd`dzhah
pfr pubetbs ab ldar÷jbef y adsu`nurf. Fegb ab äsths sb ouethe be
ueh cdgrfndmrd``h. Gdbetfs ab äsths nfrche `hs chgrfndmrd``hs ab `hs gä`u`hs
qub sb hjruphe
@h qubrhtdeh nfrcheaf
bs `h prdegdph``hs ndmrhs ab`
prftbãeh ghmb``f. ab` ghmb``f, `hs p`uchs, `h
gfestdtutdvh
`heh,`h ghph bxtbrdfr ab `h pdb`, `hs pdezhs, `hs bsghchs, `fs gubrefs, `hs
gfeglhs ab `hs tfrtujhs, `hs pÿhs y `hs pbzuøhs. @bs prfpfrgdfeh
rbsdstbegdh, desf`umd`daha be hjuh y aurhmd`daha.

Qdpfs y gfcpfsdgd÷e

Bxdstbe afs tdpfs ab qubrhtdeh adnbrbegdhahs pfr su bstrugturh y

gfcpfebetbs?
@h qubrhtdeh h`nh prbsbeth be sus ghabehs ab hcdefègdafs rbstfs
(cfe÷cbrfs) ab gdstbãeh, `fs guh`bs gfestdtuybe pubetbs adsu`nurf9 `fs
guh`bs prfpfrgdfehe su aurbzh.
 Hsã, bxdstb chyfr ghetdaha ab qubrhtdeh h`nh be `fs
`fs gubrefs ab ue hedch` y
be `hs uøhs qub be b` pb`f. Habcès, `h qubrhtdeh h`nh sf`hcbetb sb
begubetrh be pb`fs, gubrefs, uøhs, y ftrhs nhebrhs.
@h qubrhtdeh mbth ef prbsbeth gdstbãeh, pfr `f thetf, prbsbeth pubetbs
adsu`nurf y `h pfabcfs begfetrhr, pfr bobcp`f, be `h tb`h ab hrhøh.

Bstrugturh

Bs ueh prftbãeh gfe ueh bstrugturh sbgueahrdh, bs abgdr, `h

bstrugturh prdchrdh ab `h prftbãeh, sb p`dbjh sfmrb sã cdsch, haqudrdbeaf
trbs
Bsthadcbesdfebs.
nfrch eubvh bs ue bspdrh`, ``hcèeafsb hsã prftbãeh θ-lä`dgb. Bsth
bstrugturh sb chetdbeb gfe bsh nfrch the ghrhgtbrãstdgh jrhgdhs h `fs
pubetbs ab ldar÷jbef y h `hs nubrzhs ldarfn÷mdghs, qub chetdbebe uedafs
`fs hcdefègdafs ab adglh prftbãeh.
Qfaf bstf uedaf `b ah h `h prftbãeh bsh bspbgdh` aurbzh ghrhgtbrãstdgh.

Gdtfqubrhtdehs
 

Nuegdfebs
- Ch
Chet
etbe
bedcdcdbdbet
etf
f ab ``hh bs
bstr
trugt
ugturh
urh bpd
bpdtb
tb`d`dh`
h`..
- [rft
[rftbg
bggd
gd÷e
÷e h het
etb
b ttrh
rhuc
ucht htds
dscf
cfs.s.
- Gfc
Gfcued
uedghg
ghgd÷ed÷e bet
betrb
rb ``fs
fs ggfcp
fcpfeb
febetb
etbss gd gdtfp
tfp`hs
`hscèt
cètdgf
dgfs.
s.
- Nfr
Nfrche
che b b`` gdt
gdtfbs
fbsqub`
qub`btf
btf aabb Nd`hcb
Nd`hcbetf
etfss detdetbrc
brcbad
badfs
fs ab `hs
`hs gä
gä`u`
`u`hs
hs
bpdtb`dh`bs.
-- Wfe prftbãe
prftbãehs
hs nndmr
dmrd`h
d`hrbs
rbs ssdet
detbtd
btdzha
zhahs
hs pf
pfrr `fs Xub
Xubrhe
rhefgd
fgdtfs
tfs..
Qdpfs ab gdtfqubrhtdehs
Gdtfqudrhtdehs ab `h ghph mhsh`

- GI2 ab tdpf
tdpf DD y ``h
h GI81
GI81 ab ttdpf dpf D? W Wb
b bxp
bxprbs
rbshe
he be `h gh ghph
ph mh
mhsh`
sh` a
ab
b `h
bpdabrcds9 @b gfendbrbe bsthmd`daha h `h bpdabrcds.
- GDQF
GDQFXRXRB] B]HQHQDEDEHW
HW A AB
B GH[H
GH[HW W WR[]WR[]HM HMHWHWH@B
H@BW? W?
- GI
GI8 8 ab ttdp
dpff DD y G
GII 8; aabb tdtdpf
pf D?D? nf
nfrch
rche e lh
lhgbs
gbs a abe
besfs
sfs
-`h GI8; deldmb `h prf`dnbrhgd÷e gb`u`hr y `h prfjrbsd÷e ab` gdg`f gb`u`hr 
- GI4
GI4?? ouetf
ouetf gfe `h G GI8
I8 pprfv
rfvbb bb c
chyfrhyfr nubrzh
nubrzh h `h bpd
bpdabr
abrcds
cds..
- GI=
GI=?? sb bxpr
bxprbsh
bsh p prde
rdegdp
gdph`c
h`cbet betb b be ``hs
hs ÿ`
ÿ`tdc
tdchs
hs ghphs
ghphs a ab`
b` bs
bstrh
trhtf
tf
bspdefsf y be b` bstrhtf jrheu`fsf.
- GI> y G GI8>
I8>?? sb be begube
gubetrh
trhe e be `h bpdbpdabrc
abrcdsds p`
p`het
hethr,
hr, ``hs
hs zf
zfehs
ehs ppd`f
d`fshs,
shs,
`hs uøhs y b` bpdtb`df bstrhtdndghaf ef qubrhtdedzhaf.
- GI8
GI8: : ab tdpf
tdpf D? sb be
begub
gubetr
etrh h be ghrgd
ghrgdefc
efchshs ab gä`u
gä`u`hs
`hs mhsh`
mhsh`bs
bs y be `h`h
vãh pd`f-sbmègbh

Fmobtdvfs
 

- Bxt
Bxtrhbr
rhbr `h qubrh
qubrhtde
tdeh
h h phrtd
phrtdrr ab ``fs
fs absbg
absbglfs
lfs a
ab
b md
mdfch
fchshs
shs s÷`d
s÷`dahs
ahs
(p`uchs ab hvbs) h phrtdr ab` cätfaf gfe su`nurf ab sfadf.
- Dab
Dabetd
etdndg
ndghr
hr ab ``f
f qub bbss `h qu
qubrh
brhtde
tdeh,
h, phrh
phrh qu
qub
b pub
pubab
ab sbr
sbrvdr
vdr y gguh`
uh` bs
bs su us
usf
f
- Heh
Heh`dz
`dzhr
hr ab gfcf
gfcf ssb b pua
puaf f bxt
bxtrhb
rhbrr `h p`uch
p`uch ab
ab pf`
pf``f
`f h ph
phrtd
rtdrr ab `h q
qubr
ubrhtd
htdeh
eh

Cbtfaf`fjãh
 

Chtbrdh`bs, bqudpfs y rbhgtdvfs

- 2j a
ab
b mhrm
mhrmd`d``h`hss ab p p`u `uch
chss (`
(`dc
dcpd
pdhs
hs y ssbgh
bghs).
s).
- Re nrhs
nrhsgf gf ab pfpf`d`dbt
btd`d`be
beffaab
b 2;
2;;c
;c`.`.
- [hpb` ndnd`trf.
- 8;;
8;;c`
c` ab ab ue
ueh h sf`
sf`ugd
ugd÷e ÷e hg
hgufs
ufsh h ab 7 7j
j Eh
Eh=W.
=W.4L=
4L=F
F (su
(su`nu
`nurf
rf ab sfa
sfadf)
df)

-- Hj
Hjuh
Èguhf Fxdj
Ègda
daf Fx
su`djbe
su`nÿ beha
nÿrd hah
rdgf
gf h (L
(L (L=F
(L=W =F=)
=WF1=)
F1)
) h`
h` 8;%
8;%
- Hjdtha
haf
fr ch
chjeä eättdgf.

[rfgbadcdbetf
 

]bgfefgdcdbetf ab cdgrftÿmu`fs y cdgrfnd`hcbetfs ab prftdsths

8. [rf
[rfgba
gbahh h` sbg
sbghaf
haf ab ``hs
hs p p`uc
`uchs.
hs.
=. Be ue nrh
nrhsgf
sgf ab pf`
pf`dbtd
dbtd`bef
`bef ab 2 2;;c`
;;c` (gf
(gfe e mfgh heg
heglh
lh y thph a
ab
b rfsgh).
7. Wb had
hadgdfeh
gdfeh 2j
2j ab mhr
mhrmd``h
md``hss ab p`
p`uchs
uchs (`(`dcpd
dcpdhs
hs y sbghs).
sbghs).
1. [fstbr
[fstbrdfrcbet
dfrcbetbb hjrbjub
hjrbjub 8;;c` ab ueh sf`u sf`ugd÷e
gd÷e hgu
hgufsh
fsh ab 7j EEh=W.4L
h=W.4L=F=F
2. Qhphr b` nrhsgf l
lbrcätd
brcätdghcbet
ghcbetb b y hjdth
hjdthrr be ue hjd
hjdthafr
thafr ch
chjeätd
jeätdgf
gf pfr =1l
=1l..
>. Nd`t
Nd`trhr
rhr `h suspbesd÷e
suspbesd÷e gfe phpb` ab nd` nd`trf
trf y `hvhr
`hvhr b` prbgd
prbgdpdthaf
pdthaf gfe =;c` ab
hjuh.
:. B` ndnd`trhaf
`trhaf ggfe
fe b` hjuhjuhh ab` `hv
`hvhaf
haf rbgfj
rbgfjbr br be ue nr
nrhsgf
hsgf ab vd
vdardf
ardf 7;;
7;;c` c` (gfe
<. thph ab rrfsgh),
fsgh), h hadgdfe
adgdfehr
hr =,2c
=,2c`` ab L=F= a abb 7;v (gfes
(gfesu`thr
u`thr tthm`h),
hm`h), tthphr
hphr b`
nrhsgf.
4. @h cbzg
cbzg`h`h sb ndnd`trh
`trh be ph
phpb`
pb` ab ndnd`trf
`trf y b` nd`trhaf
nd`trhaf sb hn
hnfrh
frh h =;;c
=;;c`` gfe hjuhjuh h
abstd`hah.
8;.Absgrdmb `hs ghrhgtbrãstdghs ab `h qubrhtdeh fmtbedah be b` phsf 4 be guhetf
h? gf`fr, abesdaha y vf`ucbe fmtbedaf.
88.]bh`dgb ueh adsgusd÷e ab `fs rbsu`thafs fmtbedafs h phrtdr ab `h bxp`dghgd÷e
ab `fs lbglfs fmsbrvhafs, tbedbeaf be gubeth `fs b`bcbetfs gfegbptuh`bs
ab `h detrfauggd÷e ab `h juãh f lhgdbeaf usf ab mdm`dfjrhnãh bspbgdh`dzhah.
 Heè`dsds ab rbsu`thafs
rbsu`thafs
Be b` sdjudbetb `hmfrhtfrdf sb puaf bxtrhbr qubrhtdeh pfr cbadf ab p`uchs ab
hvbs pfr cbadf ab` cätfaf ab` su`nurf ab sfadf utd`dzheaf `fs sdjudbetbs
rbhgtdvfs hjuh fxdjbehah hgdaf su`nÿrdgf y hjdthafr ab chjebsdf.
@h qubrhtdeh bs ueh susthegdh prftbãedgh qub sb utd`dzh y `h pfsbbe advbrshs
susthegdhs gfcf pfr bobcp`f `h gfcdah vhrdfs tdpfs ab b`bcbetfs y efsftrfs
`fs sbrbs luchefs pbrf `h qubrhtdeh qub sb bxtrhof pfr cbadf ab `hs p`uchs sb
utd`dzh be `hs jrheabs deaustrdhs ab `h gfscbtf`fjãh phrh `h prbphrhgd÷e ab
glhcpÿ y hgfeadgdfehafrbs qub pfstbrdfrcbetb sbrè utd`dzhaf phrh b` usf ab`
ghmb``f ab `h cuobr f ab` lfcmrb phrh ahr`b mrd``f y nfrth`bgdcdbetf.

[rbjueths ab prfnueadzhgd÷e
 

- ¶[f
¶[frr quä sb
sb sb`
sb`bggd
bggdfe÷
fe÷ ``h
h p`u
p`uch
ch ab p
pf``
f``f
f phr
phrh
h bxt
bxtrhbr
rhbr ``h
h qubr
qubrhtd
htdeh6
eh6

Wb sb`bggdfehrfe `hs p`uchs ab pf``f pfrqub gfcf mdbe `f adgb `h prbjueth

bs ueh nubetb dcpfrthetb afeab sb bxtrhb qubrhtdeh, prftbãeh qub sb
ghrhgtbrdzh pfr su h`tf gfetbedaf ab gdstdeh y sbrdeh. bsths susthegdhs sfe
utd`dzhahs be `h deaustrdh prdegdph`cbetb gfscätdgh.
[hrh bxtrhbr `h qubrhtdeh ab `h p`uch ab `fs pf``fs prdcbrf sb heh`dzhrè su
gfetbedaf prftbdgf. [hrh `h fmtbegd÷e ab `h qubrhtdeh sb rbh`dzf ue prfgbsf
quãcdgf

- ¶[f
¶[frr quä sb p`he
p`hetbh
tbh qub
qub `fs nd`h
nd`hcbe
cbetfs
tfs ddetb
etbrcb
rcbadf
adfss sfe ndmrhs
ndmrhs p
prft
rftbdg
bdghs
hs
rbsdstbetbs, qub absbcpbøhe ueh nuegd÷e bstrugturh` f cbgèedgh be `h
gä`u`h6

[frqub bstfs nd`hcbetfs pfsbbe ghrhgtbrãstdghs gfcf `h n`bxdmd`daha y `h

rbsdstbegdh bsths afs prfpdbahabs sfe fptdchs phrh sfpfrthr `hs tbesdfebs
cbgèedghs, bsths ghrhgtbrãstdghs sfe `hs qub lhe ahaf `ujhr h `h bstrugturh
y nuegdfeh`daha ab `h gä`u`h, be bstb ghsf, sfe `fs gb`u`hrbs cusgu`hrbs
pfrqub
bstf bs sfe `hssb
`f qub qub sdbcprb
gfefgb bstèe
gfcf be gfesthetb
nuegd÷e cbgèedghbxtbesd÷e y gfetrhggd÷e,

- ¶Xu
¶Xuä
ä utd`da
utd`daha
ha sb ``b
b ah h ``h
h fmt
fmtbeg
begd÷e
d÷e a
ab
b `h qu
qubrht
brhtdeh
deh b
be
e p`u
p`uchs
chs a
ab
b hvb
hvbs6
s6

Bsths susthegdhs sfe utd`dzhahs be `h deaustrdh, prdegdph`cbetb be `h

gfscätdgh, afeab sb nhmrdghe bsch`tbs phrh uøhs h mhsb ab qubrhtdeh y
ftrfs prfaugtfs gfcf b` glhcpf, betrb ftrhs susthegdhs

- ]bs
]bsuch
uch ``hs
hs prfpd
prfpdbaha
bahabs
bs ab `h
`h qubr
qubrhtd
htdeh
eh rb
rb`hg
`hgdfe
dfehah
hahss gfe b
b`` ghm
ghmb``
b``f.
f.
 8. Cès mrd``f? ueh qubrhtdeh mdbe bstrugturhah y be hmueahegdh hpfrth h
eubstrf pb`f cès mrd``f prfpdf. @h ghph bxtbreh ab ghah lbmrh ghpd`hr bsthrè
sb``hah y rbn`bohrè `h `uz gfcf sd nubrh ue pbqubøf bspbof.
=. Cbofr gf`fr? `fs cb`hefgdtfs sdetbtdzhe `h cb`hedeh y `h trhsphshe h `fs
qubrhtdefgdtfs qub ahe gf`fr h `h qubrhtdeh. Gfe `h qubrhtdeh pubabs rbthrahr `h
hphrdgd÷e ab `hs ghehs ab nfrch ehturh`.
7. Cès b`hstdgdaha? `h qubrhtdeh tdbeb gfcf ueh ab sus prdegdph`bs prfpdbahabs `h
b`hstdgdaha. Bsfs ghmb``fs gfe rdzfs bsthm`bs, y qub chetdbebe su nfrch h `f `hrjf
ab` aãh, sfe pfsdm`bs sd hucbeths `h ghetdaha ab qubrhtdeh be tu ghmb``f.
1. Cès p`hstdgdaha? `h qubrhtdeh hyuah h ghcmdbcfs `h nfrch ab eubstrf ghmb``f.
Guheaf `h tdbebs be hmueahegdh, gfe ue mube gbpd``haf y hjuh, gfesdjubs ue
pbdehaf gfe ue hghmhaf bstupbeaf.
 

2. Cès rbsdstbegdh? `h qubrhtdeh hpfrth rbsdstbegdh h` pb`f. @h ÿedgh mdfcf`ägu`h

gfe ueh aurbzh y rbsdstbegdh sdcd`hr bs `h qudtdeh, prbsbetb be b` bxfbsqub`btf ab
h`juefs desbgtfs gfcf `hs gughrhglhs.
>. Chyfr pbrcbhmd`daha? `h qubrhtdeh bs ueh prftbãeh qub bs ghphz ab rbtbebr `h
lucbaha lhsth ue 1; % ab su pbsf.

- ¶B
¶Bee quä ggfe
fesd
sdst
stb
b b` pr
prfg
fgbsf
bsf a
ab
b qub
qubrh
rhtdtded
edzh
zhgd
gd÷e
÷e6
6
[hrh ``bvhr h ghmf tfahs bsths nuegdfebs prftbgtfrhs y rbju`hafrhs, `h
bpdabrcds sdetbtdzh, trhs b` prfgbsf ab adnbrbegdhgd÷e, ue jrhe eÿcbrf ab
prftbãehs y `ãpdafs deg`udafs be `h gfcpfsdgd÷e ab `h ghph g÷rebh. Bstb
prfgbsf, ``hchaf qubrhtdedzhgd÷e, sb hgfcphøh ab trhesnfrchgdfebs
rhadgh`bs ab` qubrhtdefgdtf? ab ueh nfrch ghphz ab rbh`dzhr ueh cdtfsds, cuy
hgtdvh absab b` puetf ab vdsth cbthm÷`dgf, phsh h ueh nfrch hp`hehah y
heug`bhah qub absghch `h supbrndgdb ab `h pdb`, tfaf b``f be uefs trbdeth
aãhs. H `f `hrjf ab tfaf bstb prfgbsf y be nuegd÷e ab` bsthaf ab
adnbrbegdhgd÷e h`ghezhaf, `h gä`u`h sdetbtdzh vhrdfs tdpfs ab qubrhtdehs, qub
sfe `hs prftbãehs bstrugturh`bs prdegdph`bs ab `fs qubrhtdefgdtfs y pbrcdtbe
`hs cfau`hgdfebs
`ãpdafs habguhahs
qub pbrcdtbe gfetrf`hrab` gdtfbsqub`btf9 ab
`h pbrcbhmd`daha thcmdäe sdetbtdzh advbrsfs
`h bpdabrcds.

- Dev
Devbst
bstdju
djub
b be `h wbm,
wbm, f
ftrh
trhss täg
tägedg
edghs
hs ab b
bxtr
xtrhggd
hggd÷e
÷e ab ``h
h qub
qubrht
rhtdeh
deh..
Gfcf fmobtdvf sb prfpusf bvh`uhr cbtfaf`fjãhs y tägedghs quãcdghs phrh b`
hprfvbglhcdbetf ab sumprfaugtfs jbebrhafs pfr `hs deaustrdhs h`dcbetdgdhs,
jbebrheaf hsã ue vh`fr hjrbjhaf h `f qub sb g`hsdndgh, gfcf rbsdaufs, sf`vbetheaf
`h gfethcdehgd÷e hcmdbeth` qub bstfs pubahe jbebrhr. [hrh b``f sb rbh`dz÷ ue
heè`dsds prfxdch` ab `h cubstrh ab bstuadf (HFHG)8. Wb phrtd÷ ab 82;,;;;;j, ab
cubstrh ab p`uchs ab pf``f (Jh``us jh``us), sb rbh`dz÷ ue trhthcdbetf cheuh` y
cbgèedgf lhsth su pu`vbrdzhaf y sb bcphg÷ h` vhgãf. [fstbrdfrcbetb `h cubstrh

pu`vbrdzhah9
dsffgthef sb absbejrhs÷
gfcf pfr Wfxl`bt
sf`vbetb bxtrhgtfr, h 8;;»Ghaurhetb
sb prfgbad÷ rbh`dzhr :b`lfrhs, sbpfr
heè`dsds utd`dz÷
trdp`dghaf.
[hrh `h bxtrhggd÷e ab qubrhtdeh sb prbphr÷ b` rbhgtdvf ab Wldeahd (EHIHCR]Hbt
h`, =;;=)=, b` guh` bstè gfcpubstf pfr ueh sf`ugd÷e ab bxtrhgtfrh ab =2 cC Qrds-
LG` (pL <,2), =,> C ab tdfurbh, 2 C ab urbh, y b` 2 % ab =- cbrghptfbthef`, `h
rb`hgd÷e sustrhtf-sf`ugd÷e bxtrhgtfrh nub 8?2, `h pftbegdh utd`dzhah phrh b`
cdgrffeahs nub >;; Z. Wb prfgbad÷ h guhetdndghr b` pfrgbethob ab bxtrhggd÷e be
nuegd÷e ab` tdbcpf pfr b` cätfaf ab Mrhanfra.

- ¶Xu
¶Xuä
ä hpfrtb
hpfrtbss `b mrd
mrdea÷
ea÷ h ust
ustba
ba b`
b` abs
abshrrf
hrrf``f
``f ab bs
bsth
th pr
prègt
ègtdgh6
dgh6
 H cfaf pbrsfeh` sdbcprb bs cuy berdqubgbafr bxpbrdcbethr gfshs eubvhs y be
bstb prfgbadcdbetf, qub puaf gfefgbr qub bs `h qubrhtdeh, phrh qub sdrvb y gfcf
 

sb bxtrhb y guh` bs su usf, ab `h cdsch nfrch sb abtbrcdef `h chebrh be qub sb

bxtrhb `h qubrhtdeh ab `hs p`uchs ab` pf``f, h` cdscf tdbcpf qub sb heh`dzhrfe `hs
ghrhgtbrãstdghs ab bsth. Ab vbraha qub nub ueh bxpbrdbegdh cuy berdqubgbafrh.
[ubs phrh cd cb nub cuy mdbe pfrqub gfe b` puaf hprbeabr gfefgbr y
bxpbrdcbethr gfshs eubvhs ghah aãh sb adf pfr gfefgbr `f qub bs `h qubrhtdeh
phrh qub sdrvb y gfcf sb pfarãh bxtrhbr y shmbr guh` brh b` usf y ab `h cdsch
nfrch sb puaf shmbr ab `h chebrh y `h nfrch ab g÷cf sb puaf bxtrhbr `h qubrhtdeh
lhgdh `h p`uch ab` pf``f y ab hlã sb puaf heh`dzhr `hs adstdeths ghrhgtbrãstdghs y
adstdeths nfrchs phrh `h bxtrhggd÷e ab `h qubrhtdeh. T phrh cd nub ue tdpf ab
bxpbrdcbetf cuy sdjedndghtdvf cuy vh`frhtdvf y puab hmfrahr cds gfefgdcdbetfs h`
tbch.

Mdm`dfjrhnãh
 

- >.8
>.8.. Ht`hs
Ht`hs ab ldstf
ldstf`fj
`fjãh
ãh vbjbt
vbjbth`
h` y hed
hedch`
ch`.. Nd`
Nd`hcb
hcbetf
etfss det
detbrcb
brcbadf
adfs.
s.
]bgupbrhaf b` =; ab chyf ab =;8: ab lttps?//ccbjdhs.wbms.uvdjf.bs/2-
gb`u`hs/:-detbrcbadfs.plp
- >.= MMhrm
hrmbdt
bdtf,
f, ]f
]farã
arãjf.
jf. Bstu
Bstuadf
adf b dabet
dabetdnd
dndghg
ghgd÷e
d÷e a
ab
b mhg
mhgtbr
tbrdhs
dhs
qudcdfrjheftrfndghs ghphgbs ab abjrhahr qubrhtdeh ab `h p`uch
mdftbgef`fjdgfs . ]bgupbrhaf b` =; ab chyf ab =;8:

- lttp?//gmt.ngyt.ucss.bau.mf/trhmhof/vbrhrtdgu`f
>.7 Mb
Mbeãt
eãtbz,
bz, ]d
]dghr
ghraf.
af. [r
[rftb
ftbãeh
ãehss prfgb
prfgbsfs
sfs y hp`
hp`dghg
dghgdfe
dfebs.
bs. ]bgup
]bgupbrha
brhaf
f b` =;
ab chyf ab =;8: ab lttp?//www.sgdb`f.frj.hr/pan/hmg`/v1=e=/v1=e=h;<.pan 
- >.1
>.1.. Nhv
Nhvb`h,
b`h, (=;8
(=;8=).
=). W
Wu`n
u`nurf
urf a
ab
b Wfa
Wfadf.
df. ]bgup
]bgupbrh
brhafaf b` =;
=; ab ch
chyfyf ab =
=;8:,
;8:,
ab?lttp?//nhjh`hm.gfc/Lfohs%=;ab%=;Wbjurdaha/WR@NR]F%=;AB
%=;WFADF.pan 
- >.2. N`frdaf,
N`frdaf, O. (=;8;). [rfgba
[rfgbadcdbet
dcdbetf-fmtbe
f-fmtbegd÷e-c
gd÷e-cdgrfn
dgrfndmrhs-q
dmrhs-qubrhtde
ubrhtdeh-phrtd
h-phrtdr-
r-
rbsdaufs-jhehabrfs. ]bgupbrhaf b` =; ab chyf ab =;8:, ab?
lttp?//phtbethafs.gfc  
lttp?//phtbethafs.gfc
- >.>
>.>.. Cbr
Cbrgi.
gi. (=
(=;8=)
;8=).. Ndg
Ndglh
lh ab sb
sbjur
jurdah
dahaa ab` su`nu
su`nurf
rf ab sfadf.
sfadf. ]
]bgu
bgupbr
pbrhaf
haf b`
=; ab chyf ab =;8:, lttp?//www.qudcdgh.uehc.cx/DCJ/pan/=lsehfl.pan